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Linguistics 001 Linguistics Pragmatics Language in Context Sentences In our initial discussion of meaning we concentrated on two types of semantics Lexical semantics what individual words mean Compositional semantics how the meanings of larger objects are constructed out of the meaning of the parts Remember that one idea was that a key part of understanding meaning involved determining the truth conditions for a sentence Pragmatics How to use language in contexts? Again, we will see how structur.
Linguistics Pragmatics Language in Context Sentences • In our initial discussion of meaning we concentrated on two types of semantics: – Lexical semantics: what individual words mean – Compositional semantics: how the meanings of larger objects are constructed out of the meaning of the parts • Remember that one idea was that a key part of understanding meaning involved determining the truth conditions for a sentence Pragmatics • How to use language in contexts? • Again, we will see how structural issues arise in the use of language? Context Matters NJ Transit scope ambiguity: All the doors won't open Two scenarios, two readings: 1) Everyone has to move to the front because the back carriage doesn't line up with the train 2) A mechanical failure where all the doors are jammed Both readings are possible, but the context favors picks one out What is said and what is meant • A discussion: Oscar: How's Bert doing in his new job? Ernie: He's making friends and he hasn't been to prison yet • What is Ernie trying to convey that's not in the text? Pragmatics: Basic Distinctions • One of the starting points for pragmatics is the idea that people use language to accomplish different types of acts • These acts which are called speech acts come in many different varieties, depending on what particular act is accomplished Speech Acts • Different types of speech acts: – – – – Asking for something Promising to something Threatening to something Ordering someone to something • Note that language is not the only means by which these acts can be accomplished Direct vs Indirect • A basic distinction: – Direct Speech Acts: The meaning is more or less encoded in the literal meaning of the utterance – Indirect Speech Acts: The meaning that is relevant is the speech act meaning, not simply the literal meaning Direct Speech Acts • Types of Direct Speech Act, along with sentence type: Type Assertion Question Order Function Sentence convey meaning declarative John got an A on the test elicit information interrogative Did John get an A on the test? affect others’ actions imperative Get an A on the test! Indirect Speech Acts • Let’s consider a simple question: Will the train be on time? • An answer (e.g “yes”) would give the information that the person asking the question is looking for • But consider: Do you know if the train will be on time? • An answer “Yes, I know” here would be more or less annoying; in the typical case, this is not a question about the listener’s knowledge, but is instead asking for the same information as the first But indirectly… Speaker beliefs and Common Ground • The 'happy' use of implicature requires some common understanding between speakers – Some sort of mind-reading in effect • Speakers build and test the common ground in various ways • In fact, whether or not some sentences can even be evaluated depends on the existence of certain facts in the common ground Speaker bias & Common Ground • At an interview, Bert might get asked either: • 1) Are you a communist? • 2) You're a communist? (rising intonation) • The second form displays speaker bias – The speaker believes that Bert is a communist but it is not in the common ground Presuppositions • Some words have conditions on the common ground that need to be fulfilled before we can even think about what they mean • The has a uniqueness condition When you say the muppet, there is a presupposition that you are referring to a particular muppet Presupposition Accommodation • It was Cookie monster who ate the cookie • Presupposition: Someone ate the cookie • This imposes a condition onto the common ground However, even if no one previous mentioned the eating of the cookie, the dialog will probably continue • The presupposition will be accommodated into the hearer's beliefs and the common ground Presupposition Failure It was the muppet with the weapon that did it! • But which muppet am I referring to? • We cannot accommodate this! Implicature Bert is evil and he lives on Sesame Street Bert is evil but he lives on Sesame Street • These two sentences are the same truth conditionally but they clearly don't mean the same thing • But carries some extra information as part of its lexical entry - an implicature Flow of information • One of the much studied areas in pragmatics • Why are we supposed to “Avoid pronouns and don’t start a sentence with it, this, or that.” – “He screwed up.” – “Once upon a time and a very good time it was there was a moocow coming down along the road and this moocow that was coming down along the road met a nicens little boy named baby tuckoo His father told him that story: his father looked at him through a glass: he had a hairy face.” • Why some writings flow “better”? • Writing is an art, but part of it can be distilled into a scientific form Side Note • There are constraints on how to use pronouns that apply in syntax – John likes him – John thinks that Bill likes him – These constraints are quite different from what we discuss here (more when we talk about child language syntax) – They tend to be more absolute An unnatural flow • Terry really goofs sometimes • Yesterday he called Tony at 6am to go sailing • Tony was sick and furious at being woken up so early • He told Terry to get lost and up • Of course, he didn’t intend to upset Tony (he=Terry) A Natural Flow • Terry really goofs sometimes • Yesterday he called Tony at 6am to go sailing • Tony was sick and furious at being woken up so early • He told Terry to get lost and up • Of course Terry didn’t intend to upset Tony Avoid Pronouns? • • • • Homer likes to drink In fact Homer drinks everyday And Homer often goes to Moe’s Homer is not a role model • Avoiding pronouns altogether can be disturbing as well Basic Idea • Each utterance consists of a topic, or the center of the discourse • Different entities (including pronouns) in utterances follow a ranking order that determines which is the center • The center of the discourse may shift from one entity to another we don’t have to talk about the same thing forever and there are ways of making the transitions smooth (Syntactic) Subject > Object • John met Bill at a party • He was pleased (“John” is preferred) • John was seen by Bill • He was at the market (“John” still preferred, even though it’s the semantic object but syntactic subject) Transitions • John called Bill this morning • He told Bill to come over to play the new computer game • He couldn’t hide his excitement [continuation] • John called Bill this morning • He told Bill to come over to play the new computer game • But he was upset at John for calling so early [promotion] • John called Bill this morning • He told Bill to come over to play the new computer game • The dog barked when the phone rang [shift] • Continuation > Promotion > Shift in terms of naturalness Midterm first then … ... the meaning of the parts • Remember that one idea was that a key part of understanding meaning involved determining the truth conditions for a sentence Pragmatics • How to use language in contexts?... Asking for something Promising to something Threatening to something Ordering someone to something • Note that language is not the only means by which these acts can be accomplished Direct vs Indirect... doing in his new job? Ernie: He's making friends and he hasn't been to prison yet • What is Ernie trying to convey that's not in the text? Pragmatics: Basic Distinctions • One of the starting