Ecosystems and Human Well-being     Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Ecosystems and Human Well-being The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) is an international process de- signed to meet the needs of decision-makers and the public for scientific infor- mation concerning the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being, and to analyze options available to enhance the conservation of ecosystems and their contributions to meeting human needs. Leading scientists from more than  nations are conducting the assessment through working groups chaired by members of the Millennium Assessment Panel, with oversight by a Board com- prised of representatives of international conventions, United Nations agencies, scientific organizations, and leaders from the pri- vate sector, civil society, and indigenous groups. The MA was launched by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in June . The full assessment re- ports will be released in . Island Press     www.islandpress.org All Island Press books are printed on recycled paper ⁄⁄ Millennium Assessment Panel - Harold Mooney Angela Cropper   Doris Capistrano Stephen Carpenter Kanchan Chopra Partha Dasgupta Rashid Hassan Rik Leemans Sir Robert May Robert Scholes Prabhu Pingali Cristian Samper Zhao Shidong Island Press 9 7 81 5 59 63 4 03 8 90000 ISBN 1-55963-403-0 MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM1 About Island Press Island Press is the only nonprofit organization in the United States whose princi- pal purpose is the publication of books on environmental issues and natural re- source management. We provide solutions-oriented information to professionals, public officials, business and community leaders, and concerned citizens who are shaping responses to environmental problems. In 2003, Island Press celebrates its nineteenth anniversary as the leading pro- vider of timely and practical books that take a multidisciplinary approach to criti- cal environmental concerns. Our growing list of titles reflects our commitment to bringing the best of an expanding body of literature to the environmental com- munity throughout North America and the world. Support for Island Press is provided by The Nathan Cummings Foundation, Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation, Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, Educational Foundation of America, The Charles Engelhard Foundation, The Ford Founda- tion, The George Gund Foundation, The Vira I. Heinz Endowment, The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, Henry Luce Foundation, The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, The Moriah Fund, The Curtis and Edith Munson Foundation, National Fish and Wildlife Founda- tion, The New-Land Foundation, Oak Foundation, The Overbrook Foundation, The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, The Pew Charitable Trusts, The Rockefeller Foundation, The Winslow Foundation, and other generous donors. The opinions expressed in this book are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of these foundations. MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM2 Ecosystems and Human Well-being A Report of the Conceptual Framework Working Group of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM3 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Board The MA Board represents the users of the findings of the MA process. Co-chairs Robert T. Watson, World Bank A.H. Zakri, United Nations University Institutional Representatives Delmar Blasco, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Peter Bridgewater, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Philbert Brown, Convention to Combat Desertification Hama Arba Diallo, Convention to Combat Desertification Max Finlayson, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Colin Galbraith, Convention on Migratory Species Richard Helmer, World Health Organization Yolanda Kakabadse, World Conservation Union Arnulf Müller-Helmbrecht, Convention on Migratory Species Alfred Oteng-Yeboah, Convention on Biological Diversity Seema Paul, United Nations Foundation Mario Ramos, Global Environment Facility Thomas Rosswall, International Council for Science Dennis Tirpak, Framework Convention on Climate Change Klaus Töpfer, United Nations Environment Programme Jeff Tschirley, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Alvaro Umaña, United Nations Development Programme Meryl Williams, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research Hamdallah Zedan, Convention on Biological Diversity At-large Members Fernando Almeida Phoebe Barnard Gordana Beltram Antony Burgmans Esther Camac Angela Cropper Partha Dasgupta José María Figueres Fred Fortier Mohammed H.A. Hassan Yoriko Kawaguchi Corinne Lepage Jonathan Lash Wangari Maathai Paul Maro Hal Mooney Marina Motovilova M.K. Prasad Walter V. Reid Henry Schacht Peter Johan Schei Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Secretariat The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) coordinates the Millennium Eco- system Assessment Secretariat, which is based at the following partner institutions: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Italy Institute of Economic Growth, India Meridian Institute, USA National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Netherlands Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), France UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre, United Kingdom University of Pretoria, South Africa University of Wisconsin, USA World Resources Institute (WRI), USA WorldFish Center, Malaysia Ismail Serageldin David Suzuki M.S. Swaminathan José Tundisi Axel Wenblad Xu Guanhua Muhammad Yunus MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM4 Ecosystems and Human Well-being: A Framework for Assessment Washington • Covelo • London Contributing Authors Elena M. Bennett Reinette (Oonsie) Biggs Poh-Sze Choo Jonathan Foley Pushpam Kumar Marcus J. Lee Richard H. Moss Gerhard Petschel-Held Sarah Porter Stephen H. Schneider Assessment Panel Chairs Angela Cropper Harold A. Mooney MA Director Walter V. Reid Editorial Board Chairs José Sarukhán Anne Whyte Chapter Review Editors Gilberto Gallopin Roger Kasperson Mohan Munasinghe Léon Olivé Christine Padoch Jeffrey Romm Hebe Vessuri Authors Rashid Hassan Eric F. Lambin Louis Lebel Rik Leemans Liu Jiyuan Jean-Paul Malingreau Robert M. May Alex F. McCalla Tony (A.J.) McMichael Bedrich Moldan Harold Mooney Shahid Naeem Gerald C. Nelson Niu Wen-Yuan Ian Noble Ouyang Zhiyun Stefano Pagiola Daniel Pauly Steve Percy Prabhu Pingali Robert Prescott-Allen Walter V. Reid Taylor H. Ricketts Cristian Samper Robert (Bob) Scholes Henk Simons Ferenc L. Toth Jane K. Turpie Robert Tony Watson Thomas J. Wilbanks Meryl Williams Stanley Wood Zhao Shidong Monika B. Zurek Joseph Alcamo Neville J. Ash Colin D. Butler J. Baird Callicott Doris Capistrano Stephen R. Carpenter Juan Carlos Castilla Robert Chambers Kanchan Chopra Angela Cropper Gretchen C. Daily Partha Dasgupta Rudolf de Groot Thomas Dietz Anantha Kumar Duraiappah Madhav Gadgil Kirk Hamilton MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM5 Copyright © 2003 World Resources Institute All rights reserved under international and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher: Island Press, 1718 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Suite 300, Washington, DC 20009. ISLAND PRESS is a trademark of The Center for Resource Economics. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ecosystems and human well-being : a framework for assessment / Millennium Ecosystem Assessment ; authors, Joseph Alcamo [et al.] ; contributing authors, Elena M. Bennett [et al.]. p. cm. “The first product of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), a four-year international work program designed to meet the needs of decision-makers for scientific information on the links between ecosystem change and human well-being”—Pref. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-55963-402-2 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-55963-403-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Human ecology. 2. Ecosystem management. I. Alcamo, Joseph. II. Bennett, Elena M. III. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Program) GF50.E26 2003 333.95—dc21 2003011612 British Cataloguing-in-Publication Data available Printed on recycled, acid-free paper Manufactured in the United States of America 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 7/14/2003, 11:12 AM6 The Board of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment dedicates this report to the memory of Angela Cropper’s husband, mother, and sister: John Cropper, Maggie Lee and Lynette Lithgow-Pearson. Through their lives and work they embodied the spirit and intent of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment by their love of the natural world and their concern to improve the lives of people. MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM7 Table of Contents Preface x Acknowledgments xiii Summary 1 Chapter 1. Introduction and Conceptual Framework 26 Introduction 26 Overview of Conceptual Framework 34 The Multiscale Approach 43 Types of Knowledge Assessed 44 Minimizing Structural Biases 45 Use in Decision-making 47 Chapter 2. Ecosystems and Their Services 49 Introduction 49 Ecosystems Boundaries and Categories 50 Ecosystem Services 53 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 60 Ecosystem Condition and Sustainable Use 62 Chapter 3. Ecosystems and Human Well-being 71 Introduction 72 Key Components of Human Well-being 73 Linkages between Ecosystem Services and Human Well-being 76 Substitutability and Well-being 79 Balancing Priorities: Present Versus Future 81 Institutions and Freedoms 82 Conclusion 83 Chapter 4. Drivers of Change in Ecosystems and Their Services 85 Introduction 86 Previous Approaches on the Factors of Change 88 Drivers: An Overview 90 The Decision-maker within the Ecosystem 91 Ecosystem Consequences of Decisions Outside an Ecosystem 94 Drivers of Ecosystem Change 96 Interactions among Drivers 104 MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM8 Chapter 5. Dealing with Scale 107 Introduction 108 Why Scale Matters 110 Changing Scales 112 Space and Time Domains 114 Inertia in Human and Ecological Systems 117 Viewing a Particular Scale in Context 118 Scales in Ecological and Human Systems 119 Scale and Policy 122 Guidance for Multiscale Assessments 124 Chapter 6. Concepts of Ecosystem Value and Valuation Approaches 127 Introduction 128 The Utilitarian Approach and Economic Valuation Methods 130 Non-utilitarian Value 139 Conclusion 147 Chapter 7. Analytical Approaches 148 Introduction 149 Data 152 Units of Analysis and Reporting 159 Modeling Issues 162 Scenario Analysis 166 Overarching Issues 173 Conclusion 177 Chapter 8. Strategic Interventions, Response Options, and Decision-making 178 Introduction 179 Decision-making Processes 180 Response Options and Strategic Interventions 183 Usable Knowledge 187 Dealing with Risk and Uncertainty 193 Decision Analytical Frameworks and Tools 195 Appendix 1. Authors 201 Appendix 2. Reviewers 206 Appendix 3. Abbreviations and Acronyms 207 Appendix 4. Glossary 208 Bibliography 217 Index 236 MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM9 [...]... linkages between ecosystem services and human well-being The assessment deals with the full range of ecosystems from those relatively undisturbed, such as natural forests, to landscapes with mixed patterns of human use and ecosystems intensively managed and modified by humans, such as agricultural land and urban areas A full assessment of the interactions between people and ecosystems requires a multiscale... namic interaction exists between people and ecosystems, with the changing human condition serving to both directly and indirectly drive change in ecosystems and with changes in ecosystems causing changes in human well-being At the same time, many other factors independent of the environment change the human condition, and many natural forces are influencing ecosystems The MA focuses particular attention... assessments, plans, and actions Five overarching questions, along with the detailed lists of user needs provided by convention secretariats and the private sector, guide the issues being assessed: What are the current conditions and trends of ecosystems and their associated human well-being? What are the plausible future changes in ecosystems and in the supply of and demand for ecosystem services and the consequent... “pronounced deprivation in well-being. ” The constituents of well-being, as experienced and perceived by people, are situation-dependent, reflecting local geography, culture, and ecological circumstances MA_CF-01-25.pmd 3 7/11/2003, 12:43 PM 4 Ecosystems and Human Well-being: A Framework for Assessment Changes in these services affect human well-being in many ways (See Figure 1.) The demand for ecosystem services... for the MA places human well-being as the central focus for assessment, while recognizing that biodiversity and ecosystems also have intrinsic value and that people take decisions concerning ecosystems based on considerations of well-being as well as intrinsic value (See Box 2.) The MA conceptual framework assumes that a dy- MA_CF-01-25.pmd 7 7/11/2003, 12:43 PM 8 Ecosystems and Human Well-being: A Framework...x Ecosystems and Human Well-being: A Framework for Assessment Preface Ecosystems and Human Well-being: A Framework for Assessment is the first product of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), a four-year international work program designed to meet the needs of decision-makers for scientific information on the links between ecosystem change and human well-being It was launched... planning and actions Humanity has always depended on the services provided by the biosphere and its ecosystems Further, the biosphere is itself the product of life on Earth The composition of the atmosphere and soil, the cycling of elements through air and waterways, and many other ecological assets are all the result of living processes and all are maintained and replenished by living ecosystems The human. .. communities Inland water Permanent water bodies inland from the coastal zone, and areas whose ecology and use are dominated by the permanent, seasonal, or intermittent occurrence of flooded conditions Rivers, lakes, floodplains, reservoirs, and wetlands; includes inland saline systems Note that the Ramsar Convention considers “wetlands” to include both inland water and coastal categories Forest Lands dominated... relations, and security Poverty is also multidimensional and has been defined as the pronounced deprivation of well-being How well-being, ill-being, or poverty are experienced and expressed depends on context and situation, reflecting local physical, social, and personal factors such as geography, environment, age, gender, and culture In all contexts, however, ecosystems are essential for human well-being. .. destinations, or flood regulation and drought control There are many indications that human demands on ecosystems will grow still greater in the coming decades Current estimates of 3 billion more people and a quadrupling of the world economy by 2050 imply a formidable increase in demand for and consumption of biological and physical resources, as well as escalating impacts on ecosystems and the services they provide . Ecosystems and Human Well-being     Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Ecosystems and Human Well-being The. 236 MA_CF-i-xiv.pmd 7/11/2003, 12:38 PM9 x Ecosystems and Human Well-being: A Framework for Assessment Preface Ecosystems and Human Well-being: A Framework for Assessment