183218_Cloth 5/25/05 6:10 PM Page FORESTS / ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION Advance praise for Ecology and Management of a Forested Landscape “Ecology and Management of a Forested Landscape is a unique chronicle of the successful ecological rehabilitation and restoration of a degraded, formerly agriculture-dominated system, starting with research and moving through adaptive natural resource management With a case-study approach containing applications and concepts extending beyond the southeastern United States, this book is invaluable to all ecologists—from the academic to the practicing land manager.” —W Mark Ford, research wildlife biologist, USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, West Virginia “The Savannah River Site is a priceless model of ecological recovery and restoration It provides hard evidence of how a mutually beneficial relationship between humankind and natural systems might develop This book’s clearly stated goals and objectives are admirably supported by data that cover large temporal and spatial spans.” —John Cairns Jr., University Distinguished Professor of Environmental Biology Emeritus, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University JOHN C KILGO is research wildlife biologist, USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Center for Forested Wetlands Research JOHN I BLAKE is assistant manager of the research program with the USDA Forest Service, Savannah River Washington • Covelo • London www.islandpress.org Ecology and Management of a Forested Landscape “The history of ecological research at the Savannah River Site is testimony to the power of long-term studies, interdisciplinary collaboration, and the application of basic science to land management challenges This volume wonderfully documents that history and provides a comprehensive review of our current understanding of the dynamics and functioning of this diverse landscape.” —Norman L Christensen Jr., professor of ecology and founding dean, Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences, Duke University, North Carolina KILGO BLAKE Ecology and Management of a Forested Landscape Fifty Years on the Savannah River Site Edited by John C Kilgo and John I Blake All Island Press books are printed on recycled, acid-free paper Cover design: Amy Stirnkorb Cover photo: John Kilgo Foreword by H Ronald Pulliam About Island Press Island Press is the only nonprofit organization in the United States whose principal purpose is the publication of books on environmental issues and natural resource management We provide solutions-oriented information to professionals, public officials, business and community leaders, and concerned citizens who are shaping responses to environmental problems In 2005, Island Press celebrates its twenty-first anniversary as the leading provider of timely and practical books that take a multidisciplinary approach to critical environmental concerns Our growing list of titles reflects our commitment to bringing the best of an expanding body of literature to the environmental community throughout North America and the world Support for Island Press is provided by the Agua Fund, The Geraldine R Dodge Foundation, Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, Ford Foundation, The George Gund Foundation, The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, Kendeda Sustainability Fund of the Tides Foundation, The Henry Luce Foundation, The John D and Catherine T MacArthur Foundation, The Andrew W Mellon Foundation, The Curtis and Edith Munson Foundation, The New-Land Foundation, The New York Community Trust, Oak Foundation, The Overbrook Foundation, The David and Lucile Packard Foundation, The Winslow Foundation, and other generous donors The opinions expressed in this book are those of the author(s) and not necessarily reflect the views of these foundations Ecology and Management of a Forested Landscape Ecology and Management of a Forested Landscape r Fifty Years on the Savannah River Site Edited by John C Kilgo and John I Blake r Foreword by H Ronald Pulliam Washington • Covelo • London ip.kilgo.cx.i-400_436-482 6/23/05 2:20 PM Page vi Copyright (c) 2005 Island Press All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher: Island Press, 1718 Connecticut Ave., Suite 300, NW, Washington, DC 20009 ISLAND PRESS is a trademark of The Center for Resource Economics Copyright is claimed in the work of I Lehr Brisbin Jr., Kurt A Buhlmann, William D Carlisle, Michael B Caudell, Brent J Danielson, J Whitfield Gibbons, Judith L Greene, Nick M Haddad, Charles H Hunter Jr., Paul E Johns, Robert A Kennamer, Yale Leiden, Barton C Marcy Jr., John J Mayer, Tony M Mills, William F Moore, Eric A Nelson, Sean Poppy, Travis J Ryan, David E Scott, Barbara E Taylor, Tracey D Tuberville, Lynn D Wike, Christopher T Winne, in the foreword, and the index to the Island Press edition In accordance with Federal law and U.S Department of Agriculture policy, this institution is prohibited from discriminating on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, or disability To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call (202) 7205964 (voice and TDD) USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer Product or trade names may be registered trademarks, and are given only to identify materials used Mention of specific products or trade names should not be considered an endorsement or recommendation by the authors No claim to copyright can be made for original works produced by U.S government employees as part of official duties Original works by the U.S government are in the public domain Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data Ecology and management of a forested landscape : fifty years on the Savannah River Site / edited by John C Kilgo and John I Blake ; foreword by H Ronald Pulliam p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 1-59726-010-X (cloth : alk paper) — ISBN 1-59726-011-8 (pbk : alk paper) Forest ecology—South Carolina—Savannah River Site Restoration ecology—South Carolina—Savannah River Site I Kilgo, John C ( John Carlisle), 1967– II Blake, John Irvin QH105.S6E28 2005 333.75′153′097577—dc22 2004025494 British Cataloguing-in-Publication data available Printed on recycled, acid-free paper Design by Paul Hotvedt Manufactured in the United States of America 10 Contents List of Figures and Tables ix Foreword xvii Preface xx Acknowledgments xxii Chapter The Savannah River Site, Past and Land-Use History Industrial Operations and Current Land Use 12 Chapter The Physical Environment Climate and Air Quality 20 Soils and Geology 30 Water Resources 41 19 Chapter SRS Forest Management 57 Silviculture and Harvesting Activities 59 Prescribed Fire Management 75 Ecological Restoration 84 Chapter Biotic Communities Plant Communities 106 Aquatic Invertebrates 161 Butterflies 175 Fishes 184 Amphibians and Reptiles 203 Nongame Birds 223 Nongame Mammals 253 103 Present viii Contents Chapter Threatened and Endangered Smooth Purple Coneflower 266 Sensitive Plants 275 Shortnose Sturgeon 282 American Alligator 285 Wood Stork 289 Bald Eagle 295 Red-Cockaded Woodpecker 301 Sensitive Animals 312 Species Chapter Harvestable Natural Resources Minerals 325 Commercial Forest Products 328 Fishery of the Savannah River 338 Small Game 341 Waterfowl 347 Wild Turkey 359 Furbearers 366 Wild Hog 374 White-Tailed Deer 380 Chapter Conclusion 323 390 Appendix: Habitat Suitability Matrix for SRS Plants 401 Literature Cited 436 List of Reviewers 466 About the Authors 467 Index 469 264 List of Figures and Tables Figures Figure A At the time of government acquisition, all towns and buildings were removed or demolished xxi Figure 1.1 Streams and physiography of the Savannah River Site Figure 1.2 Pine savannas probably dominated most of the uplands in the area prior to European settlement Figure 1.3 Bottomland hardwood forests occurred on the floodplains of larger streams and rivers Figure 1.4 Pre-European vegetation types of the Savannah River Site Color insert Figure 1.5 Cut-over condition of much of the Savannah River Site at the time of government acquisition 11 Figure 1.6 Land use on the Savannah River Site in 1951 Color insert Figure 1.7 Satellite image of the Savannah River Site and surrounding region, March 1999 Color insert Figure 1.8 Land-use areas of the Savannah River Site Color insert Figure 1.9 Aerial view of a developed area and surrounding forest on the Savannah River Site 14 Figure 1.10 Size of the workforce on the Savannah River Site, 1987–2003 16 Figure 2.1 Topographic relief on the Savannah River Site 32 Figure 2.2 Geological stratigraphy and groundwater systems of the Savannah River Site 34 Figure 2.3 General soil map of the Savannah River Site Color insert Figure 2.4 Major streams, wetlands, and larger lakes of the Savannah River Site 42 Figure 2.5 Relative mean monthly discharge for major streams on the Savannah River Site 48 Figure 2.6 During reactor operations, the high flow rates and temperatures of reactor cooling water destroyed riparian vegetation in Fourmile Branch, Pen Branch, and Steel Creek 51 ix 468 About the Authors PAUL E JOHNS (retired) is a former research coordinator with the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory PETER A JOHNSTON is a biological science technician with the red-cockaded woodpecker management program of the U.S Forest Service–Savannah River CLIFF G JONES is a hydrologist with the U.S Forest Service–Savannah River ROBERT A KENNAMER is a research coordinator with the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory JOHN C KILGO is a research wildlife biologist with the U.S Forest Service Southern Research Station’s Center for Forested Wetlands Research He is stationed at the Savannah River Site RANDALL K KOLKA is a project leader and research soil scientist with the Ecology and Management of Riparian and Aquatic Ecosystems Unit of the U.S Forest Service North Central Research Station He was formerly a research soil scientist with the Center for Forested Wetlands Research Unit of the U.S Forest Service Southern Research Station, where he was stationed at the Savannah River Site YALE LEIDEN is an educator in Tifton, Georgia Formerly he was an ecological researcher with the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory SUSAN C LOEB is project leader with the Threatened and Endangered Species Unit of the U.S Forest Service Southern Research Station She is stationed at Clemson University BARTON C MARCY, JR., is senior fellow scientist with the Westinghouse Savannah River Company’s Environmental Services Section at the Savannah River Site JOHN J MAYER is a fellow scientist with the Westinghouse Savannah River Company’s Environmental Services Section at the Savannah River Site BOBBY MCGEE is a resource conservationist with the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service at the Savannah River Site KENNETH W MCLEOD is an associate research ecologist with the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory TONY M MILLS is education coordinator with the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory WILLIAM F MOORE is instructor of wildlife technology at Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College He was formerly a graduate research assistant in the Department of Forest Resources, Clemson University, where he conducted his doctoral research on the Savannah River Site ERIC A NELSON is a principal scientist with the Savannah River National Laboratory at the Savannah River Site SEAN POPPY is education program specialist with the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory TRAVIS J RYAN is an assistant professor in the Department of Biological Sciences, Butler University, in Indianapolis, Indiana He was a graduate research fellow at the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory DAVID E SCOTT is a research coordinator and photographer at the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory DANIEL J SHEA is fire planner with the U.S Forest Service–Savannah River GARY SICK (retired) is former assistant manager for natural resources at the U.S Forest Service–Savannah River BARBARA E TAYLOR is an associate ecologist at the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory and adjunct member of the Faculty of Ecology at the University of Georgia TRACEY D TUBERVILLE is a research coordinator and Ph.D student at the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory DAVID L WHITE is a plant ecologist with the Threatened and Endangered Species Unit of the U.S Forest Service Southern Research Station, located in Clemson, South Carolina LYNN D WIKE is a principal scientist in applied ecology with the Savannah River National Laboratory at the Savannah River Site CHRISTOPHER T WINNE is a graduate research fellow pursuing a Ph.D at the University of Georgia’s Savannah River Ecology Laboratory Index Italicized page numbers refer to figures and tables Abandoned farmland, 2, 9, 11, 31, 127, 332 Abandoned home sites, 66, 70, 131, 136 Acidity, 28–29, 47, 150, 169, 267–66, 279 Agriculture, 6, 8–12, 18, 31; amphibians/reptiles and, 204, 218–19; bird habitat and, 239, 344; endangered species and, 280, 301, 303, 392; old-field pine and, 107, 127–29 Aiken Plateau, 3, 4–5, 31–34, 132, 137 Ailey soils, 36 Air quality, 28–30, 82–84, 83–84, 309 Alkalinity, 48, 49, 267 American alligator, 21, 85, 223, 285–89, 379 American kestrel, 316 American nailwort, 277, 278, 280 American shad, 338–39 American swallow-tailed kite, 315–16 American woodcock, 341, 342, 343, 344 Amphibians, 85, 203–23, 205–09, 210, 214, 216; as endangered species, 285–89, 286, 318–20, 392 Anadromous species, 192, 196, 282 Annelids, 161, 164, 166 Annosum root rot, 69, 73 Anthropogenic disturbance, 26, 31, 39, 41, 55, 67, 84; amphibians/reptiles and, 209, 213, 218–20; endangered species and, 291–93, 297–98; nongame birds and, 291–93, 297–98 See also Nuclear facilities Aquatic invertebrates, 90, 161–73, 162–63, 165–66, 172–73; as sensitive animals, 320–22 Aquifers, 30, 33, 42, 44–45, 50, 55, 60 Area-sensitive species, 236–37, 236, 317 Artificial cavities, 307–8, 307, 311, 392 Ashes, 87, 90, 92, 142–43, 147–50, 155 Asiatic clam, 174–75 Atlantic sturgeon, 320 Atmospheric stability, 25–26 Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 2, 10, 12, 60, 127, 330 Avian savanna community, 72 Avian Vacuolar Myelinopathy (AVM), 298, 300–01, 357–58 Bachman’s sparrow, 99, 318 Bald cypress, 89–90, 92, 97, 141–43, 145, 149–50, 155, 329 Bald eagle, 295–301, 296, 299; Avian Vacuolar Myelinopathy (AVM), 298, 300–01, 357–58 Bald Eagle Protection Act (1940), 295 Baldwin’s nut rush, 277, 279 Banding, 357, 359, 366 Bark beetle attacks, 26 Barnwell Group, 33 Bats, 161, 253, 256, 259–60, 260, 313–15 Bayhead community, 152, 153 Beaver, 7, 85, 367–68, 369 Beaver Dam Creek, 43, 46, 47–48, 48–49, 53; endangered species and, 288, 291, 292; fishes in, 192–94; nongame birds and, 231, 291, 292 Beaver ponds, 43, 94, 145, 168, 231, 352 Beech, 137, 139–40, 149, 151 Beech bluff community, 137, 138–39 Benthic habitat, 161, 163–64, 173, 357 Benthic insectivorous species, 188, 192 Biological legacy, 219–20 Birdsville wood stork colony, 290–91, 294 Black bear, 7, 315 Blackwater streams, 30, 47–48, 50, 143, 150, 174, 278–79 Blanton-Lakeland Association, 36 Blanton soils, 36, 268 Bobcat, 85, 366, 370, 373, 379, 384 Bodiford Mill Creek, 52 Bog spicebush, 277, 279–80 Boll weevil, 9, 43 Borax treatments, 69, 73 Borrow pits, 41 469 470 Index Bottomland hardwood forest, 37, 43, 51, 53, 56, 149–50; commercial harvesting of, 329; ecological restoration and, 87, 90; fishes and, 185; nongame birds and, 232–33, 234, 235–37, 236; nongame mammals and, 259–60; silviculture and, 64, 66 Bottomlands, 4, 24, 37; ecological restoration of, 89–93; vegetation types in, 141–54, 144, 146–47, 152 Boykin’s lobelia, 277, 279 Branchiopods, 170 Brandywine Terrace, 3, 32–34 Brood parasitism, 235 Brook floater, 320 Brother spike mussel, 320–21 Brown-spot disease, 63–64, 78, 79 Buffer capacity, 28–29, 47, 74 Buffer zones, 13, 39, 85, 97, 221 Burma Road population of coneflower, 266–70, 271 Burning See Fire Butterflies, 173, 175–82, 176, 182 Buttonbush, 125, 142, 155 Buttonbush swamp community, 144, 145 Caddisflies, 167–68 Calcic slope community, 137, 138–39 Calcic soils, 277 Calcium, 28–29, 48, 49, 137, 267 Canby’s bulrush, 277, 279 Canebrakes, 4, 75, 155, 317 Canopy-nesting species, 227, 229–31 Carbon (CO2), 38–39, 48, 49, 53, 92, 154, 393 Carbon sequestration, 400 Carolina bay rim community, 134, 135 Carolina bays, 18, 74, 120–27, 123–24, 126, 135; amphibians/reptiles and, 215–16, 216, 219, 221, 289, 318–19; aquatic invertebrates in, 169–70; butterflies and, 183; ecological restoration of, 88, 93–98, 94–96, 98, 392; endangered species and, 279–80, 286, 289–94, 313, 318–19; fishes in, 201, 201; nongame birds and, 231, 290–94; nongame mammals and, 263, 313; physical environment and, 37–38, 43–44, 53–55, 55, 56, 56; waterfowl and, 350 Carolina birds-in-nest, 277, 279 Carolina larkspur, 276, 278 Castor Creek, 50 Cation exchange capacity (CEC), 29, 31, 36, 38–39, 267–68, 273 Cattle, 6–7, 84 Cavity-nesting species, 70, 73, 229, 230, 301–312, 316, 348, 351, 355 Cavity restrictors, 311 Cedar Creek, 167–68 Cenozoic geologic formations, 33 Cesium-137 See Radiocesium (137Cs) Chapman’s sedge, 276, 278 Chastain soils, 35 Chastain-Tawcaw-Shellbluff Association, 35 Chemical site preparation See Herbicides Chemical variables, 38, 43, 45, 47–48, 49, 150 Chew Mill Pond wood stork colony, 290 Chironomids, 167, 169–70 Christmas Bird Count, 235, 239, 316–17, 341–42, 342, 343 CISC (Continuous Inventory of Stand Conditions), 110–11, 111, 112 Cladocerans, 169–70, 171, 174 Clay soils, 4, 33–38, 55, 267, 278 Clean Air Act, 28–29, 64 Clean Water Act, 64 Clear-cutting: amphibians/reptiles and, 218, 221; bird habitat and, 235, 237–38, 237–38, 343; ecological restoration and, 87, 99; mammal habitat and, 259, 263; silviculture and, 59, 64, 66, 69–70, 74, 330, 336 Clemson University, 256, 376 Climate, 20–30; atmospheric stability, inversions, and fog, 25–26; evapotranspiration and soil water deficits, 24–25; lightning, wind, and disturbance, 26–v28, 27; precipitation, 21–23, 22–23; temperature and humidity, 23–24, 24 Clinchfield Formation, 33 Coal-fired power plants, 28, 53 Coleopterans, 168 Commercial fishing, 338–39 Commercial timber harvesting, 64, 69–70, 74–75, 328–38; inventories, 330, 331–32, 331; land-use history, 329–31; measurements, 329; minor products, 337–38; revenues, 332–37, 331–34 Common ground dove, 316 Common snipe, 341–42, 342 Competition: ecological restoration and, 87, 89, 92; endangered species and, 267, 272–74, 281; silviculture and, 59, 66–67, 72 Congaree Formation, 33, 327 Conservation, 70, 174–75, 174–75; status of mammals, 254–55 Construction sites, 64, 74, 85, 171, 300 Contamination, 14–16, 18; amphibians/reptiles and, 289; ecological restoration and, 85, 95, 393; endangered species and, 289, 297, 301; fishes and, 198; physical environment and, 45, 47–48, 49, 50–51, 53–54; small game species and, 345; waterfowl and, 355, 359; white-tailed deer and, 388–89 Cooling water systems, 2, 43, 47, 51–54, 51; aquatic invertebrates and, 171–72; endan- Index gered species and, 285, 288, 291, 297; fishes and, 187, 192, 195, 199, 285, 340; waterfowl and, 356–57 Copepods, 169–70, 174 Corridors, 39, 87, 89, 90, 92, 131, 263 Cove hardwoods community, 138–39, 139–40 Coyote, 364, 368–69, 379, 384 Crackerneck Wildlife Management Area and Ecological Reserve, 17, 74, 158, 168, 305; fishing and, 338; hunting and, 341–42, 344, 344–47, 360–62, 368 Craig’s Pond, 219, 239, 291 Cretaceous deposits, 328 Crouch Branch, 44–45, 50 Crustaceans, 164, 165, 169–70 CSRA (Central Savannah River Area), 3, 5–6, 8–9 Cutover forests, 2, 11, 11, 60, 64, 329, 331 Cypress-knee sedge, 276, 279 Cypress-tupelo swamp habitats, 4, 18, 31, 89, 91, 97, 228, 230–31, 279 See also Bald cypress; Swamp tupelo Dams, 43, 52–54, 64, 198, 200, 286–87, 292, 298 Davis Branch, 52 Decapod crustaceans, 168 Deeply flooded river swamp community, 142–43, 144 Deeply flooded slough community, 143, 144 Deer Management Plan, 385–86 Deltas, 37, 50–52; ecological restoration and, 89–90, 90, 91–92; endangered species and, 288, 291–92, 292; nongame birds and, 231, 291–92, 292 Depression wetlands, 9, 35, 120–27, 201, 201, 231, 279 Dick’s Pond, 169 Dipterans, 168–69 Discharge for streams, 47–48, 48, 56 Disturbance, 26–28, 27, 31, 37, 56; amphibians/reptiles and, 215, 222; endangered species and, 267, 272–73, 278–81; plant communities and, 108–10; silviculture and, 67, 70 See also Anthropogenic disturbance Dothan soils, 36, 40 Drainages, 43–44, 52, 55–56; bottomlands and, 141; Carolina bays and, 94, 94–96, 97, 120; pine savannas and, 119; sensitive plants and, 279; upland hardwood/pinehardwood forests and, 132 Drawdowns, 279, 287, 292–93, 298, 345, 357, 358 Dredging, 43, 52 Drought, 5, 21, 24–25, 30, 76, 109, 120; endangered species and, 267, 272, 292–93; 471 fishes and, 187; nongame birds and, 219, 222, 292–93 Drowned horned rush, 277, 279 Dry Bay, 218 Dry Branch Formation, 33 Dry-mesic exposed slope community, 138–39, 140–41 Dry-mesic pine-evergreen hardwood forest community, 134, 136 Dry pine-oak woodland communities, 133, 134, 135 Durand oak, 277, 279 Dutchman’s pipe, 276, 279 Dwarf bladderwort, 277, 279 Eagle Bay bald eagle nest, 295, 298–300, 299 Eastern coral snake, 320 Eastern cottontail, 341, 344, 346 Eastern spotted skunk, 366, 372 Eastern woodrat, 315 Ecological restoration, 78, 84–102, 86, 88, 391–96; amphibians/reptiles and, 223, 392; aquatic invertebrates and, 171–72; of bottomlands and riparian zones: Pen Branch, 89–93, 391–92; of Carolina bays, 93–98, 392; commercial harvesting and, 328; of hardwoods, 85–89; of savannas, 99–102, 100–101, 129, 184; silviculture and, 70, 72–73; of soils, 37, 39–41 Economic resources See Harvestable natural resources Edisto Experiment Station (Blackville, S.C.), 25 Electrofishing, 192, 194, 196–97, 200, 339 Elevation, 31–33, 32 Ellenton Bay, 55, 214, 218–20, 376 Elliott’s croton, 276, 279–80 Endangered species, 77, 174, 202, 239, 253, 264–322; American alligator, 285–89; bald eagle, 295–301; red-cockaded woodpecker, 17, 301–312; sensitive animals, 312–22; sensitive plants, 275–82, 276–77, 278; shortnose sturgeon, 282–85, 284; Smooth purple coneflower, 266–74; wood stork, 289–94 Endangered Species Act (1973), 64, 285, 294–95, 312 Endangered Species Preservation Act (1966), 295 Entrainment, 202–03, 284 Eocene deposits, 33–34, 327 Eolian deposits, 34 Ephemeral habitat, 53, 238, 290–91, 294 Erosion, 9, 31, 39, 41, 60, 89, 127 Evapotranspiration (ET), 24–25, 47, 55, 120–21, 132, 291 Exotic species, 84 Extinction, 7–8 Extirpation, 219, 253, 380, 395 472 Index Farming, 6–9, 31, 43–44, 55, 75, 84 See also Agriculture Featured species, 66, 69 Federal Register, 275 Feldspar, 327–28, 327 Feline panleukopenia, 373 Feral hogs, 374–76 Fertilization, 9, 30–31, 39, 41; endangered species and, 268, 272–73; silviculture and, 59, 69, 73; upland pine forest and, 127 Fire, 4, 6, 10, 64, 75–76, 110, 395; amphibians/reptiles and, 220–22; bald eagle and, 300; bird habitat and, 124, 233; Carolina bays and, 121–22; marshes and, 154–55; pine savannas and, 17, 26, 81, 99–102, 115–16; red-cockaded woodpecker and, 301, 303, 308–09, 309; sensitive plants and, 278, 280–81; smooth purple coneflower and, 267, 270, 271, 272–74; upland pine forest and, 128 See also Prescribed fire management; Wildfires Fire ants, 223, 345 Fisheries, 338–40 Fishes, 184–203, 185–86, 189–90, 193, 199, 201; as endangered species, 282–85; as sensitive animals, 320 Fishing, 17, 197, 338–40, 340 Flooded low flats community, 146–47, 148, 150 Flooding, 26, 37, 44, 47, 56, 89, 108–09, 393; bottomlands and, 147–50; Carolina bays and, 121–23, 125–26; fishes and, 187; nongame birds and, 230–31; sensitive plants and, 279; swamps and, 141–42, 142, 143 Floodplains, 4, 5; aquatic invertebrates and, 167–68; ecological restoration and, 89–90, 92; endangered species and, 278–79, 313; physical environment and, 31, 33, 35, 37, 42–43, 50–52, 56; vegetation types on, 141–54, 144, 146–47, 152 Florida bladderwort, 277, 279 Florida green water snake, 319 Flow rates, 47, 50–51, 51, 52 Flying squirrel control, 305, 311–12, 312 Fog, 25–26 Foraging, 14; endangered species and, 289–91, 293–95, 297, 300, 313; nongame birds and, 231–32, 235–36, 289–91, 293–95, 297, 300; nongame mammals and, 259, 260, 313; wild turkey and, 365 Forested Carolina bay, 122–25, 123 Forest-edge species, 232–33 Forested stream pond community, 144, 145 Forest-interior species, 238–39 Forest management, 18, 57–102; bird habitat, 226–27, 229, 232–34, 237–38, 237–38, 291, 392; commercial harvesting and, 328–29; ecological restoration, 84–102, 391–96; prescribed fire management, 75–84; silviculture and timber harvesting, 59–75; soils and geology, 30, 33, 39–41 See also Natural resource management; Prescribed fire management Forest-nesting birds, 232, 236 Fourmile Branch, 43, 46, 47–52, 48–49, 51; amphibians/reptiles and, 286; endangered species and, 288, 291, 292; fishes in, 187, 190, 192, 193, 194–95; nongame birds and, 231, 291, 292 Fox squirrel, 70, 341, 344, 347 Francis Marion National Forest (S.C.), 305, 310 Fuel loading, 75, 77–79, 80, 81, 99 Fuquay-Blanton-Dothan Association, 36 Fuquay soils, 36, 40 Furbearers, 341, 346–347, 366–73 Furbearer Scent Station Survey, 366, 373 Furrowing, 60, 62–63, 67 Fusiform rust stem canker, 69 Gannts Mill Creek, 52 Genetics, 282, 289, 305 Geology See Soils and geology Georgia Department of Natural Resources (GDNR), 339 Georgia Wildlife Resource Division, 202 Gopher frog, 318–19 Gopher tortoise, 21, 99, 319 Gravel, 33–34, 39, 41, 327–28 Gray fox, 366, 370–71, 370 Gray squirrel, 341, 344, 347 Grazing, 6–7, 257, 280 Great Indian plantain, 276, 278 Green-fringe orchid, 274, 279–80 Groundwater, 34, 42, 44–45, 50–51, 53–56, 120, 190 Habitat: for amphibians and reptiles, 213–15, 283; for aquatic invertebrates, 162–63, 165–66, 167–71; for endangered species, 290–91, 290, 295–97, 296; for fishes, 192–203, 193, 199, 201; for nongame birds, 225–38, 228, 230, 234, 236, 240–52, 290–91, 290, 295–97, 296; for nongame mammals, 257–60, 257–58, 260; for wild turkey, 364–65 Habitat management areas (HMA), 305, 305 Hairy milkpea, 275, 276 Hardwood forests, 4, 5; butterflies and, 183; ecological restoration of, 85–89, 88, 99; nongame birds and, 228, 229–30, 233; prescribed fire management and, 76, 81; sensitive plants and, 279; silviculture and, 59, 62, 66–70, 72–74, 331; upland forests of, 131–41; wild turkey and, 364–65 Index Harvestable natural resources, 323–89; commercial forest products, 328–38, 320; fisheries, 338–40; furbearers, 366–73; minerals, 325–28, 327; small game, 341–48, 342, 344; waterfowl, 347–59, 349–50, 351, 354, 358–59; white-tailed deer, 380–89, 389; wild hog, 374–79, 375, 377; wild turkey, 359–66, 361 Harvesting practices, 8, 64, 69–70, 71, 74–75; ecological restoration and, 87, 95, 96, 97, 99 Headwater species, 188 Heavy metals, 48, 50–51, 53–54 Heavy minerals, 328 Henslow’s sparrow, 317–18 Herbaceous Carolina bay, 125–27, 126 Herbicides, 81, 128, 157; ecological restoration and, 87, 90–91; endangered species and, 268, 272–74, 281, 309; nongame birds and, 233; silviculture and, 60, 64, 67–68, 71–73 Herbivory, 92, 106 Heronries, 231 Herpetofauna, 203–23, 285–89 High terrace community, 148–49, 150–51 Hogs, 7, 10, 60, 84, 251, 374–79 Holocene deposits, 34–35 Home range, 365–66 Hooded mergansers, 351, 355 Hoopnetting, 195, 194 Hornsville soils, 35 Huber Formation, 33, 327 Humidity, 23–24, 24 Hunting, 5–6, 17; for deer, 376, 377, 379–84, 383, 388–89; endangered species and, 285–86, 295, 300; for small game, 341–42, 344–46; for waterfowl, 348, 353, 357; for wild hog, 374, 376, 377, 378–79; for wild turkey, 359–62 Hurricanes, 26–27, 27, 121, 222, 305 Hydras, 164, 166 Hydric soils, 37 Hydroperiods, 37, 44, 55–56, 56; amphibians/ reptiles and, 215, 217–18; aquatic invertebrates and, 169–70; ecological restoration and, 97; nongame birds and, 231 Ice glazing, 26–27, 27, 28, 66, 69 Ichthyoplankton, 192, 194, 196–97, 202 Ilmenite, 327, 328 Impoundments, 43, 53–54, 85; aquatic invertebrates in, 168–69, 171–73; endangered species and, 286, 292, 294; fishes in, 197–200, 282 Incised groovebur, 274, 278 Indian Grave Branch, 51, 195, 313 Indian olive, 277, 278, 280 Industrial operations See Nuclear facilities Insects, 73, 161–64, 162–63, 170 473 International leather trade, 286 Invasive species, 14, 174–75, 223, 345 Inversions, 25–26, 82 Invertebrates See Aquatic invertebrates Iron concentrations, 36, 45 Isopods, 170–71 Jacobson’s Landing wood stork colony, 290 Joyce Branch, 54 Kaolin, 33, 38, 47, 133, 326–27, 327 Kathwood foraging ponds, 294 Kleptoparasitism, 311 Kudzu, 84 Lacey Act, 285 Lakeland soils, 36 Lakes, 197–200, 286 See also Impoundments Lanceleaf wild indigo, 276, 278, 280 Land management, 107–8, 390–93 See also Forest management; Prescribed fire management Landscape structure: amphibians/reptiles and, 218; nongame birds and, 235–38, 236–38, 239; nongame mammals and, 262–63, 262; silviculture and, 70 Land Use Baseline Report, 16 Land-use history, 2–12, 38, 43–44, 59; amphibians/reptiles and, 218–20; preEuropean settlement, 3–6, 5; settlement to 1865, 6–8; commercial harvesting and, 329–31; years 1865 to 1950, 8–10; years 1951 to 2001, 10–12, 78; prior to 1951, 31, 43–44; current, 12–18; nongame mammals and, 259 Land Use Plan, 66 Large stream swamp community, 143, 144 Late Cretaceous sediments, 44 Least trillium, 277, 278 Lentic habitats, 167, 170 Lightning, 6, 26–28, 75–76, 110, 303 Lime, 31, 41, 64 Little brown bat, 314 Little bur-head, 276, 279–80 Littoral habitat, 161, 163–64, 169, 174, 200, 298 L Lake, 43, 47, 52–54, 196–98, 288, 295, 297, 300–01, 357, 358, 368 Loamy floodplains community, 146–47, 148 Loamy soils, 35–38, 62, 117, 131, 215, 279 Loamy terrace community, 146–47, 149 Loblolly pine, 21, 30; bottomlands and, 148, 151, 153–54; Carolina bays and, 122, 125; commercial harvesting of, 328; marshes and, 155; silviculture and, 61, 62, 67–70, 73–76, 224 See also Pine savannas; Upland pine forest; Upland pinehardwood forest 474 Index Loggerhead shrike, 316–17 Logging, 8–10, 18, 39, 43, 66, 71–72, 174, 301, 303, 330 See also Commercial timber harvesting Longleaf pine, 4, 4, 7, 9–10, 21, 26; bottomlands and, 154; Carolina bays and, 122; commercial harvesting of, 326–27; ecological restoration of, 84–85, 99; prescribed fire management and, 78, 81; sandhill woodlands and, 120; silviculture and, 60–64, 61–63, 66–75, 226 See also Pine savannas; Upland pine forest; Upland pine-hardwood forest Long Range Comprehensive Plan (SRS), 15–16, 396–97 Long-tailed weasel, 366, 371 Lost Lake, 95, 391 Lotic habitats, 167 Lower Three Runs, 18, 43, 46, 48, 48, 52–54; amphibians/reptiles and, 286, 288; beaver and, 368; commercial harvesting and, 330; endangered species and, 288, 299, 321; fishes in, 192, 196–99 Lucy soils, 37 Macrophytes, 50, 169, 195, 286, 293, 298, 357 Magnesium, 28–29, 137, 267 Mammals See Nongame mammals Marshes, 154–57, 183, 279–80, 286 Marsh rabbit, 341, 347 Mast production, 7, 70, 74, 364–65, 378–80 Mature dry-mesic pine-oak woodland community, 134, 135 McBean Formation, 33 McQueen Branch, 44–45, 50 Meadows See Upland meadows Mechanical cutting, 68, 87, 307 Mechanical planting, 67–68, 71–72 Mechanical site preparation, 39, 66–67, 71–72, 220, 233 Mercury, 43, 53–54, 198, 289, 297, 301, 355, 359 Mesic habitats, 56, 87, 117, 119, 131, 133, 211, 229 Mesic pine bottom community, 151, 152 Mesic pine-hardwood forest community, 134, 135–36, 259–60 Mesic slope community, 138–39, 140 Mesozoic geologic formations, 33 Meyers Branch, 18, 43–44, 48, 49, 52–53; aquatic invertebrates in, 171; fishes in, 188, 193 Microcrustaceans, 164, 170 Mid-successional mesic pine-hardwoods community, 134, 136 Migratory habits: endangered species and, 282, 295, 297; nongame birds and, 224–25, 235, 238; small game species and, 341, 343; waterfowl and, 348, 356–57 Mill Creek, 52, 188, 321 Mill Creek elliptio, 321 Minerals, 325–28, 327 Mink, 366, 371–72 Miocene deposits, 34 Mitigation banking program, 89, 97 Mitigation effort, 39, 89, 91 Mobile aviary, 310 Moist clay terrace community, 146–47, 149 Moist mixed forest community, 138–39, 140 Moist slope bottom community, 137, 138–39, 139 Moist stream bottoms, 151, 152 Mollusks, 161, 164, 166, 357 Monazite, 327, 328 Monitoring programs, 14, 18, 397; for air quality, 29–30, 82–84, 84; for butterflies, 173; commercial harvesting and, 328–29; disturbance and, 391–92; for endangered species, 266, 269, 281, 298, 300, 303, 312; for fishes, 297; for nongame birds, 231, 239; for waterfowl, 353; for white-tailed deer, 389; for wild turkey, 361–62, 366 Mosquito control, 43 Mourning dove, 341, 342, 343–44, 344, 345 Museum of Natural History (Univ of Ga.), 312 Muskrat, 366, 368 Mussels, 320–22 NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards), 28 National Audubon Society, 294, 341 National Environmental Research Park, 59, 64, 204, 397–99 National Marine Fisheries Service, 282–83, 285 Native Americans, 6–7, 75, 110 Native species, 21, 26, 38, 41, 72, 75, 84–85, 95 Natural disturbance See Disturbance Natural regeneration, 61, 64, 72, 74, 87 Natural resource management, 16–18; amphibians and reptiles, 204, 221; bald eagle, 296, 298–300, 299; butterflies, 184; redcockaded woodpecker, 303, 304, 305–12, 305, 307–10, 312; sensitive plants, 280–82; smooth purple coneflower, 266, 268, 272–74; white-tailed deer, 385–86; wood stork, 291 See also Forest management; Prescribed fire management Natural Resource Management Plan, 16, 70 The Nature Conservancy, 101, 275, 312 Nearctic migrants, 224–25 Neotropical migrants, 224–25, 238 Nest boxes, 351–54, 351, 354 Nesting: endangered species and, 290, 295, 296, 298–301, 299, 305, 316; nongame Index birds and, 226–35, 228; waterfowl and, 351–55, 351, 354; wild turkey and, 361–65 New Savannah River Lock and Dam area, 339, 340 Nitrates (NO3), 28–29, 51 Nitrogen, 28, 31, 38, 143, 267, 273 Nitrogen oxides (NOx), 28–29 “No net loss” wetlands policy, 89 Nongame birds, 223–52, 228, 230, 234, 236, 240–52; endangered species and, 289–312; as sensitive animals, 315–16 Nongame mammals, 253–63, 254–55, 257–58, 260–62; as sensitive animals, 313–15 Northern bobwhite, 69–70, 99, 339, 342, 344, 345–46 North-facing slope community, 138–39, 140 Notched rainbow mussel, 322 Nuclear facilities, 2, 12–18; aquatic invertebrates and, 171–72; ecological restoration and, 85, 89, 90, 391–93; endangered species and, 284, 287–89, 291–92, 294, 297; fishes and, 187, 190, 192, 193, 195–96, 198–99, 203, 284, 340; nongame birds and, 231–33, 291–92, 294, 297; physical environment and, 41, 45, 47, 50–51, 51, 52–54; prescribed fire management and, 76, 79; vegetation types and, 157–61; waterfowl and, 356–57; watershed degradation and, 39, 47; whitetailed deer and, 388–89 See also Industrial operations Nutrient cycling, 92, 106–7 Nutrient loading, 52, 198–99 Nutrient status, 31, 38–39, 45, 47, 92, 127–28 Oak ridge community, 133, 134 Oconee azalea, 277, 278, 280 Odonates, 169–70 Old-field habitat, 227, 233–35, 239, 253, 259, 273, 373 Old-field pine, 27, 127, 302, 331; ecological restoration and, 85, 87, 88, 102, 395; silviculture and, 61–63, 61, 63, 72–73 Old-field vegetation, 38, 60, 157–61, 158 Old-home sites, 66, 70, 131, 136 Oligochaete worms, 170 Open-pan evaporation, 24–25, 25 Orangeburg Association, 36 Orangeburg soils, 36 Oxbow lakes, 168 Oxygen (02), 48, 49 Ozone (03), 28–30 Painted bunting, 317 Paleocene deposits, 33 Paleozoic geologic formations, 33 475 Parasitism, 235, 311, 355 PARC (Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation), 204 Par Pond, 43, 47, 52–54, 64; amphibians/reptiles and, 216, 219, 223, 285–89, 286; aquatic invertebrates in, 171; beaver and, 368; endangered species and, 285–89, 286, 291–93, 295, 297–301; fishes in, 196–200, 199; nongame birds and, 232, 291–93, 295, 297–99, 301; small game species and, 344–45; waterfowl and, 356–57, 358, 359 Particulate matter (PM), 28, 82–84, 84 Partners In Flight, 316–17 Patterson Branch, 52 Peat Bay, 291 Pen Branch: amphibians/reptiles and, 213; aquatic invertebrates in, 171, 321; ecological restoration of, 18, 73, 89–93, 90–93, 391–92; endangered species and, 292, 292, 295, 297–300, 299, 301, 313, 321; fishes in, 187–88, 190, 192, 193, 194–95; nongame birds and, 231, 233, 239, 292, 292, 295, 297–300, 299, 301; physical environment of, 43, 46, 47–48, 48–49, 51, 51, 52 Pesticides, 9, 43, 59, 63, 295 pH levels, 28–29, 31, 38–39, 45, 48, 49, 50, 55, 137 Phosphates, 31, 273 Phosphorus, 38–39, 48, 49, 53, 137 Pickney soils, 37 Pine: butterflies and, 181–82; endangered species and, 268, 302–03, 305, 316, 318– 19; nongame birds and, 226–27, 228, 229, 232–33, 235–37, 302–03, 316, 318; nongame mammals and, 261; silviculture and, 59, 63–64, 66–67, 69–70, 73–74 See also Loblolly pine; Longleaf pine; Slash pine Pine forest See Upland pine forest Pine-hardwood bottom community, 152, 320 Pine-oak ridge community, 133, 134 Pine savannas, 3, 4, 107–08, 115–19, 115, 118; butterflies and, 183–84; endangered species and, 275, 278, 280, 301; upland pine forest and, 128–29 Pine seep community, 152, 154 Pine snake, 319–20 Pine straw, 328, 337–38, 337 Piscivorous fish, 188 Planktonic habitat, 161, 164, 166, 169, 174–75 Plant communities, 106–61; disturbance and, 108–10; land management and, 107–08; resource conditions and, 107; SRS vegetation classifications, 110–13, 111; SRS vegetation types, 113–61, 114 476 Index Planting, 30, 59, 61, 61, 62, 62, 63, 67–68, 72–73, 77–78; ecological restoration and, 90, 92 Pleistocene coastal terraces, 31–32 Plinthite, 36 Pliocene deposits, 34 Pondberry, 276, 279 Pond cypress, 122, 125 Pond pine, 122, 125, 154 Ponds, 43–44, 47, 52–54; amphibians/reptiles and, 219, 286, 288–89, 318; aquatic invertebrates and, 169–72; endangered species and, 279–80, 286, 288–89, 294, 297, 318; fishes and, 197–200; nongame birds and, 231–32, 294, 297 See also Impoundments Poplar Branch, 54 Post-planting treatments, 63–64, 68–69, 71, 71, 72–73 Precipitation, 21–23, 22–23, 50, 55, 77, 120–21 Predation, 7; amphibians/reptiles and, 215, 316; aquatic invertebrates and, 163, 170; ecological restoration and, 395; endangered species and, 287, 290, 293, 297, 302, 308, 311, 318; fishes and, 188, 191–92; nongame mammals and, 253; plant communities and, 106; small game species and, 345; white-tailed deer and, 384; wild hog and, 379; wild turkey and, 361–62, 363, 364, 368, 373 Pre-European settlement vegetation, 3–6, 5, 75, 86, 99, 112, 226, 391, 394–96 Prescribed fire management, 75–84; air quality impacts, 82–84, 83–84; amphibians/reptiles and, 217; characteristics of at SRS, 78–81, 79–80; commercial harvesting and, 326; ecological restoration and, 85, 87, 90–91, 96, 97, 99, 101, 395; endangered species and, 300, 303, 308–09, 309; nongame birds and, 227, 300, 303, 308– 09, 309; physical environment and, 17, 25, 30, 39; silviculture and, 61, 64, 66–67, 70–71, 73; wild turkey and, 364–65 Prescription planting, 61–63 Priestly-Taylor method, 25 Public values, 59 Pulp markets, 60, 64, 73 Pulpwood harvests, 10, 64, 69, 329 Pumping, 47, 52–54, 89 Quail, 345–46 Quartz, 33, 325, 328 Rabies, 371 Raccoon, 7, 161, 290, 364, 366, 367, 371 Radiation, 15, 18, 82, 388–89 Radiocesium (137Cs), 289, 297, 301, 344–45, 355, 359, 388–89 Radionuclides, 45, 51, 53–54, 393 Radon gas, 82 Rafinesque’s big-eared bat, 314 Railroads, 8, 10, 13, 43, 76, 78, 155, 234, 345 Rainfall, 21–23, 22, 26, 29–30, 55, 77, 121, 290–91, 294 Raptors, 73, 239, 345 Rare species, 183–84, 198, 204, 222, 275, 341, 343, 392 See also Sensitive animals; Sensitive plants Rayed pink fatmucket mussel, 321 Recruitment stands, 307–09 Red-cockaded woodpecker, 17, 26, 301–12; current status, 305; ecological restoration and, 85, 87, 88, 99, 391; management of, 305–12, 305, 307–10, 312, 392, 397; population history on SRS, 303–04, 304; prescribed fire management and, 78, 79, 81; silviculture and, 66, 69–70, 72–74; SRS vegetation classifications and, 112 Red fox, 364, 369–70, 370 Red-sore disease, 199 Reedy Branch, 188 Reforestation, 2, 11–12, 60, 69, 89, 360, 391, 394 Regeneration, 61, 64, 67–68, 72–75, 87, 391 Reintroduction, 266, 281, 319, 360 Rembert-Hornsville Association, 35 Rembert soils, 35 Reptiles, 85, 95, 161, 201–21, 205–09, 210; as endangered species, 318–20, 392; historical trends and future of, 222–23; landscape features for, 211; species distribution of, 211–22, 212–13 Restoration projects See Ecological restoration Rich streamhead slope community, 137, 138–39 Rights-of-way, 234–35, 259, 268, 269, 270, 272–73, 317–18, 344, 365 Riparian zones, 42, 50–52, 51, 56, 89–93, 150, 183 Risher Pond, 214–15 Riverbank community, 146–47, 147–48 River bottoms, 145–50, 146–47 River levee community, 146–47, 148 River otter, 366, 373 Road population of coneflower, 268, 272 Roadkills, 363, 367, 369, 381, 386–88, 387 Roads, 30, 39, 43, 75, 216, 234–35, 263, 272–73, 279 Robust redhorse, 202 Rose coreopsis, 276, 279 Rotation age, 64, 69–70, 72, 74–75, 305; bird habitat and, 223, 229, 232; small game species and, 347 Index Rotifers, 161, 164, 166, 166, 169, 174 Ruderal forest community, 131, 134, 136 Runoff, 30–31, 39, 41, 47, 50, 53, 55–56 Salkehatchie River, 39, 41 Sand-burrowing mayfly, 322 Sand floodplains community, 146–47, 148 Sandhill lily, 277, 278, 280 Sandhills, 2, 31, 45, 47, 60, 120, 150, 215 Sandhills milkpea, 276, 278 Sandhill woodlands, 116–20, 118, 129 Sandy soils, 31–32, 34–38, 324–26 Santee National Wildlife Refuge (Clarendon County, S.C.), 29 Savannah lilliput, 321 Savannah River, 41–44, 47, 50, 52–54, 56; aquatic invertebrates in, 167–68, 171–73, 320–21; endangered species and, 283, 284, 285, 289–91, 297, 313, 315, 320–21; fishes in, 190, 192, 196, 198–99, 201–203, 283, 284, 285; nongame birds and, 239, 290–91, 297; waterfowl and, 357 Savannah River Ecology Laboratory (SREL), 184, 203, 219, 234, 253, 256, 319, 366, 399 Savannah River National Laboratory, 399 Savannah River swamp, 18, 141–42; beaver and, 368; ecological restoration and, 87, 89; endangered species and, 288, 292–93, 297, 314–16; fishes in, 195; small game species in, 347; waterfowl and, 352; white-tailed deer and, 380 Savanna restoration, 17, 73–74, 76, 85, 88, 99–102, 100–01, 391 Sawtimber harvests, 10, 64, 69, 74, 329 Seasonal habitat shifts, 224–25, 235, 256 Sediment deposition, 31, 33, 43, 51–54, 89 Seeding, 30, 41, 61–62, 62, 63, 67–68, 72–73, 77, 85 Seeps, 152, 154, 278 Sensitive animals, 234, 312–22; amphibians and reptiles, 318–20; birds, 315–16; fishes, 320; invertebrates, 320–22; mammals, 313–15 Sensitive plants, 275–82, 276–77, 278; air quality and, 30; industrial operations and, 17–18; management of, 280–82; silviculture and, 70; status and locations on SRS, 279–80 Set-aside areas, 18, 229 Set-Aside Program (DOE), 17–18, 281 Shallowly flooded swamp community, 143, 144 Shear-and-rake, 66–67, 71 Shellbluff soils, 35 Shelterwood cut, 74 Shortleaf pine, 21, 117, 133, 154 Shortnose sturgeon, 282–85, 284 477 Shrub-nesting birds, 227, 229, 232, 317 Shumard oak, 137, 139, 148 Silverbells, 276, 278 Silviculture, 18, 59–75, 65, 71; ecological restoration and, 85, 92; years 1952 to 1971, 60–64; years 1972 to 1988, 64–70; years 1989 to 2004, 70–75 Site preparation, 59–61, 66–67, 71–72, 71, 78–79, 85, 87; bird habitat and, 230–31; ecological restoration and, 90–91 Skinface Pond, 338 Slash pine, 20–21, 61–62, 62, 64, 66, 69, 73–74, 85, 328–29, 331 See also Upland pine forest Slender arrowhead, 277, 279–80 Slopes, 32, 35–37; pine savannas and, 117, 119; sensitive plants and, 278–79; upland hardwood/pine-hardwood forests and, 131–33, 136–41 Small Furbearer Survey, 366–67, 367, 370, 372–73 Small game, 7, 77, 341–47, 342, 344 Small stream bottom community, 152, 153 Small stream swamp community, 143, 144, 145 Smoke dispersion, 25–26, 78–79, 82, 83, 305 Smooth purple coneflower, 266–74, 269–71, 276 Snag creation, 59, 72–73 Snags, 229, 232–33, 261 Snakes, 99, 204, 212–13, 319–20, 364 Soil Associations, 35–37 Soils and geology, 30–41; characteristics of, 37–39, 40; general physiography and, 31–35; land-use history, 31; restoration and watershed maintenance, 39–41; Soil Associations, 35–37; vegetation types and, 132–33, 150–51, 153–54 Soil water deficits, 24–25 Solid Waste Disposal Facility, 50 South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, 17, 74, 251, 273, 310–11, 315, 338, 360, 366, 379 Southeastern myotis, 313 Southern hognose snake, 319 Southern pine beetle attacks, 73 Southern red oak, 72, 133, 136–37, 140, 148–49, 151, 153 Southern swamp privet, 276, 279 Spatulate seedbox, 277, 279 Spawning, 191–92, 194, 196, 202–203, 282–84, 284, 339 Species abundance: butterflies, 175; fishes, 191–92, 194–95, 198–200, 202; nongame birds, 227, 230, 232–33, 234, 237–39; nongame mammals, 257 478 Index Species diversity: butterflies, 173; ecological restoration and, 92, 93; fishes, 50, 195; nongame birds, 227, 232–33, 234; nongame mammals, 262, 262; silviculture and, 59, 70 Species richness: aquatic invertebrates, 168; ecological restoration and, 92, 93, 99; fishes, 188, 194–95; nongame birds, 232–33, 234, 236–37, 236–37; nongame mammals, 262, 262 Sport fishing, 339–40, 340 SQEDs (squirrel excluder devices), 311 Squirrels, 7, 70, 305, 311–12, 312, 341, 347 Stand structure, 59, 74–75 Star-nosed mole, 314 Steel Creek, 46, 48, 48–49, 51, 52–53; amphibians/reptiles and, 214–16, 288; endangered species and, 288, 291, 292, 294; fishes in, 187, 190, 192, 195–96, 198; nongame birds and, 231, 233, 291, 292, 294 Stem injection, 60, 64, 67–68, 71, 99 Storm-damaged stands, 64, 69, 73 Storm water runoff, 39, 41, 50 Stream bank swamp community, 144, 145 Stream bottoms, 150–54, 152, 278 Stream channels, 32, 43, 155–56, 168, 288, 393 Stream corridors, 87, 89, 90, 92, 131 Stream order, 188–90, 189–90, 192, 197 Stream pocosins community, 152, 154, 277 Streams, 42–43, 45–53, 74; aquatic invertebrates in, 167–68; chemistry of, 47–48, 49; fishes in, 187–90, 189–90, 192–97; hydrology of, 45–47, 46; major, 48–53; sensitive plants and, 278–79 Streamsides, 154–57 Stream structure, 90, 197 Striped bass, 339 Striped garlic, 276, 278 Striped skunk, 366, 367, 372 Strom Thurmond Reservoir, 44, 292, 395 Suburban birds, 236, 239 Succession: bird habitat and, 226–27, 232–35, 234, 240–52, 294; bottomlands/floodplains and, 50, 56, 148; ecological restoration and, 85, 89, 92, 97; mammal habitat and, 257, 259, 263; silviculture and, 70, 72, 108; soils and, 38; upland hardwood/pine-hardwood forests and, 133–34 Sugarberry, 143, 147–49 Sulfates (SO4), 28–29, 48, 49, 53, 82 Sulfur dioxide (SO2), 28–29 Sunderland Terrace, 3, 32–33, 35 Surface runoff, 30–31, 39, 41, 50–51, 54 Surface water, 53–56 Sustainable natural resource objectives, 59, 70 Swainson’s warbler, 317 Swamp rabbit, 315, 341 Swamps, 4, 8, 10, 18, 24, 42–44; amphibians/reptiles and, 215; endangered species and, 290; silviculture in, 87, 89; vegetation types in, 141–45, 142 Swamp tupelo, 125–26, 143, 145, 153–54, 279 Sweet pitcher plant, 277, 279 Tailwater pools, 196–97 Tawcaw soils, 35 Temperatures, 21, 23–24, 24, 52–53, 89; of impoundments, 197–99; of ponds, 286–89; of streams, 47, 49, 50–51, 51, 52–54, 171–72, 185, 190–91, 195, 291 Tennessee Road population of coneflower, 268, 272 Terrace slope community, 137, 138–39 Tertiary formations, 33, 42, 44 Thermal effluents, 2, 50, 52–54, 56; aquatic invertebrates and, 168, 171; ecological restoration and, 85, 89, 91, 341–92; endangered species and, 284, 287; fishes and, 193, 195, 284; streamsides/marshes and, 155 Thinning: ecological restoration and, 91, 99, 101; endangered species and, 270, 271, 272, 274, 278; nongame birds and, 227, 233; silviculture and, 59, 64, 68–70, 72–74, 332, 336; wild turkey habitat and, 365 Threatened species, 17, 70, 174, 253 See also Endangered species Three-awned meadow-beauty, 277, 279 Tiger salamander, 318 Timber Management Plan (DOE), 67 Tinker Creek, 43, 46, 48, 48, 50, 188, 233, 321 Tobacco Road Sand, 33–34 Tornadoes, 26–27, 27, 71 Translocation, 309–10, 310, 360, 373, 392 Transport properties, 30–31, 39 Trichopterans, 168 Troup-Pickney-Lucy Association, 37 Troup soils, 37, 40, 268 Turbellarian worms, 164, 166 Turpentining, 8–9 University of Georgia, 151, 256, 314 Upland hardwood forest, 87, 108, 131–41, 131, 138–39, 228, 229, 259–60 Upland meadows, 157–61, 279–80 Upland pine forest, 127–31, 128, 130, 259–58, 279 Upland pine-hardwood forest, 131–41, 134, 138–39, 212 Uplands, 31, 34, 36–39, 40 Index Upper Coastal Plain, 2, 8, 31, 47, 150, 167, 204, 235 Upper Cretaceous sedimentary deposits, 42 Upper-terrace streams, 188–89, 191 Upper Three Runs, 10, 18, 33, 43–44, 46, 48, 48–49, 50, 52; amphibians/reptiles and, 213, 288; aquatic invertebrates in, 168, 174, 321–22; beaver and, 368; commercial harvesting and, 330; coyote and, 369; endangered species and, 288, 313, 321–22; fishes in, 190, 192, 193; nongame birds and, 231; small game species and, 347; wild hog and, 376 U.S Department of Energy (DOE), 2, 12, 16–17, 59, 64, 99, 294, 338, 393–94, 399–400 U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 28, 345, 389 U.S Fish and Wildlife Service, 174, 285, 294–95, 356 U.S Forest Service, 10–11, 30, 59, 110, 203, 219, 256, 275, 303, 315–16, 319, 338, 376, 399 Vaucluse-Ailey Association, 36 Vaucluse soils, 36, 45, 268 Vegetation classifications, 110–13, 111 Vegetation types, 113–61, 114; bottomlands, 141–54, 144, 146–47, 152; Carolina bays and wetland depressions, 120–27, 123–24, 126 (see also Carolina bays); floodplains, 141–54, 144, 146–47, 152; industrial areas, 157–61; marshes, 154–57; for nongame birds, 224–30, 240–52; for nongame mammals, 257; old fields, 159–63; pine savannas, 115–19, 118; sandhill woodlands, 116–20, 118; streamsides, 154–57; upland hardwood forest, 131–41, 131, 138–39; upland meadows, 157–61; upland pine forest, 127–31, 128, 130; upland pine-hardwood forest, 131–41, 134, 138–39 Virginia opossum, 366–67, 367 Volatile organic compounds (VOC), 29 Wagram soils, 268 Waterfowl, 91, 347–59, 349–50, 354, 358–59 Water quality, 30, 51, 54 Water resources, 41–56, 42 Watersheds, 37, 39–42, 47–53 Water tupelo, 90, 92, 141–43, 145, 149–50 479 West Indies meadow-beauty, 277, 280 Westinghouse Savannah River Company, 203–04, 256 Wetland depressions, 9, 35, 120–27, 201, 201, 231, 279 Wetlands, 17–18; amphibians/reptiles and, 215–21, 286, 288–89; aquatic invertebrates in, 169–70; ecological restoration and, 89–91, 91, 92, 95, 97–98, 392; endangered species and, 286, 288–95; fishes in, 201, 201; mink and, 372; muskrat and, 368; physical environment and, 24, 30–31, 37–38, 41–44, 42, 53, 56; vegetation types in, 150; waterfowl and, 351–53, 355–56 Wetlands Assessment, 64 Wet loamy flats community, 146–47, 148–49 Wet mixed forest community, 152, 153 Wet streamhead community, 152, 154 White-tailed deer, 7, 60, 78, 84–85, 221–22, 253, 380–89, 383, 387 Wicomico Terrace, 3, 32–33, 35 Wildfires, 10, 76–77, 77, 81, 84, 110, 395 Wild hog, 253, 374–79, 375, 377 Wildlife, 13–14; ecological restoration and, 85 (see also names of endangered species); prescribed fire management and, 78; silviculture and, 59, 66, 69–70, 72, 75; upland hardwood/pine-hardwood forests and, 132 Wild turkey, 7, 69–70, 78–79, 84–85, 359–66, 361–63, 379 Willow oak flats community, 146–47, 148–49 Wind, 26–28, 27, 31, 109–10, 132, 222, 300 Winter waterfowl, 356–59, 358–59 Wood ducks, 348–55, 351, 354 Wood stork, 289–94, 290, 292–93 Woody debris, 51, 191, 197, 222, 232–33, 259, 261, 261, 393 Woody vegetation, 52, 60, 63, 66–67, 79, 81, 259 Xeric habitats, 75, 120, 211, 229, 278 Yellow lamp mussel, 321 Yellow lance, 321 Yellow pines, 10, 127 Yellow poplar, 64, 230, 328 Zooplankton, 198 Island Press Board of Directors Victor M Sher, Esq (Chair) Sher & Leff San Francisco, CA Dane A Nichols (Vice-Chair) Washington, DC Carolyn Peachey (Secretary) Campbell, Peachey & Associates Washington, DC Drummond Pike (Treasurer) President The Tides Foundation San Francisco, CA Robert E Baensch Director, Center for Publishing New York University New York, NY David C Cole President Aquaterra, Inc Washington, VA Catherine M Conover Quercus LLC Washington, DC William H Meadows President The Wilderness Society Washington, DC Merloyd Ludington Merloyd Lawrence Inc Boston, MA Henry Reath Princeton, NJ Will Rogers President The Trust for Public Land San Francisco, CA Alexis G Sant Trustee and Treasurer Summit Foundation Washington, DC Charles C Savitt President Island Press Washington, DC Susan E Sechler Senior Advisor The German Marshall Fund Washington, DC Peter R Stein General Partner LTC Conservation Advisory Services The Lyme Timber Company Hanover, NH Diana Wall, Ph.D Director and Professor Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO Wren Wirth Washington, DC ... not necessarily reflect the views of these foundations Ecology and Management of a Forested Landscape Ecology and Management of a Forested Landscape r Fifty Years on the Savannah River Site Edited... common habitats on the Savannah River Site 228 Table 4.24 Taxonomic listing and conservation status of the mammals of the Savannah River Site 254 Table 4.25 Primary habitats of nongame mammals of. .. insects on the Savannah River Site 162 Table 4.11 Habitats of aquatic arthropods on the Savannah River Site 165 Table 4.12 Habitats of other aquatic invertebrates on the Savannah River Site 166 Table