Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - K doc

... Crooke.1920.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Numerousreprints.PAULHOCKINGSTyler,StephenA.(1972)."FieldsAreforPlanting:NotesonKoyaAgriculture."InProceedings of theSeminaronTribalStudies,editedbyD.P.Sinha.NewDelhi:Government of IndiaPress.STEPHENA.TYLERKurumbasKshatriyaETHNONYMS:Alu-Kurumbas,Betta-Kurumbas,Jenu-Ku-rumbas,Kurubas,Mudugas,Mulla-Kurumbas,Palu-Kurum-bas,Urali-KurumbasETHNONYMS:noneTheKshatriyasarealargeblock of Hinducastes,mainlylocatedinthenorthernhalf of India.TheSanskrittermKshatrimeans"warrior,ruler,"andidentifiesthesecondvarna,rankingimmediatelybelowtheBrahmans.Nodoubt,most of themanycastesthatclaimtobeKshatriyaaresome-howdescendedfromwarriorswhowereintheservice of princesandrulersorwhowere of royalfamilies.Conversely,numerousrulershavelegitimizedtheirstatus,especiallyifusurpers,byclaimingthattheirlineagewasindeedKshatriya.Mosttypicalandbestknown of thesegroupsaretheRajputs,whoonceformedthemanyprincelyhouses of Rajasthan(for-merRajputana)andneighboringareas. Of course,todaymostKshatriyasarelandownersorfollowurbanprofessions.Althoughtheyrankhighinthevarnasystem,Kshatriyasmayandcommonlydoeatmeat(thoughneverbeef),andmanyalsotakealcoholicdrinks;both of thesecharacteristicssetthemapartfromtheBrahmans.PeopleidentifiedasKurumbashavebeenreportedacrossawideareain south India.Majorsettlements,however,arefoundintheNilgiriarealocatedbetween11010'and11°30'Nandbetween76°25'and77°00'E,atthejunction of theEasternGhatsandtheWesternGhats.TheretheKurumbasoccupythethicklyforestedslopes,glens,andfoothills of theNilgiriPlateau.TheNilgirigroupsareseveninnumber:theAlu-(milk),Palu-(milk),Betta-(hill),Jenu,(honey),Mulla-(net),andUrali-(village)Kurumbas,aswellastheMudugas(noetymology).Eachisadistinctethnicgroupdif-feringfromtheothersindialect,religiousbeliefs,andotherculturalattributes.The1971Indiancensuscounted12,930Kurumbas.In1981theNilgiriDistrictcensusreported4,874Kurumbas,most of whomareMuduga.TogethertheKurumbagroupscomposethesmallestproportion of thepla-teaupopulationthere,andthepoorest. Of thefourtribesthatoccupytheNilgiriPlateau,legendsaysthattheToda,Kurumba,andKotatribeswerebroughtintobeingsimultaneouslybyaparentcreator.Therewerethreebrotherswhoeithertransgressedagainsttheparentsorquarreledamongthemselves.Asaresulttheirfather,asuper-Kanjar121throughreceipt of bride-priceand/orthroughachievement of amoredesirablealliancewithotherfamilies.Divorcemaybeinstigatedbyeitherspouse;however,reconciliationisalwayssoughtbecauseotherwisebride-pricemustbereturned.Dis-putesaboutmaritaltensionsandbride-pricearecommonsources of conflict.DomesticUnit.Thesameterm(puki)isusedfortentandforthebasicsocialunit of Kanjarsociety.Pukiconnotesthecommensalgroup of afemale,herspouse,andtheirunmar-riedchildren.Marriagecreatesanewtentandresidenceisei-therneolocalorwithsiblingsorparentalsiblingstravelinginothergroups.Eachtentiseconomicallyindependent.Inheritance.Allmaterialandanimalresourcesareownedcorporatelybythetentorfamilyunit.Whenamemberdies,hisorherportion of thetent'sresourcesisequallydividedamongsurvivingmembers.Individualdebtsalsobecometheresponsibility of thebereavedtentifnotsettledbeforedeath.Socialization.Thereisnoseparate world forchildrenandadultsandKanjarbelievethatchildrenlearnbestthroughacombination of exampleandspecifictraining.Broadlyspeak-ing,malesareenculturatedtobecooperativeandsupportive,whereasfemalesareencouragedtobemoreaggressive,self-reliant,andindependent.Exceptionallyattractiveandtal-entedgirlsareraisedwithexpectationthattheywillbesoldintoprofessionalentertainmentestablishments.Musicallytalentedboysmaybeencouragedtoleavetheirtentsandworkindependentlyasprofessionalmusicians.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Whereeachtentisanindependenteconomicunit,familiesusuallyformtemporaryallianceswithothertentsformingad&ra.DEratypicallyconsist of twotofourtentswithabalanceamongskilledperformersandjhula(carnivalrides).Whileeconomicconsiderationsarealwaysamediatingfactor,mostd&raincludetentsinvolvedinengage-mentormarriagenegotiations.PoliticalOrganization.Whilefemalestendtodominate,bothtentsanddEraareacephalous.Decisionsaffectingthegrouparereachedthroughconsensus,deferencewiselybeingpaidtoolderand/ormoreexperiencedindividuals.SocialControl.Kanjarrecognizethattheindependence of tentsandfreedom(azadi)tomovearethemostimportantforms of socialcontrol.Tentsunwillingtoabidewithd&raconsensusareencouragedtoorsimplymoveawayinordertoavoidseriousconflictorviolence.AmongKanjar,loss of mo-bilityisloss of socialcontrol.Conflict.Tensionanddisputesarisefrombickeringbe-tweenspousesorentertainersworkingtogetheraboutshareanddistribution of earnings,adulteryorexcessivesexualjok-ing,disagreementsabouttravelroutesandtenureinanarea,andbride-pricenegotiations,aswellasindividualtransgres-sionssuchasdrunkenness,excessiveabuse,theft,physicalat-tacks,seriousinjury,andmurder.Whengrouppressureandnegotiatedcompromisesfail,Kanjarhaveaformallegalsys-temforhearingandresolvingseriousdisputes.Sincetheylackinstitutionsorformalrolesforenforcinggroupsanc-tions,settlement of disputesultimatelydevolvesonthecon-flictingparties,theirfamilies,andtheirallies.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.AsnomadsKanjararefamiliarwithabroadspectrum of religiousbeliefsandpracticesamongthecommunitiestheyservice,andtheydonanysacredmantlethatmomentarilymeetstheirpracticalneeds.Whiletheyareessentiallyagnostic,theydoprotectthemselvesfromspirits(jinn)bywearingamulets(tabiz)purchasedfromholymen(fakirs).Arts.Asprofessionalartisansandhighlyskilledentertain-ers,theireverydaysubsistenceactivitiesareaform of expres-siveandcreativeart.Medicine.Kanjarseektreatmentfromhomeopathicprac-titioners,druggistsorpharmacists,andfakirs(holymen)forseriousillness.Chronicmalariaisendemicandmostsufferfromseasonalboutswithtyphoidandcholera.Greaterenergyandresourcesarespentonsickfemalesthanonsickmales,especiallyasinfantsandyoungchildren.Malesareconstantlyremindedthat'roti(bread)foryourstomach"comeslargelyfromthefemalesintheirlives.DeathandAfterlife.Kanjararestoicaboutdeathandac-ceptitasfateandanormalaspect of life.Individualsprefertodieinthecompany of familyandsiblings;however,theyreal-izethattheirperipateticlife-styleoftenprohibitsdispersedkinfrombeingpresent.Ideally,parentsand/orsiblingswashthebody,wrapitinanewwhitecloth,sprinkleitwithscentedwater,andburyitonitssidefacingeasttowardwarmthandtherisingsun.Burialtakesplaceassoonaspossible-thenextdayduringthehotseason,andaftertwoorthreedaysinwinter,thusincoolerweatherallowinganysiblingswhomightbeinthesameareatimetotravelandbeinvolvedintheburialprocess.Thebodyisconsideredpollutingtofe-malesandthereforemalesprepareitforburial.Kanjargener-allyfearincapacitatingdiseasesorlongfinalillnessesmorethantheactualdeathitself.Whileafamilywillcarryasickin-dividualontheircartsand/orstoptravelingwhenanindivid-ualbecomesextremelyillorcrippled,Kanjarfearloss of mo-bilitymorethandeath.AmongKanjar,freedomandmobilityrepresentlife.SeealsoPeripatetics;QalandarBibliographyBerland,JosephC.(1982).NoFiveFingersAreAlike:Cogni-tiveAmplifiersinSocialContext.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress.Berland,JosephC.(1987)."KanjarSocialOrganization."InTheOtherNomads:PeripateticMinoritiesinCrossCulturalPerspective,editedbyAparnaRao,24 7-2 65.Cologne:BohlauVerlag.Berland,JosephC.,andMatt.T.Salo,eds.(1986).'Peripa-teticPeoples."NomadicPeoples(Toronto)21/22(specialissue).Hayden,Robert(1979)."TheCulturalEcology of ServiceNomads."EasternAnthropologist32:29 7-3 09.Misra,P. K, andRajalakshmiMisra(1982)."NomadismintheLand of theTamilsbetween1A.D.and600A.D."InNo-Khasi125theinheritance of theirmother,butthelargestsharegoestotheyoungestdaughter.Whenthemotherhasnodaughters,theinheritancegoestohersister'syoungestdaughter.Ifthesisterhasnodaughters,thenthemother'ssistersandtheirfe-malekinreceivetheinheritance.Menareprohibitedfromin-heritingrealproperty.Allpropertyacquiredbyamanbeforemarriagebelongstohismother.Propertyacquiredbyhimaftermarriagebelongstohiswifeandchildren. Of thesechil-dren,theyoungestdaughterwillreceivethelargestshare of theinheritanceuponthedeath of theman'swife.Ifthemanhasnodaughters,thenhissonsreceivehispropertyuponthedeath of theirmother.Christianconversion ... recentyearscharihasgivenplacetodowry(dahej),whichcomprises50rupeesincashandutensils.Givingdahejisastatussymbol;nowadayseducatedboysgetcash,abicycle,etc.WiththepoorerKols,chariisstillinvogue.Wearingthecolorvermil-ionandbanglesarethesymbols of marriageforwomen.Therakhelualsousethesesymbols.Marriagebyelopementfor-merlywasinvogue;thispracticeisnowrare.Incompatibility,adultery,andbarrennessareprimaryreasonsforseekingadi-vorce.Inthecase of adivorce,olderchildrenstaywiththefa-ther,butthebabiesmaygowiththemother.Adivorcedwomandoesnotgetanycompensationnorcansheclaimanyportion of thehusband'sproperty.Thedahejorchariisneverreturned.Adoption(godnama)doesnotrequireanyformalpermissionfromthecommunitynorisafeasttobegiventoseekapproval of it.Onlythevillagemessenger(kotwar)hastobeinformedverballyandheinturninformstheleader(sar-panch).Achild,maleorfemale,takenongodnamagetsashare of theinheritance(ifthereareothersons of thede-ceased)orelseall of it(ifthedeceasedhasnoson).Therak-heluandherchildrenformanappendage of thefamily.DomesticUnit.Residenceispatrilocalingeneral.Never-theless,thereareinstanceswhenamanstayswithhiswifeaftermarriage,tolookafterherinheritedproperty.Inheritance.Bothmovableandimmovablepropertyisin-heritedbysonsequallyandnoextrashareisgiventotheeld-estortheyoungestson.Aftermarriage,thedaughterscannotclaimanyshare of thedeceasedfather'sproperty;however,ifthedeceasedleftnoson,thenthedaughterscanclaimhisproperty.Achildlesswidowownsherhusband'sproperty.Thepropertyofadeadbachelorgoestoone of hissiblings.Adivorcedwomancannotclaimanyshareinpropertywhilestayingathernatalhousebutcaninsistonmaintenanceforlife.SociopoliticalOrganization.SocialOrganization.Asdescribedabove,theKolaredi-videdintotwenty-threeendogamoussubunitscalledbaenk.Inaddition,statusandwealthdistinctionsarebasedonoccu-pationasdescribedabove.PoliticalOrganization.TheKolhaveacouncilcompris-ingthreeelderlypersonages(mukhobar)includingamalik(headman)selectedbythevillagers.InKolsocietyamalikisahighlyreveredman.Hissonmaybecomemalikifthevillag-erssodecide.Onthedeath of amalik,hiswifemayperformtheduties of herhusband(asmalik)tillthevillagerschooseanewone.ConflictandSocialControl.ThemalikandmukhobarsarecompetenttohandlecasesinvolvingtheKols.WheneveradisputearisesbetweenaKolandanon-Kol,thevillagecouncil(panchayat)isapproached.Iftheconflictreferstotwovillagesithastobedecidedbyalargerbody(nyaypanch)thatcoversfiveormorevillages.Thepradhanwhoisthechief of thenyaypanchisassistedbyanupopradhanandafewpanches,one of whommaybeaKol.Themukhobarswithinavillagearecontactedwheneverthereisadisputeinvolvingin-fringement of communitynorms.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheKolmainlyprofessHinduism.The1961censusrecorded100percent of themasfollowers of Hinduism.Inthe1971census99.67percent of theKolswerelistedasHindusand0.32percentas of "indefinitebelief"(anothernameforthetraditionaltribalreligion);0.01per-centdidnotstatetheirreligion.The1981censusrecorded99.7percent of theKolsasfollowers of Hinduism,0.28per-centasprofessing"otherreligions"(thetribalreligion),andtheremaining0.01percentasChristians,Muslims,orJains.Thustherehasbeennosignificantchangeduringtheperiod196 1-1 981.ReligiousPractitioners.TheKols'ownpriest(panda)isanimportantfunctionaryinKolsociety.Heofficiatesattheritualscenteringontheworship of DesaiDurinAprilandSorokhiDeviatanyappropriatetime,forthewelfare of theKolvillagesandKolhouseholds.Thepandaalsoservesastheexorcist(ojha)whodrivesawayevilspiritsthatcausesick-ness.Bothofficesareoftenheldbyoneandthesameperson.Ceremonies.TheKolscontinuetoworshiptheirfamilydeities,BabadeoBabaandMarhi,andvillagedeitiessuchasShankarji,Kherdai,HardolaBaba,Hanuman,andBhain-Kota135tionallypracticedintheNilgiris.Fortheneighboringcom-munitiestheKotasprovidedmusic,ironarticlesandsilveror-naments,baskets,pottery,andavariety of otherspecializedgoodsandservices.Withthechangetoamonetaryandmar-keteconomytheseservicesarenolongerrequired,andthevastincreaseintheBadagapopulationhasmadecloserecip-rocalrelationshipsimpossible.Theknowledge of many of thesetraditionalpracticesamongtheKotasisgraduallybeinglost,andasyetnointernalmotivationhassurfacedtoreplacelostcontextsorencouragethemaintenance of theseartsandcrafts.SettlementsSixvillages of theKotashost10 0-3 00peopleinroughlytwenty-fivetosixty-fivehouses;whileonlyafewfamiliesstillinhabittheseventhvillage,Kala-c(orGudalurKokal).Thehousesarearrangedinrows,calledke-rs,whichcorrespondtoexogamoussocialunits.Kotavillagesarecalledkokal,liter-ally"Kotaleg,"ortheplacewhereKotasplantedtheirfeet.Thepattern of settlementisbelievedtohavebeendeter-minedbyacowwholedtheKotasthroughtheNilgirisandstoppedinvariousplacestoindicatevarioussitesforthevil-lages.ThefollowingarethesevenKotavillageslistedintheordersomeKotasbelievetheycameintoexistence(Anglo-Badaganamesascommonlyrenderedaregiveninparenthe-ses):Me-na-r(KundaKotagiri),Kolme-l(Kollimalai),Kur-goj(SholurKokal),Ticga.r(Trichigadi),Porga-r.(Kotagiri),Kina-r(KilKotagiri),andKala-c(GudalurKokal).InearliertimesKotahouseswerewattleand ... Conflict.Thereisnosolidevidence of warfareintheNilgirisinvolvingtheKotasandothertribes.Theyclaim,however,thattheritualdrum,e-rtabatk,wasoriginallyusedinbattle.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.KotasconsiderthemselvesHindusandnoKotashavegoneonrecordasconvertingtoanyotherreli-gion,althoughoneortwomarriageshavereportedlyoccurredbetweenKotasandChristians.ThemajorKotadeitiesareA.ypo.r(fathergod)andAmno-r(mothergoddess).A-yWo-r,alsocalledKamati-cvaraorKamatra-yainsomevillages,isidentifiedwiththeHindugodShiva.Somevillageshavea"big"and'small"A-ypio.r(Doda.yno-randKuna-yno-r),butthereisonlyoneversion of thegoddess.Kana.tra-yaisadeityintheform of astoneandisfoundonlyinTicga.r.Generally,Kotadeitieshavenoanthropomorphicrepresentation,al-thoughonceayearfaces of silverornamentsarepastedontothefront of theA-yno-randAmno-rtemples.TodaytemplesfortheHindudeitiesKrishna,Rangarama,Munisvara,Badrakaliamman,andMariammanhavealsobeenerectedbytheKotas,eachinresponsetoaparticularneedorsupernat-uraleventinthevillage.ReligiousPractitioners.ForceremoniesrelatingtotheirindigenousdeitiestheKotashavetwotypes of priest.Themundika-no-n,theprimarypriest,leadstheKotasinallim-portantcommunityactivities.Theotherpriest,thete-rkaran,actsasavehiclethroughwhichgod(soym)communicateswiththepeople.Thete-rka-raneffectssuchcommunicationbybecomingpossessedandrespondingtoquestions,whichareusuallyposedbymaleelders.Possessionoccursinestab-lishedspatiotemporalcontextsforwhichinstrumentalmusi-cians(kolvar)playparticulartunes(kol)andrhythms(da k) .Thedeity"chooses"thete.rka-raninitiallythroughcausinghimtobepossessedandspeakingthroughhim.Thenthemundika-no-nisnamedbythedeityviathete-rka-ran.Al-thoughthereisaspecialte-rka-ranfamily(kuyt)insomevil-lages,thete-rka-ranmayalsobelongtoadifferentfamily.Themundika-no-ncanonlycomefromthemundika.no-nfamily.Koli131saur,whicharegenerallyconsideredbenevolentthesacredcentersatAllahabad,Bandakpur,Mata.ForacculturatedKolslivinginmulticasteBrahmanpriestworshipsthedeitiesbelongingtpantheonfortheKolsandofficiatesatritualscoilife-cycleceremonies.TheKolscelebratefERamanavmi,Dassara,Rakhi,Holi,Diwali,Janm,ShabariJayanti.Arts.TheKolshavenoperformingorgraph-ever,theyhavearichrepertory of triballegendDeathandAfterlife.TheKolsusuallycremaburialisforpersonswhohavedied of snakebitecasetheperiod of pollutionendsonthethirteeninthesecondcaseitlaststhreedays.SeealsoBhuiya;Bondo;Kond;MundaBibliographyCrooke,William(1896).TheTribesandCastesWesternProvincesandOudh.Vol.3.Calcutta:IPress.DasGupta,BimanKumar(1978)."TheKolXNow."Paperpresentedatseminar,TribalCust,heldinCalcutta(sponsoredbytheAnthropolc of India.)Griffiths,W.G.(1946).TheKolTribes of CRoyalAsiaticSocietyMonographSeries,vol.RoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal.Guha,B.S.(1946).IntroductiontoTheKolTriaIndia,byW.G.Griffiths.RoyalAsiaticSocietySeries,vol.2.Calcutta:RoyalAsiaticSocietyoHasan,Amir(1972).TheKols of Patha.AllalMahal.Jagannathan,R.(1964).Census of India19Pradesh.DistrictCensusHandbook.Jabalpur.Bemiment of India.Jha,J.C.(1964).TheKolInsurrection of Chotacutta:Thacker,Spink.Risley,HerbertH.(1915).ThePeople of India.2byWilliamCrooke.London:Thacker&Co.ReDelhi:OrientalBooksReprintCorp.,Mamoharlal.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916)."Kol."InTVCastes of theCentralProvinces of India.Vol.3,50don:Macmillan&Co.Reprint.1969.OosterhtpologicalPublications.Lt.KolsvisitandMaiharevillagestheotheHinduinectedwithFstivallikeKoliETHNONYMS:HillKolis,SeaKolis,SonKolissshtami,andThename"Koli"(fromwhichisderivedtheEnglishwordcoolie)isexplainedinadozenways,amongwhichthemostplausibleisthatitcomesfromtheSanskritwordkula,icarts;how-meaning"clan."TheKolinumberedonly336,000personsinS.1911,buttheirnumberswereestimatedat1.5millioninBombayStatealonein1969.TheKoliconstituteatribewithatethedead;manybranchesandtwomainsubdivisions:theHillKolis;l.InthefirstandtheSeaKolisorSonKolis.Themostpopularexplana-thday,whiletionfortheorigin of theterm"Son"isthatturmeric,whichisverysacredtoDhandoba,thefamilygod,isson-"golden"or"yellow"incolor.TheSonKolisrepresentthehighestgroup of themanysubgroups,andtheDhorKoliaregenerallycon-sideredthelowest.TheSonKolistraditionallyinhabittheareainandaroundBombay,whichliesbetween18°and19"Nand72°and730E,onthewestcoast of India.TheHill of theNorth-KolisarefoundinMadhyaPradeshandincludetheSuraivansi,GovernmentMalhar,Bhilaophod,Singade,Magadeo(whoarefurthersub-dividedintotheBhasor"pure"KolisandtheAkaramaseor"impure"Kolis),Dshatreiga,Naiks,Nimar(soldiers),the...

... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,inalandwhereeach of theuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomain of theuyuwhowasthecause of death.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury,J.N.(1971).AComparativeStudy of AdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.Memoirs of theRoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPractices of theMinyongAbors of Assam,India."Anthropos49:58 8-6 04. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III SOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirareacaste of cowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwelloveramilliontoday:theynumbered750,000in ... ProvincesandBerarin1911,rankingasthesixth-largestcasteinterms of numbers.Inmanycastesthereisaseparatedivision of Ahirs,suchastheAhirSunars,Sutars,Lohars,Shimpis,Salic,Guraos,andKolis.Thename"Ahir"isderivedfrom"Abhira,"atribementionedseveraltimesininscriptionsandtheHindusacredbooks."Goala,"meaningacowherdor'aprotector of cows,"istheBengalinameforthecaste,andtheterm"Gaoli"isnowusedinMadhyaPradeshStatetosignifyadairyworker.SomedialectsnamedaftertheAbhiraorAhirsarestillspoken.One,knownasAhirwati,isspokenintheRohtalsandGurgaondistricts,thePunjab,andnearDelhi.TheMalwi.dialect of RajasthaniisalsoknownasAhiri;thereisadialect of GujaraticalledKhandeshi,alsoknownasAhirani.TheselinguisticsurvivalsareanindicationthattheAhirswereearlysettlersintheDelhicountry of thePunjab,andinMalwaandKhandesh.TheAhirwereapparentlyone of theimmigranttribesfromcentral Asia whoenteredIndiaduringtheearlyChris-tianera.TheAhirhavebeenforcenturiesapurelyoccupa-tionalcaste,mainlyrecruitedfromtheindigenoustribes.Ascattlemustgrazeintheforestduringhotweather,thereisacloserelationshipbetweenAhirsandmany of theforesttribes.ManyAhirinMandla,forexample,arebarelyconsid-eredHindus,becausetheyliveinGondvillages(aforesttribe).Onlyabout30percent of theAhirsarestilloccupiedinbreedingcattleanddealinginmilkandbutter.About4per-centaredomesticservants,andnearlyalltheremainderwerecultivatorsandlaborersin1931.FormerlytheAhirshadtheexclusiverighttomilkcows,sothatonalloccasionsanAhirhadtobehiredforthispurposeevenbythelowestcaste.Thecastehasexogamoussections,whichare of theusuallow-castetype,withtitularortotemnisticnames.Themarriage of personsbelongingtothesamesectionand of firstcousinsisprohibited.Amanmaymarryhiswife'syoungersisterwhilehiswifeisliving.Thepractice of exchanginggirlsbetweenfamiliesispermissible.TheAhirhaveaspecialrelationtotheHindureligion,owingtotheirassociationwiththesacredcow,whichisitselfreveredasagoddess.Amongthespecialdeities of theAhirsisKharskDeo,whoisalwayslocatedattheplace of assembly of thecattle.MaterDeoisthegod of thepen.AfavoritesaintisHaridasBaba.ThemainfestivalistheDiwali,fallingaboutthebeginning of November.Allpeopleobservethisfeastbyilluminatingtheirhouseswithmanysmallsaucer-lampsandwithfireworks.BibliographyBlunt,E.A.H.(1931).TheCasteSystem of NorthernIndia.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Delhi:S.Chand.Darling,Malcolm(1947).ThePunjabPeasantinProsperityandDebt.4thEd.Bombay:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1977.NewDelhi:Manohar.Rose,H.A.(1911).AGlossary of theTribesandCastes of thePunjabandNorth-WestFrontierProvinces.Vol.1.Lahore:Su-perintendent,GovernmentPrinting.Reprint.1970.Patiala:LanguagesDepartment,Punjab.Russell,R.V.,andHimLal(1916)."Ahir."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India,byR.V.RussellandHimLal.Vol.2,1 8-3 8.Nagpur.GovernmentPrintingPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.SirajulHassan,Syed(1920)."Ahir."CastesandTribes of H.E.H.theNizam'sDominions.Vol.1, 1-7 .Bombay:Reprint.1990.NewDelhi:VintageBooks.JAYDiMAGGIOAnavilBrahimanETHNONYM:GrhasthaBrahmanAnavilBrahmansaregrhasthaor"homeowner"Brah-mans,whichmeanstheycannotperformpriestlyfunctions.Theyaretraditionallylandowners.TherearealsobhikshukaormendicantpriestsamongAnavilBrahmans.Thereseemstobeacleardistinctionbetweenthesetwokinds of AnavilBrahmans,alongwithacertainamount of ambivalencethatresultsfromthecontrastbetweentheindependence of theAnavilBrahmansasself-supportinglandownersandthevil-lagepriest's"obligation"tobeg.TheAnavilBrahmanshavebeenlargelandownersforatleastthreecenturies.ItisnotclearfromhistoricalsourceswhentheAnavilBrahmanssettledinGujarat.Inthenine-teenthcenturysomeAnavilBrahmansleftthecentralpart of thestateandmovedtothesparselypopulatedhillsintheeast(Mahuva,Vyara)wheretheyemployedtheaboriginal,tribalpopulation of theareaaslaborers.Therearetwotypes of agriculturalland:irrigatedandnonirrigated.Inthesouthernpart of theSuratDistrictinGu-jarat,thelandiswellirrigated,andhencethisisthetradi-tionalrice-growingregion.Anothercultivatedcashcropfromthedistrictisginger,aswellasvariousotherspices.Inthenorthcottonisthemaincashcrop.Withintheendogamousunit,thejati,aretwodistin-guishablegroups of unequalsocialstatus:theDesaidescen-dants of taxfarmers,andthenon-Desai.Non-Desaifarmers12AndamaneseBibliographyCipriani,Lidio(1966).TheAndamanIslanders.NewYork:Praeger.Man,E.H.(1885).OntheAboriginalInhabitants of theAn-damanIslands.London:AnthropologicalInstitute.Pandya,Vishvajit(1897)."AbovetheForest:AStudy of An-damaneseEthnoanemology,Cosmology,andthePower of Ritual."Ph.D.dissertation,University of Chicago.Portman,M.V.(1859).History of OurRelationswiththeAn-damanese.Calcutta:GovernmentPrintingPress.Radcliffe-Brown,A.R(1922).TheAndamanIslanders.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.VISHVAJITPANDYAAnglo-IndianETHNONYMS:Castee,EastIndian,Eurasian,Goan,Goanese,MusteeFromthenuntilnow,theseAnglo-Indianshavebeencharacterizedby(1)Christianreligion,(2)Englishmothertongue,(3)Europeanlife-styleathome,(4)Westerndress,and(5)employmentinparticularadministrativeandserviceprofessionsthattypicallyrequirefluencyinEnglishandahigh-schooleducation(e.g.,thepostoffice,railways,teach-ing,police,andnursingprofessions).ThepopularsingerEn-gelbertHumperdinckisanAnglo-Indian.InGoaandotherPortugueseenclaveswithintheIndiansubcontinent,therewasfromthesixteenthuntilthetwenti-ethcenturyfreeandregularintermarriage of settlerswithlocalKonkani-speakingwomen.Thehistory of theirdescen-dantsparalleledthat of otherEurasiansinIndia.PortuguesebornonIndiansoilwerecalled"Castees"(fromthePortu-guesecastico,atermnolongerused);whereasCreoleswerecalled"Mustees"or"Mestiz"(fromthePortuguesemistices).InrecentdecadestheseGoanese of partialEuropeanancestryhavebeenassimilatedintotheAnglo-Indiancommunity,thoughnotwithoutsomeresentmentonthepart of color-consciousAnglo-Indians.GoanesespeakEnglish,liveincit-ies,andareRomanCatholics.ItisoftennotrecalledthattheGoanesehadanotherkind of linkwithAnglo-Indians:untiltheearlynineteenthcenturyonecouldbuyslavegirlsinGoa,andsomeBritishresidents of Indiadidjustthat.BibliographyGaikwad,VijaySinghRameshwarRao(1967).TheAnglo-Indians:AStudyintheProblemsandProcessesInvolvedinEmotionalandCulturalIntegration.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Thistermhasbeenusedintwodistinctsenses.Uptoabout1900itmeantaBritishperson(whether of English,Scottish,IrishorWelshancestry)whohadbeenborninIndia('countrybom")andresidedthere.Butsince1900theterm"Anglo-Indian"hasbeenappliedtothosepreviouslyknownasEurasianswhowere of mixedEuropeanandIndiandescent(theyhadbeenknowninearliertimesas"EastIndians").Anglo-Indiansinthislattersensearefoundtodayinallcities of India,aswellasinBritain,Canada,andAustralia.Thelastcensuscount of them,in1951,identified11,637intheRe-public of India.TheEnglishhavebeengoingtoIndiafor1,000years.PossiblythefirstEnglishvisitorwasSwithelmorSigelinus,anenvoysentbyKingAlfredtovisitthetomb of St.ThomasinA.D.884.Heissaidtohavereturnedhomesafely.Anequallydramaticjourneywasthat of ThomasCoryate,whosecele-bratedwalkfromSomersettoAjmeretookthreeyears.Butby1615,whenhereachedIndia,EnglishvisitorswerebecomingcommonplaceduetoexpandingtradewiththeMogulEm-pire.WhilethereisnoevidencethatSwithelmleftanyprog-enyinIndia,manylaterEuropeanvisitorsdid.Itwascustom-aryinIndianinnsintheMiddleAgestoprovideafemalecompanionforthepleasure of distinguishedtravelers.Bythenineteenthcentury,thenumber of Britishresidentswasintothethousands,andmostweremale.Until ... theopening of theSuezCanalin1869itwascommonforunmarriedBritonstokeepanIndianmistress/housekeeperwhowouldraisetheirchildren.Aftertheopening of thecanal,thejourneybecamemuchshorterandeasier,andthusmanywomenwenttoIndiaandmarriedEnglishmen.FromthenontheEurasiancom-munitybecameastable,largelyendogamousunit.Gist,NoelP.,andRoyDeanWright(1973).MarginalityandIdentity:Anglo-IndiansasaRaciallyMixedMinorityinIndia.Leiden:E.J.Brill.Schermnerhorn,RichardAlonzo(1978)."Anglo-Indians:AnUneasyMinority."InEthnicPluralityinIndia,byRichardAlonzoSchermerhom,21 0-2 37.Tucson:University of Ari-zonaPress.PAULHOCKINGSAryanETHNONYM:VedicIndians,nowusuallyknowntolinguistsasIndo-AryanorIndo-IranianTheseearlyspeakers of VedicSanskrit,anIndo-Europeanlanguage,invadedtheIndiansubcontinentfromthenorthwestinabout1500B.c.,althoughthereisconsider-abledisagreementaboutthisdate.Theirdescendantstodayformthegreatbulk of thepopulationinNepal,Pakistan,northernIndia,Bangladesh,andSriLanka,thoughtheydonotidentifythemselvesprimarilyasAryans.Theterm,aryainSanskrit,means"noble,"nodoubtinreferencetotheirdominantpositioninthesocietytheyin-...

... asmanywaysaspossible.Thelaitysupportthewanderingascetics,providingthemwithfoodandshelter,theasceticsinturnprovidereligiousandmoralguidance.LayJainsincludesome of India'sleadingindustrialists,jewelers,andbankers,concentratedparticularlyinthecities of Bombay,Ahme-dabad,andDelhi.Becausesomanyarebusinesspeople,theJainsareone of thefewreligiousgroups(alongwiththeParsisandJews)whoaremorenumerousincitiesthaninruralareas.ThroughoutwesternIndiaJainsaretobefoundineveryurbancenter,howeversmall,workingasmerchants,traders,wholesalers,andmoneylenders.Assooftenhappensinreligioussects,theJainsarenostrangerstoschism.Themostbasicandwidelyknownsplitwithintheircommunity of believers,datingbacktothefourthcenturyB.C.,separatesthe'sky-clad"(Digambaras)fromthe"white-clad"(Svetambaras);thenamesrefertothefactthatthehighestorder of Digambaramonksgonakedtoannouncetheircompleteindifferencetotheirbodies,whileSvetambaramonksandnunsalwayswearsimplewhiteclothing.Thesetwosectsdifferintheirattitudestowardscripture,theirviews of theuniverse,andtheirattitudestowardwomen(theDig-ambarasbelievethatnowomanhaseverachievedliberation).Anothermajorsectariandivision,foundparticularlyamongtheSvetambarasanddatingbacktofifteenth-centuryGu-jarat,rejectsallforms of idolatry.Whilemurti-pujaka(idol-worshiping)layandasceticSvetambarasbuildandvisittem-plesinwhichidols of thetirthankarasareinstalled,theSvetambaraSthanakavasisect-likecertainProtestantChristiansects-holdsthatsuchforms of worshipmaymis-leadthebelieverintothinkingthatidols,famoustemples,andthelikearesources of somemysteriouspower.InsteadlayandasceticSthanakavasisprefertomeditateinbarehalls.Today,layJains-mostly of Gujaratiorigin-aretobefoundineastAfrica,GreatBritain,andNorthAmerica,wheretheyhavemigratedoverthelastcenturyinsearch of businessandtradingopportunities.Templeshavebeenestab-lishedinseveral of thesecountriesandtheJains ... aremakingthemselvesfeltasadistinctivepresencewithinthewider South Asianmigrantcommunityoverseas.SeealsoBaniaBibliographyBanks,Marcus(1992).OrganizingJainisminIndiaandEng-land.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Carrithers,Michael,andCarolineHumphrey,eds.(1991).TheAssembly of Listeners:JainsinSociety.Cambridge:Cam-bridgeUniversityPress.Dundas,Paul(1992).TheJains.London:Routledge.Fischer,Eberhard,andJyotindrajain(1977).ArtandRituals:2,500Years of JainisminIndia.Delhi:SterlingPublishersPri-vateLtd.Jaini,PadmanabhS.(1979).TheJainaPath of Purification.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Mathias,Marie-Claude(1985).DIlivranceetconviviality:LesystemeculinairedesJaina.Paris:EditionsdelaMaisondesSciencesdel'Homme.Pande,G.C.,ed.(1978).SramanaTradition:ItsContributiontoIndianCulture.Ahmedabad:L.D.Institute of Indology.Sangave,VilasA.(1959).JainaCommunity:ASocialSurvey.Reprint.1980.Bombay:PopularBookDepotVinayasagar,Mahopadhyaya,andMukundLath,eds.andtrans.(1977).KalpaSutra.Jaipur:D.R.Mehta,PrakritBharati.MARCUSBANKSJatETHNONYMS:Jt,JatOrientationIdentificationandLocation.Primarilyendogamouscom-munitiescallingthemselvesandknownasJatlivepredomi-nantlyinlargeparts of northernandnorthwesternIndiaandinsouthernandeasternPakistan,assedentaryfarmersand/ormobilepastoralists.Incertainareastheytendtocallthem-selvesBaluch,Pathan,orRajput,ratherthanJat.Most of thesecommunitiesareintegratedasacasteintothelocallyprevalentcastesystem.Inthepastthreedecadesincreasingpopulationpressureonlandhasledtolarge-scaleemigration of thepeasantJat,especiallyfromIndia,toNorthAmerica,theUnitedKingdom,Malaysia,andmorerecentlytheMid-dleEast.SomemaintainthatthesedentaryfarmingJatandthenomadicpastoralJatare of entirelydifferentorigins;oth-ersbelievethatthetwogroupsare of thesamestockbutthattheydevelopeddifferentlife-stylesoverthecenturies.Neitherthefarmersnorthepastoralistsare,however,tobeconfusedwithotherdistinctcommunities of peripateticpeddlers,arti-sans,andentertainersdesignatedinAfghanistanbytheblan-ketterms"Jat"orJat;thelattertermsareconsideredpejora-tive,andtheyarerejectedasethnonymsbytheseperipateticcommunities.InPakistanalso,amongtheBaluchi-andPashto-speakingpopulations,thetermswere,andtoacertainextentstillare,usedtoindicatecontemptandlowersocialstatus.Demography.Noreliablefiguresareavailableforrecentyears.In1931thepopulation of allsedentaryandfarmingJatwasestimatedat8,377,819;intheearly1960s8,000,000wastheestimateforPakistanalone.TodaytheentireJatpopula-tionconsists of severalmillionmorethanthat.linguisticAffiliation.AllJatspeaklanguagesanddialectsthatarecloselyconnectedwithotherlocallyspokenlan-guages of theIndo-IranianGroup.Threealphabetsareused,dependingprimarilyonreligionbutpartlyonlocality:theArabic-derivedUrduoneisusedbyMuslims,whileSikhsandHindususetheGurmukhi(Punjabi)andtheDevanagari(Hindi)scripts,respectively.Jatav115ciallytobedependentuponthemother,whomayinturnbe-comedependentupontheminoldage.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InIndia'svillagesthecastesystemisanorganicdivision of labor,eachcastehavingatraditionallyassignedanddistinctoccupationandduty.BecauseJatavs,asChamars,dothepollutingandpollutedtasks of removingdeadcattlefromthevillageand of workingwithleather,theyarerankedasUntouchablesatthebottom of thesystem.Tra-ditionally,theirmajoroccupationinthevillagewasagricul-turalandothermeniallaborforlandowners.Incities,wherethetraditionalinterdependencies of thecastesystemarevir-tuallynonexistent,Jatavsaremorelikeadistinctandde-spisedethnicgroup.PoliticalOrganization.InpreindependentIndiaJatavsgainedconsiderablepoliticalexpertisebyformingassocia-tionsandbydevelopingaliteratecadre of leaders.Theytriedtochangetheirpositioninthecastesystemthrough'Sanskri-tization,"theemulation of upper-castebehavior.JatavsclaimedKshatriyaorwarrior-classoriginandrank,andtheyorganizedcasteassociationstoreformcastebehaviorandlobbyfortheirclaims.AfterindependenceIndialegallyabol-ishedthepractice of untouchability,establishedtheuniversalfranchise,anddevelopedthepolicy of "protectivediscrimina-tion."ThatpolicyreserveselectoralconstituenciesforSched-uledCastecandidatesaccordingtotheirpercentages of pop-ulationinthenationandthestates;itdoeslikewiseforjobsinthenationalandstatecivilservices;anditofferseducationalbenefitstothem.Jatavshavetakenadvantage of thatpolicyandturnedtoactiveparticipationinIndia'sparliamentarysystem of government.Attimestheyhaveelectedmembers of theircastetovariousstateandnationallegislatures.Invil-lagestheyhavebeenlesssuccessfulatinfluencinglocalpoliti-calinstitutionsandcapturingfundsmeantfordevelopmentalprojects.AmajorinfluenceuponJatavswastheUntouchableleaderDr.B.RAmbedkar(d.1956)whoencouragedUn-touchablestofightfortheirrights,and,asfirstministerforlawinIndia,providedapowerfulrolemodel.Throughtheirpoliticaleffortshisstatueandpicturemaybefoundinpublicparksandbusstations,symbolicallyassertingtheirquestforequalcitizenshipinthenation.SocialControl.Everydaycontrolandleadership of localcommunitieswastraditionallyinthehands of hereditaryheadmen(chaudhari).Seriouscases of conflict,breaches of casterules,andothercaste-relatedproblemsweredecidedbycouncils of adultmen(panchayat)ineachlocality.Inthepast,higher-levelcouncilsexistedformoreseriouscasesorforappeals.Thecouncilsystemandthepowers of hereditaryheadmenhavegraduallyeroded,especiallyincitieswherethecourtsandthemoreeducatedandpoliticallyinvolvedleadersandbusinessmenhavebecomemoreprominentandin-fluential.Conflict.Conflictsarisewithinandbetweenfamiliesandindividualsovermoney,children,inheritanceclaims,drink-ing,insults,andthelike.Inrecentyearsconflicts,bothincit-iesandvillages,havetakenapoliticalturnasJatavs,andotherUntouchables,havetriedtoasserttheirrights.Non-Untouchablecasteshavereactednegatively.Seriousriotsbe-tweenJatavsanduppercasteshaveoccurredincities,suchasAgra,anddangerousconflictshavealsooccurredinvillages.Jatavsfeelthatthepace of changeismuchtooslow,whileuppercasteshaverejecteditastoofast,unjustified,andcon-trarytoorthodoxHinduteaching.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Ingeneral,JatavsandotherChamarsareHindus.Theyreject,however,theHinduteachingthatmakesthemUntouchables,aswellastheBrahmanpriestswhowrotethesacredtextssodefiningthem.MostmajorHindufestivals,particularlyHoli,areobserved,asaremajorlife-cycleceremonies.InpostindependentIndiaJatavsmayentermajorHindutemplesandvisitpilgrimagespots.SomeChamarsaredevotees of theChamarsaintRaviDas.Anum-ber of JatavshavefollowedDr.AmbedkarandconvertedtoBuddhismasarejection of thecastesystemandasanasser-tion of theequality of allindividuals.Buddhismforthemisapoliticalideologyinreligiousform.Ambedkarhimselfhasbeenapotheosizedasabodhisattva;hisbirthdayisthemajorpublicJatavfestival.Beliefisinthemajordeities of Hindu-ism,especiallyintheirlocalizedforms.TheBuddhaandDr.Ambedkarhavebecomepart of thepantheon.Ghosts of thosewhodiedbeforetheirtime(bhut)andotherspiritsarebelievedtobeabletopossessorharmlivingpeople;fear of theevileyeisalsowidespread.ReligiousPractitioners.BrahmanprieststraditionallyhavenotservedJatavsandotherUntouchables.Insteadlocalheadmenhaveofficiatedatrituals.Shamans(bhagat),whoaresometimesJatavs,havebeenknowntobeconsultedincases of spiritpossessionandotherillnesses.Ceremonies.Life-cycleceremoniesatbirth,firsthaircut-ting,marriage,anddeatharethemajorpublicceremonies.Marriageisthemostimportantritualasitinvolvespublicfeasts,thehonor of thegirl'sfamily,cooperation of neighborsandspecifickin,andgiftgivingoveryearstothefamilies of marrieddaughters.Deathritualsalsorequireparticipation of agnatesandmaleneighborstocrematethecorpseimmedi-atelyand of womentokeenritually.Verysmallchildrenareburied.Memorialfeastsormealsforthedeadaregivenoveraperiod of ayear.Arts.Theverbalarts,particularlythecomposition of vari-ousforms of poetry,arecultivated,asistheskillinsingingvariousforms of song.Medicine.Folkremediesareusedandpractitioners of Ayurvedic,Unani,andhomeopathicmedicinesarecon-sulted.Modemmedicinesandphysiciansareusedwhenaffordable.DeathandAfterlife.Beliefintransmigration of soulsiswidespread,andsomebelieveinanafterlifeinHeaven(Svarg)orHell(Narak).Asontoperformthefuneralobse-quiesisessential.Thedeadsoullingersafterdeathbutpassesonafteranumber of days.SeealsoNeo-Buddhist;UntouchablesBibliographyBriggs,GeorgeW.(1920).TheChamars.Calcutta:Associa-tionPress.Cohn,Bernard(1954)."TheCamars of Senapur:AStudy of Jat111HistoryandCulturalRelationsLittleisknownabouttheearlyhistory of theJat,althoughseveraltheorieswereadvancedbyvariousscholarsoverthelast100years.Whilesomeauthorsarguethattheyarede-scendants of thefirstIndo-Aryans,otherssuggestthattheyare of Indo-ScythianstockandenteredIndiatowardthebe-ginning of theChristianera.TheseauthorsalsopointtosomeculturalsimilaritiesbetweentheJatandcertainothermajorcommunities of thearea,suchastheGujar,theAhir,andtheRajput,aboutwhoseoriginssimilartheorieshavebeensuggested.Infact,amongbothMuslimsandSikhstheJatandtheRajputcastesenjoyalmostequalstatus-partlybecause of thebasicegalitarianideologyenjoinedbybothre-ligions,butmainlybecause of thesimilarpoliticalandeco-nomicpowerheldbybothcommunities.AlsoHinduJatcon-sidertheGujarandAhirasalliedcastes;exceptfortherule of casteendogamy,therearenocasterestrictionsbetweenthesethreecommunities.Inotherscholarlydebatesabouttheori-gins of theJat,attemptshavebeenmadetoidentifythemwiththeJarttika,referredtointheHinduepictheMahabharata.SomestillmaintainthatthepeopleArabhisto-riansreferredtoastheZutt,andwhoweretakenasprisonersintheeighthcenturyfromSindhinpresent-daysouthernPa-kistantosouthernIraq,wereactuallybuffalo-herdingJat,orwereatleastknownassuchintheirplace of origin.Inthesev-enteenthcenturya(Hindu)kingdomwasestablishedinthearea of BharatpurandDholpur(Rajasthan)innorthernIndia;itwastheoutcome of manycenturies of rebellionagainsttheMogulEmpire,anditlastedtill1826,whenitwasdefeatedbytheforces of theBritishEastIndiaCompany.Farthernorth,inthePunjab,intheearlyyears of theeight-eenthcentury,Jat(mainlySikh)organizedpeasantuprisingsagainstthepredominantlyMuslimlandedgentry;subse-quently,withtheinvasion of thearea-firstbythePersianKingNadirShahandthenbytheAfghanAhmadShahAbdali-theycontrolledamajorpart of theareathroughclose-knitbands of armedmaraudersoperatingundertheleadership of thelandowningchiefs of well-definedterritor-ies.Because of theirmartialtraditions,theJat,togetherwithcertainothercommunities,wereclassifiedbyBritishadminis-trators of imperialIndiaasa'martialrace,"andthistermhadcertainlong-lastingeffects.Onewastheirlarge-scalerecruit-mentintotheBritish-Indianarmy,andtothisdayaverylargenumber of JataresoldiersintheIndianarmy.ManySikhJatintheIndianpart of Punjabareinvolvedinthecurrentmove-mentforthecreation of anautonomousKhalistan.SettlementsTheJatasawholearepredominantlyrural.Dependingonwhethertheyaresedentaryornomadic,theJat of variousre-gionsliveinpermanentvillagesortemporarycamps.Overthelast200yearstherehasbeenincreasingsedentarization of no-madicJat;thistrendbeganinthelastdecades of theeight-eenthcenturywhenmanypastoralistssettledinthecentralPunjabundertheauspices of Sikhrulethere,anditcontin-uedoveraverylargeareawiththeexpansion of irrigationinBritishimperialtimes.Withtheconsequentexpansion of cul-tivationallthesepastoralistsarefacingincreasingdifficultiesinfindinggrazinglandsfortheirherds.Thebuffalobreedersfacethemaximumdifficultiesinthisrespect,sincetheirani-malsneedtobegrazedin ... asmanywaysaspossible.Thelaitysupportthewanderingascetics,providingthemwithfoodandshelter,theasceticsinturnprovidereligiousandmoralguidance.LayJainsincludesome of India'sleadingindustrialists,jewelers,andbankers,concentratedparticularlyinthecities of Bombay,Ahme-dabad,andDelhi.Becausesomanyarebusinesspeople,theJainsareone of thefewreligiousgroups(alongwiththeParsisandJews)whoaremorenumerousincitiesthaninruralareas.ThroughoutwesternIndiaJainsaretobefoundineveryurbancenter,howeversmall,workingasmerchants,traders,wholesalers,andmoneylenders.Assooftenhappensinreligioussects,theJainsarenostrangerstoschism.Themostbasicandwidelyknownsplitwithintheircommunity of believers,datingbacktothefourthcenturyB.C.,separatesthe'sky-clad"(Digambaras)fromthe"white-clad"(Svetambaras);thenamesrefertothefactthatthehighestorder of Digambaramonksgonakedtoannouncetheircompleteindifferencetotheirbodies,whileSvetambaramonksandnunsalwayswearsimplewhiteclothing.Thesetwosectsdifferintheirattitudestowardscripture,theirviews of theuniverse,andtheirattitudestowardwomen(theDig-ambarasbelievethatnowomanhaseverachievedliberation).Anothermajorsectariandivision,foundparticularlyamongtheSvetambarasanddatingbacktofifteenth-centuryGu-jarat,rejectsallforms of idolatry.Whilemurti-pujaka(idol-worshiping)layandasceticSvetambarasbuildandvisittem-plesinwhichidols of thetirthankarasareinstalled,theSvetambaraSthanakavasisect-likecertainProtestantChristiansects-holdsthatsuchforms of worshipmaymis-leadthebelieverintothinkingthatidols,famoustemples,andthelikearesources of somemysteriouspower.InsteadlayandasceticSthanakavasisprefertomeditateinbarehalls.Today,layJains-mostly of Gujaratiorigin-aretobefoundineastAfrica,GreatBritain,andNorthAmerica,wheretheyhavemigratedoverthelastcenturyinsearch of businessandtradingopportunities.Templeshavebeenestab-lishedinseveral of thesecountriesandtheJains...

... PuriandGanjamdistricts,withhousesalmostinacontinuouschainonbothsides of theinterveningvillagepathandwithkitchengardensattheback of thehouses.Cultivatedfieldssurroundthesettlement.Intheclusterpatterneachhousehasacompoundwithfruittreesandakitchengarden.TheScheduledCastesliveinlin.earorclusterhamletsslightlyawayfromthemain-settlement,withtheirownwatertanksor,today,theirownwells.Inthefloodedcoastalareasonefindssomedispersedhouses,eachsurroundedbyfieldsforcultivation.IntraditionalOrissa,twostyles of houses(ghara)werecommon.Theagriculturistsandhighercasteshadhouses of arectangulargroundplanwithroomsalongallthesides(khanja-ghara),leavinganopenspace(agana)inthecenter.Mudwallswithagabledroof of thatchmade of paddystalksorjunglegrass(moredurable)werecommon.Themoreaffluenthaddouble-ceilinghouses(atughara)withtheinnerceiling of mudplastersupportedbywoodenorbambooplanks.Thisconstructionmadeitfire-proofandinsulatedagainstthesummerheatandwinterchill.Theentranceroomwasusuallyacowshed,ascattlewerethewealth of thepeople.Menmetvillagersandguestsonthewidefrontveranda.Poorerpeoplehadhouseswithmudwallsandstraw-thatchedgableroofs,withoutenclosedcourtyardsordoubleceilings.Thesmokefromthekitchenescapedunderthegabledroof.TheOriyahad,incommonwitheast-ernIndia,awoodenhuskinglever(dhenki)inthecourtyardfordehuskingpaddyriceormakingriceflour.Nowadayshouseswithlargewindowsanddoors,roofs of concrete(tiledorwithcorrugatedironorasbestossheets),walls of brickandmortar,andcementfloorsarebecomingcommoneveninre-motevillages.Inthetraditionalhouse,thenortheasterncor-ner of thekitchenformedthesacredsite of theancestralspir-its(ishana)forfamilyworship.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Subsistencecul-tivation of paddyisubiquitousasriceisthestaplefood.Double-cropping,sometimeseventriple-croppinginirrigatedfields,andsingle-croppingindrought-affectedorrain-fedareasareallcommon.Large-scalefarmingwithheavyagricul-turalmachineryisstilluncommon.Plowingwithtwobullocksortwobuffaloisusual,withawoodenplow.Onlyrecentlyhaveironplowsbeencomingintouse.Cashcropslikesugar-cane,jute,betelleavesonraisedmounds,coconutsandarecanuts(betelnuts)aregrownincoastalOrissa,andpulsesandoilseedsindrought-proneareas.Recentlycoffee,cocoa,car-damom,pineapples,andbananashavealsobeenraisedonacommercialscale.Fisharecaughtintrapsandnetsfromvil-lagetanks,streams,rivers,coastalswamps,andalsointhefloodedpaddyfields.Fishingboatswithoutboardmotorsandtrawlersarenowadaysusedatsea.Thedomesticanimalsin-cludecows,goats,cats,chickens,ducks,andwaterbuffaloamongthelowestcastes,aswellaspigsanddogsamongtheurbanmiddleclass.IndustrialArts.Mostlargevillageshadcastes of artisanswhoservedtheagriculturaleconomyinformertimes.Car-penters,wheelwrights,andblacksmithswereabsolutelynec-essary.Somevillageshadpotterswithpotterywheelsandweaverswithcottagelooms(cottonwasformerlygrownandyamspun).Today,industrialproductsaredisplacingthevil-lageproductsexceptforthewoodenplowandcartwheels.Somecottageindustries,especiallythehandloomedtextiles(includingtheweaving of ikat,cottontextilesthataretiedanddyed),areproducingforexport.Brassandbell-metalutensilsandstatuesandsilverandgoldfiligreeornamentshaveawideclientele.214OkkaligaOkkaligaETHNONYMS:GangadikiraOkkalu,thepeasantcaste,Vokkaliga,WokkaligaTheOkkaligasarethedominantlandowningandculti-vatingcasteinthemulticastepopulation of southernKarnatakaStateinsouthwesternpeninsularIndia.Amongthehundreds of villagesinwhichOkkaligasliveisRampura(population1,523,735 of whomareOkkaligas,ca.1955),whichisthefocus of thisentryandwhichdisplaysmany of thefeaturestypical of OkkaligavillagesinIndia.Thevillage of RampuraislocatedontheMysore-Hogurbusroadabout32kilometersfromMysore.Thevillageisacluster of housesandhutswiththatchedortiledroofs;nar-row,unevenwindingstreetsrunningbetweentherows of houses.Surroundingthevillagearenumerousplotsownedbyindividuallandowners.Rampuraisaninterdependentunit,largelyself-sufficient,havingitsownvillageassembly(panchayat),watch,ward,officials,andservants.Inthemulticastevillage of Rampuratherelationship of castesap-pearstobedeterminedmorebytheeconomicpositions of thevariousmembersthanbytradition.Asagricultureisthepri-maryway of lifethepeasantsarethedominantcaste.Thehe-reditaryheadman(patel)andhereditaryaccountant(shan-borg)arebothpeasants.Theheadman'sresponsibilityistorepresentthevillagetothegovernmentandviceversa.Theaccountantkeepsaregister of howmuchlandeachhead of afamilyorjointfamilyhasandtheamount of taxontheland.Theelders of thedominantcastearespokespersonsforthevillageandowetheirpowernottolegalrightsderivedfromthestatebuttothedominantlocalposition of theircaste.Theelders of thedominantpeasantcasteinRampuraadmin-isterjusticenotonlytomembers of theirowncastegroupbutalsotoallpersons of othercasteswhoseektheirintervention.Agriculturedominatesvillagelife.Thecultivation of riceisthemainactivityinthevillage.Meticulousattentiontoandirrigation of thericeisnecessarythroughouttheperiod of cul-tivation,therainyseasonfromJunetoJanuary.Theconclu-sion of theharvestismarkedbythefestival of Sankranti.Dur-ingthedryseasonothersocialactivitiessuchasweddingsoccur.Each of theseventeencasteslivinginRampurahasadis-tinctivetraditionwithstrongtieswiththesamecasteinvil-lagesnearby.Thevillagehasaverticalunity of manycasteswhereaseachcastehasahorizontalunitythroughalliancesbeyondthevillage.OthermajorcastesandtheirtraditionaloccupationsincludetheKuruba(shepherd),theMusalman(artisanandtrader),Holeya(servantandlaborer),andtheMadiga(Harijans).Althoughpaddyandmilletgrainwereprincipallyusedintrade,moneyisusedmorefrequentlytoday.Maintenance of casteseparationwasachievedthroughideas of purityandpollution.Beliefsandbehaviorsincludingdiet,occupation,andritualdistinguishhigherfromlowercastes.Twoexamples of thisaretherulesgoverningtheac-ceptance of waterorcookedfoodbetweencastesandtherule of casteendogamy.Atonetimeitwascustomaryfortwofamilies,onebe-longingtoanuppercasteandtheothertoanUntouchablecaste,tobelinkedinamaster-servantrelationship(jajmani).Independencehasbegunaprocess of socialchangeinwhichmany of thetraditionalformsandordershavebeenreplaced.TheregionallanguageisKannadaandtheprincipalreli-gionisHindu.TheprincipaltemplesinRampuraarethetem-ples of Rama,Basava,HattiMad,andKabbalaDurgadaMan.Theseareendowedwithagriculturalland.Thekingroupisagnaticwithpreferenceforcross-cousinmarriage.TraditionallytheOkkaligasliveinjointfamilieswiththewifejoiningthehome of herhusband'sfamily.SinceIndependencethejointfamilieshavetendedtobecomesmaller.Thereisafairlystrictsexualdivision of laborwithfewwomenworkingoutsidethehome.Boysworkonthelandearly,whilegirlsworkinandaroundthehouse.AnOkkaligaisburiedonhisorherancestralland;andthelandisanim-portantpart of one'slifefromanearlyage.BibliographyBanerjee,Bhavani(1966).MarriageandKinship of theGan-gadikaraVokkaligas of Mysore.DeccanCollegeDissertationSeries,no.27.Poona:DeccanCollege.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL. K. AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930).'GangadikiraOkkalu."TheMysoreTribesandCastes3:17 5- 185.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Srinivas,M.N.(1963)."TheSocialStructure of aMysoreVillage."InIndia'sVillages,editedbyM.N.Srinivas,2 1-3 5.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Srinivas,M.N.(1976).TheRememberedVillage.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.SARAJ.DICKOraonETHNONYMS:Dhangad,Dhangar,Dhanka("farmworker"),Kisan,Kuda,Kurukh,Kurunkh,Orao,UraonTheOraonsareone of thelargesttribesin South Asia, numbering1,702,663personsatthe1971census.Abouthalf of themliveinBihar,mainlyontheChotaNagpurPlateau;theremainderareinMadhyaPradesh,Orissa,andWestBengal.TheyspeakaDravidianlanguageknownasKurukh.OraonsarecloselyrelatedtotheneighboringMundatribe,andtheheadman of anOraonvillageiscalledmunda.AlthoughtherearenosubcastesamongtheOraons,theKudas('navvies")andKisans("cultivators"),havingtheirdistinctoccupations,tendtomarryamongthemselves.Be-yondthis,Oraonsobservevillageandclanexogamy.Thepat-rilinealextendedfamilyistheidealresidentialunit,butnu-clearfamiliesarenearlyascommon.Ontheaverageafamilycontainsfivetosevencoresidentmembers. ... PuriandGanjamdistricts,withhousesalmostinacontinuouschainonbothsides of theinterveningvillagepathandwithkitchengardensattheback of thehouses.Cultivatedfieldssurroundthesettlement.Intheclusterpatterneachhousehasacompoundwithfruittreesandakitchengarden.TheScheduledCastesliveinlin.earorclusterhamletsslightlyawayfromthemain-settlement,withtheirownwatertanksor,today,theirownwells.Inthefloodedcoastalareasonefindssomedispersedhouses,eachsurroundedbyfieldsforcultivation.IntraditionalOrissa,twostyles of houses(ghara)werecommon.Theagriculturistsandhighercasteshadhouses of arectangulargroundplanwithroomsalongallthesides(khanja-ghara),leavinganopenspace(agana)inthecenter.Mudwallswithagabledroof of thatchmade of paddystalksorjunglegrass(moredurable)werecommon.Themoreaffluenthaddouble-ceilinghouses(atughara)withtheinnerceiling of mudplastersupportedbywoodenorbambooplanks.Thisconstructionmadeitfire-proofandinsulatedagainstthesummerheatandwinterchill.Theentranceroomwasusuallyacowshed,ascattlewerethewealth of thepeople.Menmetvillagersandguestsonthewidefrontveranda.Poorerpeoplehadhouseswithmudwallsandstraw-thatchedgableroofs,withoutenclosedcourtyardsordoubleceilings.Thesmokefromthekitchenescapedunderthegabledroof.TheOriyahad,incommonwitheast-ernIndia,awoodenhuskinglever(dhenki)inthecourtyardfordehuskingpaddyriceormakingriceflour.Nowadayshouseswithlargewindowsanddoors,roofs of concrete(tiledorwithcorrugatedironorasbestossheets),walls of brickandmortar,andcementfloorsarebecomingcommoneveninre-motevillages.Inthetraditionalhouse,thenortheasterncor-ner of thekitchenformedthesacredsite of theancestralspir-its(ishana)forfamilyworship.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Subsistencecul-tivation of paddyisubiquitousasriceisthestaplefood.Double-cropping,sometimeseventriple-croppinginirrigatedfields,andsingle-croppingindrought-affectedorrain-fedareasareallcommon.Large-scalefarmingwithheavyagricul-turalmachineryisstilluncommon.Plowingwithtwobullocksortwobuffaloisusual,withawoodenplow.Onlyrecentlyhaveironplowsbeencomingintouse.Cashcropslikesugar-cane,jute,betelleavesonraisedmounds,coconutsandarecanuts(betelnuts)aregrownincoastalOrissa,andpulsesandoilseedsindrought-proneareas.Recentlycoffee,cocoa,car-damom,pineapples,andbananashavealsobeenraisedonacommercialscale.Fisharecaughtintrapsandnetsfromvil-lagetanks,streams,rivers,coastalswamps,andalsointhefloodedpaddyfields.Fishingboatswithoutboardmotorsandtrawlersarenowadaysusedatsea.Thedomesticanimalsin-cludecows,goats,cats,chickens,ducks,andwaterbuffaloamongthelowestcastes,aswellaspigsanddogsamongtheurbanmiddleclass.IndustrialArts.Mostlargevillageshadcastes of artisanswhoservedtheagriculturaleconomyinformertimes.Car-penters,wheelwrights,andblacksmithswereabsolutelynec-essary.Somevillageshadpotterswithpotterywheelsandweaverswithcottagelooms(cottonwasformerlygrownandyamspun).Today,industrialproductsaredisplacingthevil-lageproductsexceptforthewoodenplowandcartwheels.Somecottageindustries,especiallythehandloomedtextiles(includingtheweaving of ikat,cottontextilesthataretiedanddyed),areproducingforexport.Brassandbell-metalutensilsandstatuesandsilverandgoldfiligreeornamentshaveawideclientele.214OkkaligaOkkaligaETHNONYMS:GangadikiraOkkalu,thepeasantcaste,Vokkaliga,WokkaligaTheOkkaligasarethedominantlandowningandculti-vatingcasteinthemulticastepopulation of southernKarnatakaStateinsouthwesternpeninsularIndia.Amongthehundreds of villagesinwhichOkkaligasliveisRampura(population1,523,735 of whomareOkkaligas,ca.1955),whichisthefocus of thisentryandwhichdisplaysmany of thefeaturestypical of OkkaligavillagesinIndia.Thevillage of RampuraislocatedontheMysore-Hogurbusroadabout32kilometersfromMysore.Thevillageisacluster of housesandhutswiththatchedortiledroofs;nar-row,unevenwindingstreetsrunningbetweentherows of houses.Surroundingthevillagearenumerousplotsownedbyindividuallandowners.Rampuraisaninterdependentunit,largelyself-sufficient,havingitsownvillageassembly(panchayat),watch,ward,officials,andservants.Inthemulticastevillage of Rampuratherelationship of castesap-pearstobedeterminedmorebytheeconomicpositions of thevariousmembersthanbytradition.Asagricultureisthepri-maryway of lifethepeasantsarethedominantcaste.Thehe-reditaryheadman(patel)andhereditaryaccountant(shan-borg)arebothpeasants.Theheadman'sresponsibilityistorepresentthevillagetothegovernmentandviceversa.Theaccountantkeepsaregister of howmuchlandeachhead of afamilyorjointfamilyhasandtheamount of taxontheland.Theelders of thedominantcastearespokespersonsforthevillageandowetheirpowernottolegalrightsderivedfromthestatebuttothedominantlocalposition of theircaste.Theelders of thedominantpeasantcasteinRampuraadmin-isterjusticenotonlytomembers of theirowncastegroupbutalsotoallpersons of othercasteswhoseektheirintervention.Agriculturedominatesvillagelife.Thecultivation of riceisthemainactivityinthevillage.Meticulousattentiontoandirrigation of thericeisnecessarythroughouttheperiod of cul-tivation,therainyseasonfromJunetoJanuary.Theconclu-sion of theharvestismarkedbythefestival of Sankranti.Dur-ingthedryseasonothersocialactivitiessuchasweddingsoccur.Each of theseventeencasteslivinginRampurahasadis-tinctivetraditionwithstrongtieswiththesamecasteinvil-lagesnearby.Thevillagehasaverticalunity of manycasteswhereaseachcastehasahorizontalunitythroughalliancesbeyondthevillage.OthermajorcastesandtheirtraditionaloccupationsincludetheKuruba(shepherd),theMusalman(artisanandtrader),Holeya(servantandlaborer),andtheMadiga(Harijans).Althoughpaddyandmilletgrainwereprincipallyusedintrade,moneyisusedmorefrequentlytoday.Maintenance of casteseparationwasachievedthroughideas of purityandpollution.Beliefsandbehaviorsincludingdiet,occupation,andritualdistinguishhigherfromlowercastes.Twoexamples of thisaretherulesgoverningtheac-ceptance of waterorcookedfoodbetweencastesandtherule of casteendogamy.Atonetimeitwascustomaryfortwofamilies,onebe-longingtoanuppercasteandtheothertoanUntouchablecaste,tobelinkedinamaster-servantrelationship(jajmani).Independencehasbegunaprocess of socialchangeinwhichmany of thetraditionalformsandordershavebeenreplaced.TheregionallanguageisKannadaandtheprincipalreli-gionisHindu.TheprincipaltemplesinRampuraarethetem-ples of Rama,Basava,HattiMad,andKabbalaDurgadaMan.Theseareendowedwithagriculturalland.Thekingroupisagnaticwithpreferenceforcross-cousinmarriage.TraditionallytheOkkaligasliveinjointfamilieswiththewifejoiningthehome of herhusband'sfamily.SinceIndependencethejointfamilieshavetendedtobecomesmaller.Thereisafairlystrictsexualdivision of laborwithfewwomenworkingoutsidethehome.Boysworkonthelandearly,whilegirlsworkinandaroundthehouse.AnOkkaligaisburiedonhisorherancestralland;andthelandisanim-portantpart of one'slifefromanearlyage.BibliographyBanerjee,Bhavani(1966).MarriageandKinship of theGan-gadikaraVokkaligas of Mysore.DeccanCollegeDissertationSeries,no.27.Poona:DeccanCollege.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL. K. AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930).'GangadikiraOkkalu."TheMysoreTribesandCastes3:17 5- 185.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Srinivas,M.N.(1963)."TheSocialStructure of aMysoreVillage."InIndia'sVillages,editedbyM.N.Srinivas,2 1-3 5.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Srinivas,M.N.(1976).TheRememberedVillage.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.SARAJ.DICKOraonETHNONYMS:Dhangad,Dhangar,Dhanka("farmworker"),Kisan,Kuda,Kurukh,Kurunkh,Orao,UraonTheOraonsareone of thelargesttribesin South Asia, numbering1,702,663personsatthe1971census.Abouthalf of themliveinBihar,mainlyontheChotaNagpurPlateau;theremainderareinMadhyaPradesh,Orissa,andWestBengal.TheyspeakaDravidianlanguageknownasKurukh.OraonsarecloselyrelatedtotheneighboringMundatribe,andtheheadman of anOraonvillageiscalledmunda.AlthoughtherearenosubcastesamongtheOraons,theKudas('navvies")andKisans("cultivators"),havingtheirdistinctoccupations,tendtomarryamongthemselves.Be-yondthis,Oraonsobservevillageandclanexogamy.Thepat-rilinealextendedfamilyistheidealresidentialunit,butnu-clearfamiliesarenearlyascommon.Ontheaverageafamilycontainsfivetosevencoresidentmembers. ... PuriandGanjamdistricts,withhousesalmostinacontinuouschainonbothsides of theinterveningvillagepathandwithkitchengardensattheback of thehouses.Cultivatedfieldssurroundthesettlement.Intheclusterpatterneachhousehasacompoundwithfruittreesandakitchengarden.TheScheduledCastesliveinlin.earorclusterhamletsslightlyawayfromthemain-settlement,withtheirownwatertanksor,today,theirownwells.Inthefloodedcoastalareasonefindssomedispersedhouses,eachsurroundedbyfieldsforcultivation.IntraditionalOrissa,twostyles of houses(ghara)werecommon.Theagriculturistsandhighercasteshadhouses of arectangulargroundplanwithroomsalongallthesides(khanja-ghara),leavinganopenspace(agana)inthecenter.Mudwallswithagabledroof of thatchmade of paddystalksorjunglegrass(moredurable)werecommon.Themoreaffluenthaddouble-ceilinghouses(atughara)withtheinnerceiling of mudplastersupportedbywoodenorbambooplanks.Thisconstructionmadeitfire-proofandinsulatedagainstthesummerheatandwinterchill.Theentranceroomwasusuallyacowshed,ascattlewerethewealth of thepeople.Menmetvillagersandguestsonthewidefrontveranda.Poorerpeoplehadhouseswithmudwallsandstraw-thatchedgableroofs,withoutenclosedcourtyardsordoubleceilings.Thesmokefromthekitchenescapedunderthegabledroof.TheOriyahad,incommonwitheast-ernIndia,awoodenhuskinglever(dhenki)inthecourtyardfordehuskingpaddyriceormakingriceflour.Nowadayshouseswithlargewindowsanddoors,roofs of concrete(tiledorwithcorrugatedironorasbestossheets),walls of brickandmortar,andcementfloorsarebecomingcommoneveninre-motevillages.Inthetraditionalhouse,thenortheasterncor-ner of thekitchenformedthesacredsite of theancestralspir-its(ishana)forfamilyworship.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Subsistencecul-tivation of paddyisubiquitousasriceisthestaplefood.Double-cropping,sometimeseventriple-croppinginirrigatedfields,andsingle-croppingindrought-affectedorrain-fedareasareallcommon.Large-scalefarmingwithheavyagricul-turalmachineryisstilluncommon.Plowingwithtwobullocksortwobuffaloisusual,withawoodenplow.Onlyrecentlyhaveironplowsbeencomingintouse.Cashcropslikesugar-cane,jute,betelleavesonraisedmounds,coconutsandarecanuts(betelnuts)aregrownincoastalOrissa,andpulsesandoilseedsindrought-proneareas.Recentlycoffee,cocoa,car-damom,pineapples,andbananashavealsobeenraisedonacommercialscale.Fisharecaughtintrapsandnetsfromvil-lagetanks,streams,rivers,coastalswamps,andalsointhefloodedpaddyfields.Fishingboatswithoutboardmotorsandtrawlersarenowadaysusedatsea.Thedomesticanimalsin-cludecows,goats,cats,chickens,ducks,andwaterbuffaloamongthelowestcastes,aswellaspigsanddogsamongtheurbanmiddleclass.IndustrialArts.Mostlargevillageshadcastes of artisanswhoservedtheagriculturaleconomyinformertimes.Car-penters,wheelwrights,andblacksmithswereabsolutelynec-essary.Somevillageshadpotterswithpotterywheelsandweaverswithcottagelooms(cottonwasformerlygrownandyamspun).Today,industrialproductsaredisplacingthevil-lageproductsexceptforthewoodenplowandcartwheels.Somecottageindustries,especiallythehandloomedtextiles(includingtheweaving of ikat,cottontextilesthataretiedanddyed),areproducingforexport.Brassandbell-metalutensilsandstatuesandsilverandgoldfiligreeornamentshaveawideclientele.214OkkaligaOkkaligaETHNONYMS:GangadikiraOkkalu,thepeasantcaste,Vokkaliga,WokkaligaTheOkkaligasarethedominantlandowningandculti-vatingcasteinthemulticastepopulation of southernKarnatakaStateinsouthwesternpeninsularIndia.Amongthehundreds of villagesinwhichOkkaligasliveisRampura(population1,523,735 of whomareOkkaligas,ca.1955),whichisthefocus of thisentryandwhichdisplaysmany of thefeaturestypical of OkkaligavillagesinIndia.Thevillage of RampuraislocatedontheMysore-Hogurbusroadabout32kilometersfromMysore.Thevillageisacluster of housesandhutswiththatchedortiledroofs;nar-row,unevenwindingstreetsrunningbetweentherows of houses.Surroundingthevillagearenumerousplotsownedbyindividuallandowners.Rampuraisaninterdependentunit,largelyself-sufficient,havingitsownvillageassembly(panchayat),watch,ward,officials,andservants.Inthemulticastevillage of Rampuratherelationship of castesap-pearstobedeterminedmorebytheeconomicpositions of thevariousmembersthanbytradition.Asagricultureisthepri-maryway of lifethepeasantsarethedominantcaste.Thehe-reditaryheadman(patel)andhereditaryaccountant(shan-borg)arebothpeasants.Theheadman'sresponsibilityistorepresentthevillagetothegovernmentandviceversa.Theaccountantkeepsaregister of howmuchlandeachhead of afamilyorjointfamilyhasandtheamount of taxontheland.Theelders of thedominantcastearespokespersonsforthevillageandowetheirpowernottolegalrightsderivedfromthestatebuttothedominantlocalposition of theircaste.Theelders of thedominantpeasantcasteinRampuraadmin-isterjusticenotonlytomembers of theirowncastegroupbutalsotoallpersons of othercasteswhoseektheirintervention.Agriculturedominatesvillagelife.Thecultivation of riceisthemainactivityinthevillage.Meticulousattentiontoandirrigation of thericeisnecessarythroughouttheperiod of cul-tivation,therainyseasonfromJunetoJanuary.Theconclu-sion of theharvestismarkedbythefestival of Sankranti.Dur-ingthedryseasonothersocialactivitiessuchasweddingsoccur.Each of theseventeencasteslivinginRampurahasadis-tinctivetraditionwithstrongtieswiththesamecasteinvil-lagesnearby.Thevillagehasaverticalunity of manycasteswhereaseachcastehasahorizontalunitythroughalliancesbeyondthevillage.OthermajorcastesandtheirtraditionaloccupationsincludetheKuruba(shepherd),theMusalman(artisanandtrader),Holeya(servantandlaborer),andtheMadiga(Harijans).Althoughpaddyandmilletgrainwereprincipallyusedintrade,moneyisusedmorefrequentlytoday.Maintenance of casteseparationwasachievedthroughideas of purityandpollution.Beliefsandbehaviorsincludingdiet,occupation,andritualdistinguishhigherfromlowercastes.Twoexamples of thisaretherulesgoverningtheac-ceptance of waterorcookedfoodbetweencastesandtherule of casteendogamy.Atonetimeitwascustomaryfortwofamilies,onebe-longingtoanuppercasteandtheothertoanUntouchablecaste,tobelinkedinamaster-servantrelationship(jajmani).Independencehasbegunaprocess of socialchangeinwhichmany of thetraditionalformsandordershavebeenreplaced.TheregionallanguageisKannadaandtheprincipalreli-gionisHindu.TheprincipaltemplesinRampuraarethetem-ples of Rama,Basava,HattiMad,andKabbalaDurgadaMan.Theseareendowedwithagriculturalland.Thekingroupisagnaticwithpreferenceforcross-cousinmarriage.TraditionallytheOkkaligasliveinjointfamilieswiththewifejoiningthehome of herhusband'sfamily.SinceIndependencethejointfamilieshavetendedtobecomesmaller.Thereisafairlystrictsexualdivision of laborwithfewwomenworkingoutsidethehome.Boysworkonthelandearly,whilegirlsworkinandaroundthehouse.AnOkkaligaisburiedonhisorherancestralland;andthelandisanim-portantpart of one'slifefromanearlyage.BibliographyBanerjee,Bhavani(1966).MarriageandKinship of theGan-gadikaraVokkaligas of Mysore.DeccanCollegeDissertationSeries,no.27.Poona:DeccanCollege.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL. K. AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930).'GangadikiraOkkalu."TheMysoreTribesandCastes3:17 5- 185.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Srinivas,M.N.(1963)."TheSocialStructure of aMysoreVillage."InIndia'sVillages,editedbyM.N.Srinivas,2 1-3 5.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Srinivas,M.N.(1976).TheRememberedVillage.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.SARAJ.DICKOraonETHNONYMS:Dhangad,Dhangar,Dhanka("farmworker"),Kisan,Kuda,Kurukh,Kurunkh,Orao,UraonTheOraonsareone of thelargesttribesin South Asia, numbering1,702,663personsatthe1971census.Abouthalf of themliveinBihar,mainlyontheChotaNagpurPlateau;theremainderareinMadhyaPradesh,Orissa,andWestBengal.TheyspeakaDravidianlanguageknownasKurukh.OraonsarecloselyrelatedtotheneighboringMundatribe,andtheheadman of anOraonvillageiscalledmunda.AlthoughtherearenosubcastesamongtheOraons,theKudas('navvies")andKisans("cultivators"),havingtheirdistinctoccupations,tendtomarryamongthemselves.Be-yondthis,Oraonsobservevillageandclanexogamy.Thepat-rilinealextendedfamilyistheidealresidentialunit,butnu-clearfamiliesarenearlyascommon.Ontheaverageafamilycontainsfivetosevencoresidentmembers....

... of thePathanstoIslamwerealsocalled"Sayyids"iftheycamefromthewest,and'Sheikhs"iftheycamefromtheeast;hence,doubtless,manyPathansfalselyclaimSayyidorigin.InAfghanistantheSayyidscontrolmuch of thecommerce,astheirholycharac-ETHNONYMS:Adivasis,BackwardClassesTheIndianconstitution(1949)createdbroadcategories of underprivilegedgroupsintheRepublic of Indiathatweretobetheobject of specialadministrativeandwelfareefforts.Threecategorieswerenamed,thoughnotclearlydefined:ScheduledCastes,ScheduledTribes,andotherBackwardClasses.Veryroughly,thesewerecomprisedrespectively of (1)UntouchablesorHarijans;(2)virtuallyallAdivasisortribes;and(3)othereconomicallydisadvantagedgroupsnotincludedin(1)or(2).In1981Indiahadanestimated105millionScheduledCastemembersand52millionpeopleinScheduledTribes.Thecategory of otherBackwardClasses,alwaysnebulousandfluctuating,isdifficulttoenumerate.Butwhichcastesandtribesweretobesingledoutforthisspecialattention,attheexpense(literallyandfiguratively) of theremainder of thepopulation?Thisburningandeconomi-callyimportantquestionwassolvedformillions of concernedpeoplebythepublication of listsorschedules(whichhavebeenrevisedseveraltimes)thatlistedbynamethosecastesandtribesthatweretobeeligible.TheselistswerecreatedatthenationallevelforScheduledTribesandCastes,andattheprovinciallevelforotherBackwardClasses.TribalandHarijanwelfaredepartmentsweresetupineachstatetoad-ministerthebenefitsthatweremadeavailable.Overthefirstfortyyears of operationtheyhavenodoubtdonemuchtooutlawthepractice of Untouchability,raiseeducationalstan-dards,andprovidepublichealthfacilities.Theframers of theIndianconstitutionthoughtthatthesebenefitsshouldbeprovidedfortwentyyears;but,asitturnedout,thoseeligiblehavefoughttenaciouslytoretaintheirspecialbenefits-andhencetheir"backwardstatus"-rightuptothepresent.Thegreatweaknessinthewholeconcept of specialprivilegesforselectcategories of thepopulation,especiallytoday,isthatnomeanstestisrequired of anindividualbeneficiary.Thus,aScheduledCasteyouth,forexample,whosefatherisaverywealthytimbermerchant,willstillbeeligibleforfreeuniver-.Sadhu251SadhuSYNONYMS:Baba,Jogi,Mahatma,Muni,Sant,Sanyasi,Swami,Tapasi,Tapsawi,Yati,YogiOrientationIdentification.Thetermsadhuisappliedindividuallytoanyone of themillions of mendicantasceticsinformallyaffil-iatedwiththedisparateHindureligiousorders of India.Most of thesewanderingholypersonsaremale,butwomen(calledsadhvin,feminine of sadhu)arealsorepresentedintheirranks.AtonetimeonlyBrahmanswereabletobeadmittedtotheseasceticorders.Later,admissionwasgrantedtomem-bers of anycaste.Sadhusareexpectedtoadoptasceticprac-tices,observecertainreligiousregulations,andteachorren-derservicetothoseinneed.Theirasceticpracticesincludethedeparturefromfamilyandhome,theapplication of bod-ilymarkingsoftenassociatedwithaparticularsect,thewear-ing of attireassociatedwithaparticularsect(orbeingpar-tiallyortotallynaked),thegrowth of haironlyonfiveimportantbodilyparts(thehead,upperjaw,chin,armpits,andpubicregion)orthecompleteshaving of thebody,theadoption of amendicantorsedentarylife-style,andthede-pendenceonthegoodness of othersfordailysurvival.Theirreligiousdutiesincludeacts of self-purification,worship,par-ticipationinreligiousdiscourses,thestudy of sacredlitera-ture,andthemaking of pilgrimages.Theconsolation of thoseindistress,preachingandteaching of religioustenets,thegranting of assistancetothepoor,andtheopening of schoolsandhospitalsareexamples of theservicesthatsadhusareex-pectedtorendertothelargersociety.SadhusarefoundthroughoutIndiaandNepalandarenotconfinedtoanypar-ticulargeographicallocale.Itisbelievedthattherearesome5millionormoreasceticsaffiliatedwithseveralthousand"schools"orsects of sadhuslivinginvariousparts of South Asia. Asmendicants,theydonotformdistinctcommunities.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTherearethreemajorHindureligiousorders:theVaishnava,theShaiva,andtheShakta. Of these,theShaivasectseemstohavethelargestnumber of devotees.Thesehavespawnednumeroussubdivisions.ItisbelievedbysomethatShaivismrepresentstheoriginalreligiousfaith of India,alreadyinplacebeforethearrival of theAryans.Theordersaremuchsplin-tered,theresultbeingthecurrentexistence of numerous.sects."Someareorthodoxwhileothersarereformistorradi-cal.Theroots of Hinduasceticismmaybetracedtothefour-folddivision of lifeoutlinedinVedicliterature.Thesestagesare:brahmacarin(thelife of thepupil);grhastha(thelife of thehouseholder,whichincludesmarriage,procreation,andthepractice of acraft);vanaprastha(thelife of theforesther-mit,resortedtowhenthetransitorynature of worldlypleas-uresisrealized);andsannyasin(thelife of thewanderingbeg-garwhohasrenouncedallworldlyties).Onemayclaimtobeanasceticwithouthavingpassedthroughall of theaforemen-tionedstages of life.Inmoderntimessomeasceticshavecho-sentocontinueinthemaritalstate.Thisrepresentsadepar-turefromearlierpractice.SettlementsSadhusliveeitherinmonasteries(calledasrama,matha,ormandira),iftheyhaveelectedtoleadasedentarylife-style,oratpilgrimageshrinesastemporaryresidents.Eachsectusu-allymaintainsatleastone of thesereligiouscenters.Themo-nasticlife-styleisaustere,emphasisbeingplacedontheculti-vation of self-controlanddiscipline.Thedailyroutineincludesexercisesintendedtopurifythephysicalbody,ele-vatementalcapacity(e.g.,throughthereading of sacredliter-ature),andenhanceecstaticexperiences(e.g.,throughcor-porateprayer).Provisionisalsomadesothatthelaypatrons of themonastery(whoprovideitschiefmeans of supportthroughbhetapuja,"honorificofferings")mayreceivethebenefit of thespiritualcounsel of theresidentascetics(bymeans of preachingandteaching).Monasterieshaveastheirorganizingconceptthetradition(sampradaya)associatedwithaparticularteacher(acarya)whofirstcodifiedthebeliefsystem of theorder.Monasticaffiliationisusuallyindicatedbythesymbolsappliedtospecificbodilyparts,clothingcolor,andadditionalitemsintheascetic'spossession(e.g.,rosary,waterpot,andstaff).EconomySadhusarealmosttotallydependentonthealms of othersforsubsistence.Inaddition,theymayalsosupportthemselvesbyengaginginany of thefollowingactivities:begging,servingasspiritualmentorstopersonaldisciples,interpretingdreams,tellingfortunes,readingpalms,astrology,manufacturingam-ulets,performingexorcisms,castingspells,singing,conjuring,juggling,tattooing,orsellingmedicinalherbsandpotions.Sadhusareparticularlywellknownforthemanufacture of thekavacha(talismanoramulet),whichprovidesthebearerwithprotectionfromevilforcesorguaranteesthepresence of ben-eficentones.MarriageandFamilyTherenunciation of familylifeandthemarriedstatearechar-acteristic of theasceticlife.Ithasbeensuggestedthatmaritalbreakdownis,infact,one of themotivatingfactorsintheadoption of mendicantlifebysomesadhus.Somemayneverhavebeenmarried.Anindividualasceticmay,athisdiscre-tion,choosediscipleswhoserveapprenticeshipsunderhim.Alternately,youngchildren(orphans,runaways,andothers)maybededicatedtotheservice of anorder.Afteraperiod of training(whichmaylastweeks,months,oryears),theyaresentouttofulfilltheirsocioreligiousdutieswithinthecon-text of thelargersociety.YetathirdroutetosocializationasasadhuinvolvesfollowingtheVedicprogression of lifestages.Animportantpart of theinitiationprocessisthechanging of thenatalname.Thismayinvolvetheaddition of suffixestoitorthecompletealteration of thename.Ingeneral,thenewnameidentifiestheplace of theinitiatewithintheorderandasavotary of aparticulargod.ReligionandExpressiveCultureGeneralizationswithregardtothereligiousbeliefs of sadhusarenoteasilymadeduetotheheterogeneouscharacter of Hinduasceticism.Theirworshipisdirectedtodiversegods of primaryandsecondaryimportanceintheHindupantheon. Of thevarioussadhureligiousrituals,that of thedhuni(sa-262SikhBibliographyBarrier,N.Gerald(1970).TheSikhsandTheirLiterature.NewDelhi:Manohar.Barrier,N.Gerald,andVanDusenbery,eds.(1990).TheSikhDiaspora.NewDelhi:Chanakya.McLeod,W.H.(1990).TheSikhs.NewYork:ColumbiaUni-versityPress.McLeod,W.H.(1990).WhoIsaSikh.Oxford:OxfordUni-versityPress.O'Connell,Joseph,etal.,eds.(1988).SikhHistoryandReli-gionintheTwentiethCentury. South Asia Series.Toronto:University of TorontoPress.N.GERALDBARRIERmasses of snowandicemovedownwardslowlyintheform of glaciersandgreatavalanches.Theavalanchesareanever-presentsource of dangerinnorthernSikkim.Thecontinuouscreakingandgroaning of themovingiceandtheroar of ava-lanchescombinetocreateasense of instabilityandappre-hension.TheSikkimesetribesregardKanchenjungaastheseat of anall-powerfulgod.Theoutstandingfeature of thephysicallandscapeintheSikkimHimalayasisthevariety of temperaturezonesandvegetation.Onthelowestlevel,lessthan300metersabovesealevel,tropicalgrowthflourishes.Fromthebottomvalleys,onemovesnorthtothesubtropicalzonethatfinallyleadstothealpineregion.TheofficiallanguageisEnglish,thoughcomparativelyfewspeakit;SikkimeseandGurkhaliaretheprimarylan-guages.Existinglanguagedivisionsdonotaffecttheoverallpoliticalstability of Sikkimbecausethepeoplearebondedto-getherbywhattheycall"afeeling of kinship."SettlementsNearly50,000peopleareconcentratednearthekingdom'sprincipalurbancenterandcapital,Gangtok.Thecapitalisimportantcommerciallyaswellasadministratively.Gangtokisthecenterpoint of thestate'spoliticalandeconomiccore.SikkimeseETHNONYMS:noneOrientationTheSikkimeseliveintheHimalayankingdom of Sikkim,withapopulation of 316,385in1981.Tibet,Nepal,India,andBhutanalltouchtheborders of thiskingdom.TheSikki-meseliveinvillages of woodenbuildingsthathugtheHima-layanslopes.TheSikkimeseeasilytraversepassesthatgiveac-cesstotheTibetanChumbiValley.ThecountryoccupiesacommandingpositionoverthehistoricKalimpong-Lhasatraderoute.IndiaandTibethavefrequentlyintervenedinSikkim'sinternalaffairs.TheBritishIndiangovernmentpar-ticularlyputpressureupontheSikkimeseforaccesstocentral Asia. Sikkimisthepoliticalcore of thelargerformerking-dom,andmorerecentlytheSikkimesefeelverystronglyaboutkeepingtheLhasaroutebetweenIndiaandChinaundertheircontrol.Sikkim'slocationfavorsadynamicroleininternationalrelationsbetweenthetwogreatpowers of Asia, IndiaandChina.Themountainousenvironment of Sikkimisgenerallyin-hospitable.Thereareadversesurfacefeaturesthatseriouslyimpedehumandevelopmentoverlargeareas;cultivatedlandamountstoonlyasmallproportion of thetotalarea of thekingdom.Theharshclimatedamageseconomicdevelop-ment.TheSikkimeseliveinanenclosedbasinnearly65ki-lometerswide,placedbetweentwodeeplydissectednorth- south transverseridgesstretchingfor125kilometers.Ahugemountainmasssome19kilometers south of themainchain of theHimalayascalledtheKanchenjungarangeconstitutesadistinctivephysicalunit of Sikkim.Therangereceivesheavydischargesfromthemonsoon,anditiscoveredwithsnowandiceasmuchasahundredormoremetersthick.TheseEconomyAgriculturehastraditionallybeenthemajorfeature of Sik-kim'seconomy.Farminghasbeeninfluencedbythenature of theterrainandbythediversity of climaticconditions.InSikkimeseagricultureattentionisdividedamongstaplecerealcrops,commercialspecialtycrops,animals,andanimalprod-ucts.Riceandcornleadinhectaresplanted,butcardamom,citrusfruits,apples,andpineapplesentertradechannelsandsoarebetterknown.Potatoesarethemajorcashcrop.Sheep,goats,cattle,yaks,andmulesareabundant.Theanimalssupportthepopulationinthehighmountainvalleys.Thepastoralindustriesfurnishwool,skins,hides,andsurpluscommodities.Aboutone-third of Sikkim's7,096squarekilometers of mountainousterritoryisforested.Forestsareconsideredone of thekingdom'sgreatestassets.Therearevaluableplanta-tions of sal(Shorearobusta,acommontimbertreethatisasource of inexpensivebuildingmaterials),sisal(asource of cordage),andbamboo.Sincethe1960sSikkim'sminingcor-porationhasbeeninstrumentalinsponsoringsystematicmineraldevelopment.Copper,lead,andzincareminedinlargequantities.InSikkim'sforeststherearerawmaterialsformanufacture of paperpulp,matches,furniture,packingboxes,andteachests.Sikkim'sdevelopmenthasbeense-verelysloweddownbythelack of powersupplies.AmajorstrategicroadwasbuiltbytheIndianarmyengi-neersandIndia'sBorderRoadDevelopmentBoard.Thisroadis240kilometerslongandiscalledtheNorthSikkimHighway.ThehighwaythatconnectsGangtokwiththenorthernborderareaswascompletedin1962byIndia.Con-structionworkontheroadstartedin1958,butseveralfactorsslowedtheproject.Besidestheengineeringproblems,one of themaindifficultieswassupplyingfoodforsuchalargelaborforce:therewereabout6,000workersduringpeakperiods.Sora269bringsSoraintoconflictwiththeForestryDepartrm.ent,inwhomownership of nonirrigatedlandisvested.Sora-atmostkinds of animals,eitherdomesticanimalssacrificedforritesorhuntedwildanimals.TheSoradietisbasedonawaterygruelorporridge,withagarnish of vegetablesormeatwhenavailable.Theyusefewspicesandnooil,sincecookingisdoneonlybyboiling.Theydrinkpalmwineandnevermilk.TeaisusedbyChristians,whohavegivenupalcohol.IndustrialArts.Soramanufacturemosteverydayarticlesthemselvesout of trees,leaves,stones,andearth.Housesarebuiltentirelybyworkparties of friendsandrelatives.Peoplemaketheirowntools,bowsandarrows,andotherobjects.Al.thoughSorausestore-boughtaluminumdishesinthehouse,theystitchtogetherlargeleaveswithsplinters of bambootoformbowlsforuseoutdoors.Trade.Othernecessitiesareboughtinneighboringtownsorinweeklymarkets(hat)heldatsiteswheretheplainsmeetthehills.Here,merchantsfromtheplainssellclothing,ironaxeheadsandplowtips,salt,chilies,andjewelry.RecentlytheSorahavegivenupmakingtheirownpotteryandmatsandsonowtheybuythesetoo.ThelocalPanopopulationalsotravelsaroundSoravillagessellingsoap,tobacco,andothersmallarticles.Individualtradersbuilduplong-termre-lationswithparticularSoravillagesandcustomers.Themostimportantcommoditiessoldinthiswayarebuffaloforsacri-fice,sincethesecansupposedlynotbebredintheSorahills.Inreturn,theSorasellvariousmilletsandforestproduceliketamarind,whichisingreatdemandamongcasteHindusforcurries.Thequantitiessoldareenormousandthepricesre-ceivedarelow.Theneedtokeepsellingcontributestotheec-ologicaldegradation of theSorahills,sincecultivationisnotsimplyforsubsistence.Division of Labor.Poorerpeopleworkforhireinthefields,buttheegalitarianethos of reciprocalworkparties(onsir)isstrong.Themostimportantspecializedoccupationisthat of theshaman.Therearealsohereditarylineages of vil-lageheads,deputyheads,pyrelighters,andpriests of thevil-lagedeity(kidtung).All of thesearemaleexceptfortheocca-sionalvillagehead.Thespecialistlineages of potters,basketweavers,andblacksmithshavelargelyabandonedtheircraftandtheircustomersnowbuyinthemarket.Buttherelationsbetweentheselineagesandtherest of thepopulationarestillstronglyexpressedduringrites.Althoughtheyperformcon-ventionaltasks,men'sandwomen'srolesarenotasstrictlydividedasinmanyIndiansocietiesandthereisnotask ... generallybenevolent.Theforestbongas,however,aremalevolent,andincludethesouls of peoplewhodiedanunnaturaldeath.Santal255Hinduinfluenceisparticularlynotableintheappearance of Hindugoddessesastutelarydeities of Santalojhas.Ontheonehand,thesegoddessespatronizeSantalwitchesandin-troducedisease;ontheotherhand,theirpatronageisneces-sarytocombatthesameevils.Hindusymbols,suchasthetri-dent,havebecomepotentritualparaphernalia of theSantalojha.ReligiousPractitioners.Thevillagepriest(naeke)isiden-tified,withhiswife,asrepresentative of theoriginalSantalcouple.Theirfunctionsaremainlyrelatedtofestivalsandre-currentannualceremonies.Heconsecratestheanimals of- feredtothesacredgrovedeities.HeoftencompareshimselfwiththeBrahman of theencompassingsociety.TheSantalojha,ahealeranddiviner,hasseveralfunc-tions.Hedrivesawaythemalevolentdeities,divinesthecauses of disease,administersremediesaccordingtoconsid-erablemedicalknowledge,andexpelspainfromthebody.Helearnshisbasicmagicalformulas(mantras)fromhismaster,buthealsoaddstothemfromhisownexperience.Animpor-tantelementinhisrepertoireisthesacrifice of hisownblood(conceivedasmenstrualblood)tothebofigas,forwhichhereceivesafee.Intherationalization of hispracticeheemploysseveralHinduconcepts,yetremainsfundamentallywithintheSantalculturalframework.Thispositionbetweentwocul-turesenableshimtointerprethisowncultureandsociety.Ceremonies.Life-cyclerituals,suchasinitiation,mar-riage,andburialarecelebratedindividually.Butafterburial,thefinalceremony of gatheringthebonesandimmersingtheminwaterbecomesacollectiverite.Othercollectiveritesarerelatedtotheagriculturalcycle:sowing,transplanting,consecration of thecrops,andharvestfestivals,aswellastheannualfestival of thecattle.Anothercycleconcernstheoldhuntingandgatheringtraditions,notablytheseasonalhunts.Themostimportant,however, of thefestivalsrelatedtotheoldhuntingandgatheringsocietyistheflowerfestival,whichisalsothefestival of theancestorsandrelatedtothefertility of women.Rainmakingrituals,heldinthespring,involvetheritualparticipation of thevillagepriest,whohasthepowertoproducerain.Arts.Santaloralliteratureisrichandincludesfolktales,myths,riddles,andvillagestories,andmuch of ithasbeenre-cordedorwritten.Publicationbeganin1870withthework of theNorwegianmissionaries,whoalsoleftlargearchives of textswrittenbytheSantalsthemselves.Thereisalsoacertainamount of literatureinSantali:newspapers,Christianbooks,andschoolbooks.Traditionalsongsaremanyandvarious,includingritualtexts,dancesinhomagetothebohgas,obscenesongssome-timesrelatedtohuntingorthepunishment of offenders,etc.Theyareclassifiedaccordingtotunesthatinturnrelatetocontent.Christiansongshavebeencomposedtothesamepattern.Eachtype of songisaccompaniedbyaparticulartype of traditionaldance.Thesexesdanceseparatelyexceptwhenlovesongsareperformed.Morerecently,atradition of folktheater,oftenwithpo-liticalovertones,hasdeveloped.ThemainplayshavebeenwrittenbyculturalreformerslikeRagunathMurmu,andto-gethertheypresentamessage of modernizationandtribalup-liftfortheSantaltribeasawhole.Amongthevisualarts,wemaymentionthedesignsdecoratinghouses,thetraditionalwoodcarving,andthetraditionaljewelery,sometimesmade of ironandsilver.Medicine.TraditionalmedicineishighlydevelopedamongtheSantalsandimpliesasurprisingrange of botanicalandzoologicalknowledge;morethan300specieseach of plantsand of animalsareidentifiedandusedinthepharma-copoeia.Thereiseven,intheorganization of botanicalknowledge,ahierarchizationbasedonthemorphology of plants.Themaking of remediesimpliesagainaconsiderablepracticalknowledge of chemistry.ThismedicalknowledgeisdescribedinaSantaltextfromtheturn of thecentury,whichestablishesacompletepa-thologydefiningandrankingsymptomsanddiseaseaccord-ingtoconsistentcriteria.Recentfieldworkdatacorroboratesthevalue of thiswork,thoughthereisatendencynowadaystoreplacesuchremediesbyritualinvocations.FortheSantals,modemmedicinesometimesprovidesanalternativeforhealingwithoutinanywayreplacingorsu-persedingtraditionalmedicine.DeathandAfterlife.Santalsoulsbecomebohgasthreegenerationsafterdeath,providedthatthecorrectritualshavebeenperformed.Atcremation,somebonesarecollectedbythemainmourner(usuallytheeldestson)andkeptforawhileundertherafters of thehouse.Theyarewashedandfedrituallybyfemalemournerswithmilk,ricebeer,andsacredwater.Thus,themourningritualdisplaysthecentralSantalsymbol-ism of flowerandbone.Thefeeding of bonesthatarecrownedbyflowersexpressesthecomplementarity of theprinciple of descent(bone)andtheprinciple of affinity(flower=uterus).Thechiefmournerispossessedbyandimpersonatesthedeadandisquestionedbythevillagepriest.Thisdialogueaimsatprovidingthedeceasedwiththewherewithal of theother world. Ayearlater,thebonesareimmersedinwater,aritualinvolvingsacrifice of agoat.Thedeadnowbecomesanances-torknownbyname;onemonthlatertherecitation of aritualtextreleaseshimfromidentitytobecomeanamelessancestor.Henowjoinsotherancestorsintheancestralroom of thehouseandpartakesintheoffering of ricebeertotheancestors.Nowhisshadow,whichwasroamingbetweentheworlds,goestoHanapuri,theabode of thedead.HereJoinRaja,king of thedead,rules;thepassagefromtheretothestate of becomingabofgaisnevermadeexplicit.Theland of thedeadisconceptualizedasaplacewherecertainindividualsacquirethesource of magicpowers,whileothersaresimplyrewardedaccordingtothewaytheyhaveactedduringtheirlife.Whiletheyogireturnstothe world andachievesimmortality,simplemenendurethejustice of JomRaja.Theidea of afterlifeshowsbothHinduandChristianinfluence.SeealsoKol;MundaBibliographyArcher,WilliamG.(1974).TheHill of Flutes:Life,Love,andPoetryinTribalIndia;APortrait of theSantals.London:Allen&Unwin.Archer,WilliamG.(1984).TribalLawandJustice:AReportontheSantal.NewDelhi:Concept.Sindhi263SociopoliticalOrganizationThepresence of culturallydiversegroupswithinSikkimhin-dersthekingdom'scohesiveness.Theterm'Sikkimese"indi-catesaresident of Sikkim,butithasnolinguisticorethno-logicalimplications.Thecitizens of modemSikkimtracetheirancestrytoavariety of Asianpeople:Lepchas,Indians,andNepalis.ThenativeLepchascompriseonly21percent of thekingdom'spopulation.Nepalisettlersmakeup60percent of thepresentSikkimesepopulation.Inabout1890theBrit-ishbegantoencourageimmigrationfromneighboringNepal.UntilrecentlytheNepalesesettlerdidnothavethestatus of acitizen,buttheSikkimSubjects'Regulationlegislation of 1961gavecitizenshiptotheseinhabitants of Nepalesede-scent.ConflictbetweentheTibetanBhutiasandtheLepchashasledtoconsiderabledisturbancesinSikkim'spast.TheLepchashavebeenpushedintotheforestsandlowervalleysbelow1,200metersbyBhutiaswhohavesettledathigherele-vations.Despitethesedistinctions of ethnicity,thereligiousfactorsandacommonfeeling of nationalconsciousnesshaveresultedinacertaindegree of historicandculturalunity.Thetwopoliticalaspects of Sikkimthatmeritspecialat-tentionare:(1)theinternalpoliticalproblem of self-governmentandthecountry'stiestoIndia;and(2)thebroaderproblem of therelationshipbetweenIndia,China,andSikkim.Intheory,themaharaja of Sikkimcontrolsthestate'sinternalaffairs.In1963hewas70yearsold.Atthattimehewasalreadydelegatingmost of hispowertohis3 9- year-oldson,PrincePaldenThondupNamgyal.TheSikki-meseprincewasmarriedtoa22-year-oldAmericanwoman,HopeCook of NewYorkCity.Theirengagementwaspre-cededbysixmonths of negotiationbetweenthegovernments of SikkimandIndiabecause of thereligiousandpoliticalim-plications.Theirmarriagewasthefirstbetweenamember of theSikkimroyalfamilyandanyforeignerotherthanaTi-betan.InNovember1961,thestateeldersmetinGangtoktogivetheirformalapprovaltothematch.In1975,Sikkimbe-cameanIndianstate,andtheoffice of Chogyal(king)wasabolished.ReligionTibetanBuddhismisthestatereligionandisfollowedby28percent of thepopulation.Another60percent of thepeopleareHindu.SeealsoLepchaBibliographyKaran,Pradyumna,andWilliamM.Jenkins(1963).TheHimalayanKingdoms:Bhutan,Sikkim,andNepal.Princeton:D.VanNostrand.BRENDAAMENSON-HILLSindhiETHNONYM:SindiSindisaprovinceinsoutheastPakistan.Itisborderedbytheprovinces of Baluchistanonthewestandnorth,Punjabonthenortheast,theIndianstates of RajasthanandGujarattotheeast,andtheArabianSeatothe south. ItsnamewasderivedfromtheArabicwordfortheIndusRiver,whichhaslongbeenknownastheSindhu.Theprovinceextendsoverthelowerportion of thatrivervalley.ItschiefcitiesareKarachi,theformercapital,andHyderabad.Itcovers140,914squarekilometersandhadapopulation of about19millionin1981.Asintherest of Pakistan,theeconomyispredominantlyagriculturalanddependsalmostentirelyonirrigation.Theprincipalsource of wateristheIndusRiver,onwhichtherearethreeirrigationdamsinSind.TheyaretheGhulam,onthePunjabborder;theLloyd;andtheGhulamMuhammad,farthest south. MostSindhisareengagedinirrigationagricul-ture,eitheraslandlordswhodonotcultivatewiththeirownhandsorastenantfarmersandlaborers.Sindh'sprincipalcropsarewheat,rice,cotton,oilseeds,sugarcane,andfruits(bydouble-cropping).OtherethnicgroupsinSindhspecial-izeinfishingintheIndusRiverandMancharLake,whichispartlyformedfromIndusRiveroverspillduringthefloodpe-riod,aswellasonthesoutherncoastintheArabianSea.Somemaketheirlivingasmerchants,physicians,lawyers,andteachersandbydoingotherprofessionaljobsinindustrializeingtownsandcitiessuchasKarachiandHyderabad.Karachi,Pakistan'schiefport,hasanoilrefineryandalsoisthecenter of printingandpublishing.Sindhcultureisreflectedinsome of itsfascinatinghandicraftssuchasmirrorembroidery,lac-querware,andexquisitelypaintedtilework.Thereligion,familylawandcustoms,foodtaboos,andartstylesinSindhiculturerevealtheemphasisandimpor-tance of Islam.Atleast80percent of SindhisareMuslim,mostlySunni,while ... generallybenevolent.Theforestbongas,however,aremalevolent,andincludethesouls of peoplewhodiedanunnaturaldeath.Santal255Hinduinfluenceisparticularlynotableintheappearance of Hindugoddessesastutelarydeities of Santalojhas.Ontheonehand,thesegoddessespatronizeSantalwitchesandin-troducedisease;ontheotherhand,theirpatronageisneces-sarytocombatthesameevils.Hindusymbols,suchasthetri-dent,havebecomepotentritualparaphernalia of theSantalojha.ReligiousPractitioners.Thevillagepriest(naeke)isiden-tified,withhiswife,asrepresentative of theoriginalSantalcouple.Theirfunctionsaremainlyrelatedtofestivalsandre-currentannualceremonies.Heconsecratestheanimals of- feredtothesacredgrovedeities.HeoftencompareshimselfwiththeBrahman of theencompassingsociety.TheSantalojha,ahealeranddiviner,hasseveralfunc-tions.Hedrivesawaythemalevolentdeities,divinesthecauses of disease,administersremediesaccordingtoconsid-erablemedicalknowledge,andexpelspainfromthebody.Helearnshisbasicmagicalformulas(mantras)fromhismaster,buthealsoaddstothemfromhisownexperience.Animpor-tantelementinhisrepertoireisthesacrifice of hisownblood(conceivedasmenstrualblood)tothebofigas,forwhichhereceivesafee.Intherationalization of hispracticeheemploysseveralHinduconcepts,yetremainsfundamentallywithintheSantalculturalframework.Thispositionbetweentwocul-turesenableshimtointerprethisowncultureandsociety.Ceremonies.Life-cyclerituals,suchasinitiation,mar-riage,andburialarecelebratedindividually.Butafterburial,thefinalceremony of gatheringthebonesandimmersingtheminwaterbecomesacollectiverite.Othercollectiveritesarerelatedtotheagriculturalcycle:sowing,transplanting,consecration of thecrops,andharvestfestivals,aswellastheannualfestival of thecattle.Anothercycleconcernstheoldhuntingandgatheringtraditions,notablytheseasonalhunts.Themostimportant,however, of thefestivalsrelatedtotheoldhuntingandgatheringsocietyistheflowerfestival,whichisalsothefestival of theancestorsandrelatedtothefertility of women.Rainmakingrituals,heldinthespring,involvetheritualparticipation of thevillagepriest,whohasthepowertoproducerain.Arts.Santaloralliteratureisrichandincludesfolktales,myths,riddles,andvillagestories,andmuch of ithasbeenre-cordedorwritten.Publicationbeganin1870withthework of theNorwegianmissionaries,whoalsoleftlargearchives of textswrittenbytheSantalsthemselves.Thereisalsoacertainamount of literatureinSantali:newspapers,Christianbooks,andschoolbooks.Traditionalsongsaremanyandvarious,includingritualtexts,dancesinhomagetothebohgas,obscenesongssome-timesrelatedtohuntingorthepunishment of offenders,etc.Theyareclassifiedaccordingtotunesthatinturnrelatetocontent.Christiansongshavebeencomposedtothesamepattern.Eachtype of songisaccompaniedbyaparticulartype of traditionaldance.Thesexesdanceseparatelyexceptwhenlovesongsareperformed.Morerecently,atradition of folktheater,oftenwithpo-liticalovertones,hasdeveloped.ThemainplayshavebeenwrittenbyculturalreformerslikeRagunathMurmu,andto-gethertheypresentamessage of modernizationandtribalup-liftfortheSantaltribeasawhole.Amongthevisualarts,wemaymentionthedesignsdecoratinghouses,thetraditionalwoodcarving,andthetraditionaljewelery,sometimesmade of ironandsilver.Medicine.TraditionalmedicineishighlydevelopedamongtheSantalsandimpliesasurprisingrange of botanicalandzoologicalknowledge;morethan300specieseach of plantsand of animalsareidentifiedandusedinthepharma-copoeia.Thereiseven,intheorganization of botanicalknowledge,ahierarchizationbasedonthemorphology of plants.Themaking of remediesimpliesagainaconsiderablepracticalknowledge of chemistry.ThismedicalknowledgeisdescribedinaSantaltextfromtheturn of thecentury,whichestablishesacompletepa-thologydefiningandrankingsymptomsanddiseaseaccord-ingtoconsistentcriteria.Recentfieldworkdatacorroboratesthevalue of thiswork,thoughthereisatendencynowadaystoreplacesuchremediesbyritualinvocations.FortheSantals,modemmedicinesometimesprovidesanalternativeforhealingwithoutinanywayreplacingorsu-persedingtraditionalmedicine.DeathandAfterlife.Santalsoulsbecomebohgasthreegenerationsafterdeath,providedthatthecorrectritualshavebeenperformed.Atcremation,somebonesarecollectedbythemainmourner(usuallytheeldestson)andkeptforawhileundertherafters of thehouse.Theyarewashedandfedrituallybyfemalemournerswithmilk,ricebeer,andsacredwater.Thus,themourningritualdisplaysthecentralSantalsymbol-ism of flowerandbone.Thefeeding of bonesthatarecrownedbyflowersexpressesthecomplementarity of theprinciple of descent(bone)andtheprinciple of affinity(flower=uterus).Thechiefmournerispossessedbyandimpersonatesthedeadandisquestionedbythevillagepriest.Thisdialogueaimsatprovidingthedeceasedwiththewherewithal of theother world. Ayearlater,thebonesareimmersedinwater,aritualinvolvingsacrifice of agoat.Thedeadnowbecomesanances-torknownbyname;onemonthlatertherecitation of aritualtextreleaseshimfromidentitytobecomeanamelessancestor.Henowjoinsotherancestorsintheancestralroom of thehouseandpartakesintheoffering of ricebeertotheancestors.Nowhisshadow,whichwasroamingbetweentheworlds,goestoHanapuri,theabode of thedead.HereJoinRaja,king of thedead,rules;thepassagefromtheretothestate of becomingabofgaisnevermadeexplicit.Theland of thedeadisconceptualizedasaplacewherecertainindividualsacquirethesource of magicpowers,whileothersaresimplyrewardedaccordingtothewaytheyhaveactedduringtheirlife.Whiletheyogireturnstothe world andachievesimmortality,simplemenendurethejustice of JomRaja.Theidea of afterlifeshowsbothHinduandChristianinfluence.SeealsoKol;MundaBibliographyArcher,WilliamG.(1974).TheHill of Flutes:Life,Love,andPoetryinTribalIndia;APortrait of theSantals.London:Allen&Unwin.Archer,WilliamG.(1984).TribalLawandJustice:AReportontheSantal.NewDelhi:Concept.Sindhi263SociopoliticalOrganizationThepresence of culturallydiversegroupswithinSikkimhin-dersthekingdom'scohesiveness.Theterm'Sikkimese"indi-catesaresident of Sikkim,butithasnolinguisticorethno-logicalimplications.Thecitizens of modemSikkimtracetheirancestrytoavariety of Asianpeople:Lepchas,Indians,andNepalis.ThenativeLepchascompriseonly21percent of thekingdom'spopulation.Nepalisettlersmakeup60percent of thepresentSikkimesepopulation.Inabout1890theBrit-ishbegantoencourageimmigrationfromneighboringNepal.UntilrecentlytheNepalesesettlerdidnothavethestatus of acitizen,buttheSikkimSubjects'Regulationlegislation of 1961gavecitizenshiptotheseinhabitants of Nepalesede-scent.ConflictbetweentheTibetanBhutiasandtheLepchashasledtoconsiderabledisturbancesinSikkim'spast.TheLepchashavebeenpushedintotheforestsandlowervalleysbelow1,200metersbyBhutiaswhohavesettledathigherele-vations.Despitethesedistinctions of ethnicity,thereligiousfactorsandacommonfeeling of nationalconsciousnesshaveresultedinacertaindegree of historicandculturalunity.Thetwopoliticalaspects of Sikkimthatmeritspecialat-tentionare:(1)theinternalpoliticalproblem of self-governmentandthecountry'stiestoIndia;and(2)thebroaderproblem of therelationshipbetweenIndia,China,andSikkim.Intheory,themaharaja of Sikkimcontrolsthestate'sinternalaffairs.In1963hewas70yearsold.Atthattimehewasalreadydelegatingmost of hispowertohis3 9- year-oldson,PrincePaldenThondupNamgyal.TheSikki-meseprincewasmarriedtoa22-year-oldAmericanwoman,HopeCook of NewYorkCity.Theirengagementwaspre-cededbysixmonths of negotiationbetweenthegovernments of SikkimandIndiabecause of thereligiousandpoliticalim-plications.Theirmarriagewasthefirstbetweenamember of theSikkimroyalfamilyandanyforeignerotherthanaTi-betan.InNovember1961,thestateeldersmetinGangtoktogivetheirformalapprovaltothematch.In1975,Sikkimbe-cameanIndianstate,andtheoffice of Chogyal(king)wasabolished.ReligionTibetanBuddhismisthestatereligionandisfollowedby28percent of thepopulation.Another60percent of thepeopleareHindu.SeealsoLepchaBibliographyKaran,Pradyumna,andWilliamM.Jenkins(1963).TheHimalayanKingdoms:Bhutan,Sikkim,andNepal.Princeton:D.VanNostrand.BRENDAAMENSON-HILLSindhiETHNONYM:SindiSindisaprovinceinsoutheastPakistan.Itisborderedbytheprovinces of Baluchistanonthewestandnorth,Punjabonthenortheast,theIndianstates of RajasthanandGujarattotheeast,andtheArabianSeatothe south. ItsnamewasderivedfromtheArabicwordfortheIndusRiver,whichhaslongbeenknownastheSindhu.Theprovinceextendsoverthelowerportion of thatrivervalley.ItschiefcitiesareKarachi,theformercapital,andHyderabad.Itcovers140,914squarekilometersandhadapopulation of about19millionin1981.Asintherest of Pakistan,theeconomyispredominantlyagriculturalanddependsalmostentirelyonirrigation.Theprincipalsource of wateristheIndusRiver,onwhichtherearethreeirrigationdamsinSind.TheyaretheGhulam,onthePunjabborder;theLloyd;andtheGhulamMuhammad,farthest south. MostSindhisareengagedinirrigationagricul-ture,eitheraslandlordswhodonotcultivatewiththeirownhandsorastenantfarmersandlaborers.Sindh'sprincipalcropsarewheat,rice,cotton,oilseeds,sugarcane,andfruits(bydouble-cropping).OtherethnicgroupsinSindhspecial-izeinfishingintheIndusRiverandMancharLake,whichispartlyformedfromIndusRiveroverspillduringthefloodpe-riod,aswellasonthesoutherncoastintheArabianSea.Somemaketheirlivingasmerchants,physicians,lawyers,andteachersandbydoingotherprofessionaljobsinindustrializeingtownsandcitiessuchasKarachiandHyderabad.Karachi,Pakistan'schiefport,hasanoilrefineryandalsoisthecenter of printingandpublishing.Sindhcultureisreflectedinsome of itsfascinatinghandicraftssuchasmirrorembroidery,lac-querware,andexquisitelypaintedtilework.Thereligion,familylawandcustoms,foodtaboos,andartstylesinSindhiculturerevealtheemphasisandimpor-tance of Islam.Atleast80percent of SindhisareMuslim,mostlySunni,while...

... ContentsProjectStaffviContributorsviiPrefacexiiiIntroductionxixMaps1. South Asia xxviii2.CulturalRegions of South Asia xxix3.MajorLanguages of South Asia xxx4.DominantReligiousGroups of South Asia xxxi5.CulturalGroups of South Asia xxxii Cultures of South Asia 1Appendix:AdditionalCastes,CasteClusters,andTribes309Bibliography342EthnonymIndextoAppendix349Glossary363Filmography367Index372Bibliography373Directory of Distributors373EthnonymIndex375Introductionxxipopulationin1990 ... IntroductionxxviiWilliams,L.F.Rushbrook,ed.(1975).AHandbookfo'rTravellersinIndia,Pakistan,Nepal,Bangladesh&SriLanka(Ceylon).22nded.London:JohnMurray.Yule,Henry,andA.C.Burnell(1903).Hobson-Jobson,AGlossary of ColoquialAnglo-IndianWordsandPhrases,and of KindredTerms,Etymological,Historical,Geographical,andDiscursive.Rev.ed.London:JohnMurray.Reprint.1968.NewYork.HumanitiesPress;numerousreissues.PAULHOCKINGSPrefacexviitheproject,andnotjustfortheirownvolumesbutalsofortheprojectasawhole.TimothyO'Leary,TerenceHays,andPaulHockingsdeservespecialthanksfortheircommentsonthisprefaceandtheglossary,asdoesMelvinEmber,presi-dent of theHumanRelationsAreaFiles.Members of the of- ficeandtechnicalstaffalsomustbethankedforsoquicklyandcarefullyattendingtothemanytasksaproject of thissizeinevitablygenerates.TheyareErlindaMaramba,AbrahamMaramba,VictoriaCrocco,NancyGratton,andDouglasBlack.AtMacmillanandG. K. Hall,the encyclopedia hasbenefitedfromthewiseandcarefuleditorialmanagement of EllyDickason,ElizabethKubik,andElizabethHolthaus,andtheeditorialandproductionmanagement of AraSalibian.Finally,IwouldliketothankMelvinEmberandtheboard of directors of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesfortheiradministrativeandintellectualsupportforthisproject.DAVIDLEVINSONReferencesMurdock,GeorgePeter(1967).EthnographicAtlas.Pitts-burgh,Penn.,University of PittsburghPress.Murdock,GeorgePeter(1983).Outline of World Cultures. 6threv.ed.NewHaven,Conn.,HumanRelationsAreaFiles. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD CULTURES DavidLevinsonEditorinChiefNorthAmericaOceania South Asia Europe(Central,Western,andSoutheasternEurope)EastandSoutheast Asia SovietUnion(EasternEuropeandRussia)andChina South AmericaMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanAfricaandtheMiddleEastBibliographyThe Encyclopedia of World Cultures waspreparedundertheauspicesandwiththesupport of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesatYaleUniversity.HRAF,theforemostinternationalresearchorganizationinthefield of cul-turalanthropology,isanot-for-profitconsortium of twenty-threesponsor-ingmembersand300participatingmemberinstitutionsintwenty-fivecoun-tries.TheHRAFarchive,establishedin1949,containsnearlyonemillionpages of informationonthe cultures of the world. xContributorsTrilokiNathMadanInstitute of EconomicGrowthUniversity of DelhiDelhiIndiaL. K. MahapatraSambalpurUniversitySambalpur,OrissaIndiaClarenceMaloneyLouisBerger,International,Inc.NewDelhiIndiaJoanP.MencherDepartment of AnthropologyHerbertH.LehmanCollegeCityUniversity of NewYorkBronx,NewYorkUnitedStatesW.D.MerchantDepartment of SocialandBehavioralSciences South SuburbanCollege South Holland,IllinoisUnitedStatesPromodeKumarMisraDepartment of AnthropologyNorth-EasternHillUniversityShillong,MeghalayaIndiaBrianMorrisDepartment of SocialAnthropologyGoldsmiths'CollegeUniversity of LondonLondonUnitedKingdomNilsFinnMunch-PetersenLouisBerger,International,Inc.NewDelhiIndiaSerenaNandaDepartment of AnthropologyJohnJayCollege of CriminalJusticeCityUniversity of NewYorkNewYork,NewYorkUnitedStatesWilliamA.NobleDepartment of GeographyUniversity of MissouriColumbia,MissouriUnitedStatesPandit of KashmirOriyaDivehi;TamilNambudiriBrahman;NayarBania;Castes,Hindu;Maratha;ParsiPeripateticsHillPandaramDivehiHijraIruLaProjectStaffEditorialBoardResearchSaraJ.DickJayDiMaggioAlliyaS.ElahiSarwatS.ElahiNancyE.GrattonLeShonKimbleSaidehMoayed-SanandajiHughR.Page,Jr.AngelitoPalmaEditorialandProductionEllyDickasonEvaKitsosAbrahamMarambaVictoriaCroccoElizabethHolthausAraSalibianLindaA.BennettMemphisStateUniversityEuropeFernandoCamaraBarbachanoInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologiaeHistoria,MexicoCityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanNormaJ.DiamondUniversity of MichiganChinaPaulFriedrichUniversity of ChicagoSovietUnionTerenceE.HaysRhodeIslandCollegeOceaniaCartographyRobertSullivanRhodeIslandCollegePaulHockingsUniversity of IllinoisatChicago South andSoutheast Asia RobertV.KemperSouthernMethodistUniversityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanKazukoMatsuzawaNationalMuseum of Ethnology,OsakaEast Asia JohnH.MiddletonYaleUniversityAfricaTimothyJ.O'LearyHumanRelationsAreaFilesNorthAmericaAmalRassamQueensCollegeandtheGraduateCenter of theCityUniversity of NewYorkMiddleEastJohannesWilbertUniversity of CaliforniaatLosAngeles South AmericaviContributorsxiAlfredPach III Department of MedicalEducationUniversity of IllinoisatChicagoChicago,IllinoisUnitedStatesHughR.Page,Jr.Department of ReligiousStudiesCaliforniaStateUniversitySacramento,CaliforniaUnitedStatesVishvajitPandyaWestminsterCollegeFulton,MissouriUnitedStatesRobertParkinInstitutfurEthnologieFreieUniversititzuBerlinBerlinGermanyRobertPaulDepartment of AnthropologyEmoryUniversityAtlanta,GeorgiaUnitedStatesBryanPfaffenbergerDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of VirginiaCharlottesville,VirginiaUnitedStatesMohammedHabiburRahmanDepartment of SociologyUniversity of DhakaDhakaBangladeshAparnaRaoInstitutfurV6lkerkundeUniversititzuKolnKolnGermanySankarKumarRoyDepartment of AnthropologyGauhatiUniversityGuwahati,AssamIndiaGhanshyamShahCentreforSocialStudies South GujaratUniversitySurat,GujaratIndiaNepaliAbor;Baiga;Bondo;Burusho;Khasi;Lakher;Nagas;Purum;SadhuAndamaneseMundaSherpaSinhalese;Tamil of SriLankaChakmaJatGaroGujaratiMEASUREMENTCONVERSIONS1992bytheHumanRelationsAreaFiles,Inc.Firstpublishedin1991byG .K. Hall&Co.1633Broadway,NewYork,NY10019,6785Allrightsreserved.Allrightsreserved.Nopart of thisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,orbyanyinformationstorageorretrievalsystemwithoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.10Library of CongressCataloginginPublicationData(Revisedfor volume 3) Encyclopedia of world cultures. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindexes.Filmography:v.1,p.40 7-4 15.Contents:v.1.NorthAmerica/TimothyJ.O'Leary,DavidLevinson, volume editors v.3. South Asia /PaulHockings, volume editor.1.Ethnology Encyclopedias.I.Levinson,David,194 7- GN307.E531991306'.039 0-4 9123ISBN 0-8 161 1-8 0 8-6 (alk.paper)ISBN 0-8 168 8-8 40-X(set:alk.paper)ISBN 0-8 161 1-8 1 2-4 (v.3:alk.paper)Thepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirements of AmericanNationalStandardforInformationSciences-Permanence of PaperforPrintedLibraryMaterials.ANSIZ39.4 8-1 984.aTmMANUFACTUREDINTHEUNITEDSTATES OF AMERICAWhenYouKnowMufltplyByToFindLENGTHInches2.54centimetersfeet30centimetersyards0.9metersmiles1.6kilometersmillimeters0.04inchescentimeters0.4Inchesmeters3.3feetmeters1.1yardskilometers0.6milesAREAsquarefeet0.09squaremeterssquareyards0.8squaremeterssquaremiles2.6squarekibmetersacres0.4hectareshectares2.5acressquaremeters1.2squareyardssquarekilometers0.4squaremilesTEMPERATUREOC - (F - 32)x.555F-("Cx1.8)+32xxclimatictype,whichischaracterizedbytheaveragetempera-ture of thecoldestmonthfallingsomewherebetween180and -3 °C(64.40and26.6°F),whilethat of thewarmestmonthisover100C(500F).Thedryseasonisstillinthewinterandsummersarebothhotandwet,thewarmestmonthhavinganaveragetemperature of about22°C(71.6°F)andthewettestmonthbeingatleasttentimesasrainyasthedriestoneinwinter.PoliticalHistoryTheyears194 7-1 948sawanimmensepoliticalupheavalinthesubcontinentthatlaidtheessentialframeworkforthemodempoliticalscene.Uptothatdatesometwo-fifths of theareahadbeenruledbynearly600kingsandprinces,thelarg-est of whoseterritories,NepalandHyderabad,wereequalinextenttoseveralEuropeannations.Atthesametimethere-mainingthree-fifthswasruledbyoneking,namelyGeorgeVI,aconstitutionalmonarchwhowasbothking of Englandandemperor of India.Hisruleembracednotonly"non-princely"IndiabutalsoBurmaandCeylon(nowknownasMyanmarandSriLankarespectively),aswellasMauritius.Bytheterms of theindependenceagreements of thatperiod,Indiaabsorbedall of theprincelystatesexceptNepalandBhutanintoitspolity,butitwassplitintothreenewunits:theIndianrepublic,WestPakistan,andEastPakistan.SriLankaandMyanmar(thencalledCeylonandBurma)alsobecameindependentrepublicsin1948.Thetwoparts of Pa-kistan,1,400kilometersapartfromeachother,formedasin-glerepublic,butfromitsearlyyearsPakistan'snationalinteg-ritywasinperil,andin1971itsplitupaltogether,EastPakistanbecomingtheindependentnation of Bangladesh.Todaytherefore South Asia containstwokingdoms(NepalandBhutan),threesecularrepublics(Bangladesh,India,andSriLanka),andtwoIslamicrepublics(PakistanandtheMaldives).Threeoutlyingarchipelagoes-theAndaman,Nicobar,andLakshadweepislands-areallad-ministeredbyIndia.Inadditionthis volume dealswiththeRepublic of Mauritius,whichis3,500kilometerssouthwest of Colombobuthasasizable South Asianpopulation.Itbe-cameindependentin1968.Itisnoteasytosummarizethepoliticalsystems of thesestates,fortheyhavevariedgreatly,butitiscertainthatthestatesthemselvesareviableentities.Withtheexception of BangladeshbreakingawayfromPakistan,thepoliticalunitstodayarepreciselythosesetupatindependence.SincethattimeIndiaandSriLankahaverunparliamentarydemocra-cies;Pakistan,Bangladesh,andtheMaldiveshavebeenIs-lamicdemocraciesalternatingwithmilitarydictatorships of aformcommonintheMiddleEast.Nepal'skingshiphasbeenmuchconstrainedbyparliamentarygovernment,whichhascreatedadefactoconstitutionalmonarchy.SocialistrhetoricandIslamicorthodoxyhavebeenprominentguidelinesformany of thesegovernmentsthroughtheyears.Regrettably,though,anotherprocedureforpoliti-calchangehasbeenaddedtothe"Westministersystem":as-sassination.Ifoneincludessuspiciousaircrashesinthesce-nario,thenIndiahas ... G.BarrierSikhDepartment of HistoryUniversity of MissouriColumbia,MissouriUnitedStatesHeleneBasuSidiInstitutffirEthnologieBerlinGermanyJosephC.BerlandKanjar;QalandarBerlandHouseOxfordUnitedKingdomGeraldD.BerremanPahariDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of CaliforniaBerkeley,CaliforniaUnitedStatesPeterJ.BertocciBengaliDepartment of SociologyandAnthropologyOaklandUniversityRochester,MichiganUnitedStatesviiPrefacexvnance of groupidentityintheface of strongassimilativepres-sures,and(6)previouslistinginaninventory of the world& apos;s cultures suchasEthnographicAtlas(Murdock1967)ortheOutline of World Cultures (Murdock1983).Ingeneral,wehavebeenbumperss"ratherthan"split-ters"inwritingthesummaries.Thatis,ifthereissomeques-tionaboutwhetheraparticulargroupisreallyonecultureortworelated cultures, wehavemoreoftenthannottreateditasasingleculture,withinternaldifferencesnotedinthesum-mary.Similarly,wehavesometimeschosentodescribeanumber of verysimilar cultures inasinglesummaryratherthanin...

... areprominentingovernmentservice,financialserv-ices,andpolitics.IndustrialArts.AnyneedsthatBrahmansandChhetrisexperienceforcraftandindustrialproductsaremetbylower-rankedartisancastes,suchasblacksmiths,tailors,andleatherworkers.Trade.InruralareasBrahmansandChhetristypicallyrelyonothers,suchasNewarshopkeepers,fortheircommercialrequirements.Division of Labor.OnlyBrahmanmalesmayactaspriests,butmuch of thedailyhouseholdpuja(worship)isdonebywomen.Theday-to-dayagropastoralactivities of BrahmanandChhetrifamiliesaresharedbetweenmenandwomen.Bothsexesworkinthefields,butoverallwomenspendmorehoursperdayinagriculturalanddomesticlaborthanmen.Theyperformmost of thechildcare,preparationandcooking of food,andweedingandtending of crops.Mendotheplowingandmaintaintheterracewalls.Bothareactiveatharvesttime.LandTenure.BrahmansandChhetrisareoftenlandown.ers.Fieldsareoftenterracedandmostlyhavebeenfraction-atedintosmallplotsthroughinheritanceovergenerations.Large-scaleabsenteelandlordismisnotcommoninthehills of Nepal.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.BrahmansandChhetrisaremembers of twokinds of clans,thethaT(indicatedasasur-name)andthegotra;theformerisexogamousifarelationcanbetraced,butthelatterisstrictlyexogamous.Descentandinheritancefollowthemalelineexclusively.KinshipTerminology.Allfirstcousinsareaddressedbysiblingterms.Siblingsaredesignatedaseitherolderoryoungerbrothersorsisters:thereisnogenerictermforbrotherorsister.Unrelatedpersons,includingstrangers,arealsooftenaddressedbykinshipterms.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Mostmarriagesaremonogamous,butpoly-gynousunionsweretraditionallyfrequentandarestillocca-sionallyfound.Secondandsubsequentwivesareoftenmem-bers of otherethnicgroups,suchastheGurungs,Magars,Tamangs,Sherpas,andNewars,butnotlow-casteartisangroups.Withtheexception of Thakuris,theself-proclaimedaristocratsamongtheChhetriswhopracticematrilateralcross-cousinmarriage,cousinmarriageisnotpracticed.Brah-mangirlstraditionallymarriedbytheage of 11,andChhetrigirlsafewyearslater,buteducatedurbandwellersnowmarryintheirlateteensorearlytwenties.Groomsarenormallyafewyearsolderthantheirbrides.Villageexogamyisusuallyobserved,andparentsarrangetheirchildren'smarriageswiththehelp of anintermediary.Anastrologeralsoisconsultedtoensurethatthecouplemakeagoodmatch.Theboy'sfamilypriest,inconsultationwiththebride'sfamily,setsanauspi-ciousdateandtime,basedonthelunarcalendar(severalmonths of theyearareinauspiciousformarriage).Theentireweddingceremonylastsafullday,fromthetimethemembers of thegroom'spartyarriveatthebride'shometilltheyleavethenextdaywiththebride.Themostimportantpart of the34BengaliCeremonies.TheBengaliHindureligiouscalendarisre-pletewithworshipceremonies(puja)devotedtothedeities of boththeGreatandLittleTraditions.Especiallyimportantistheannualfestival(orgajan) of theLordShiva,asarethose of hiscounterpartgoddesses,KaliandDurga.ThegoddessesLakshmi (of wealthandgoodfortune)andSaraswati (of learningandculture)alsohaveannualceremonies.Impor-tantfolkdeitiespropitiatedbyHindusandMuslimsalikein-cludethe"goddesses of thecalamities"-Sitala,goddess of smallpox;Olabibi,goddess of cholera;andManasa,goddess of snakes-all of whomhavetheirannualfestivals.BengaliMuslimscelebratethemajorfestivals of Islam:theIdal-Fitr,whichmarkstheend of theMuslimmonth of fasting(Rama-dan);theIdal-Adha,or"feast of thesacrifice,"coterminouswiththeannualpilgrimage(haj)toMeccaandcommemorat-ingthestory of theprophetIbrahim'swillingnesstosacrificehissonatGod'scommand.EventhoughBengaliMuslimsareSunnis,theyalsoobservethefestival of Muharram,usu-allyassociatedmoreprominentlywiththeShiadivision of Islam,inwhichthedeath of Hussain,grandson of theProphetMohammedandmartyr of thefaith,ismourned.Bengalisalsocelebratethewell-knownHindurite of springcalledHoli;formembers of allreligiousfaiths,theannualnewyearceremonyonthefirstday of theHindu(andBen-gali)month of Baisakh,comingbetweenAprilandMayandmarkingtheonset of spring,isajoyousoccasion.Arts.UrbanBengalieliteculturehasproducedone of South Asia& apos;sfinestliterarytraditions,includingnotonlythenovel,shortstory,andpoetrybutdramaandfilmaswell.Some of India'sbestclassicalmusiciansandgreatestexpo-nents of thedancehavebeenBengalis.BengalishavealsomademajorcontributionstoIndianand world cinema.RuralBengalhasanoldandwell-developedfolkliterature,includ-ingnarrativepoetry(puthi),drawnfromhistory,myth,andlegend,aswellasaverypopularitineranttheater(calledjatra).Thereisalsoastrongtradition of religiousfolkmusic,particularlyassociatedwiththemoredevotionalandmysticalpractices of popularHinduism(e.g.,worship of thegoddessKaliandtheLordKrishna)and of popularIslam(e.g.,thede-votionalgatherings of thevariousSufiorders).Terra-cottatempleandmosquearchitecturethroughoutBengalismuchadmired,andthereisafolktradition of painting,seeninHindureligiousscrollsandintheflowery,andoftenobscure,religioussymbols(alipana)commonlydaubedinwhitericepasteonthewallsandfloors of homesteadsbyHinduvillagewomen.Finally,despiteindustrializationandthespread of commerciallymanufacturedproductsthroughouttheregion,theBengaliruraleconomystilldependsontheservices of tra-ditionalcraftspeople-weavers,potters,carpenters,black-smiths,metalworkers,andthelike-whosewaresoftenrepre-sentahighquality of bothtechniqueandaestheticdesign.Medicine.AlthoughmodemscientificmedicinehaslongbeenknownandacceptedinBengal,thehomeopathic,allo-pathic,andtheHinduAyurvedicandMuslimUnanimedicaltraditionscontinuetoexistasalternatives.Therealsore-mainsahost of folkbeliefsandcuringpracticesamongboththeurbanimmigrantpoorandthepeasantryasawhole.Folkhealers(ojhaorfakir)arecommonlycalledupontotreateverythingfromtemporaryillnessesandchronicdiseasestobonefracturesandsnakebite,aswellastocounteractethno-psychiatricafflictionsresultingfromsorceryandghostpos-session.Folkcuringpracticesstresstheuse of magicalverses(mantras),oftencombinedwithindigenousmedicinalcon-coctions.Traditionalhealersalsoprovideamuletsforprotec-tionagainstdevilryandsorcery,thewearing of whichisubiq-uitousnotonlyamongthepeasantryandtheurbanpoorbutalsoamongtheBengalimiddleclassesaswell.DeathandAfterlife.BengaliHindus, of course,acceptthedoctrine of samsara,orthetransmigration of soulsfromoneearthlylifetoanother.Funerarycremations,practicedbynearlyallHinducastes,arethoughttoreleasetheindividual'sspiritualessenceorsoulfromitstransitoryphysicalbody.Bearingtheinfluence(karma) of alltheactions of itsjustter-minatedearthlyembodiment,thesoulthenisreincarnatedintoanewworldlyformandway of lifeshapedbythosepastactions.Normallyaman'seldestsoncarriesoutthefuneraryrites,lightingthefuneralpyreafterfirstplacingaburningstickinthemouth of thedeceased.Muslimbeliefsrequirethatatdeaththepersonberituallybathed,shrouded,andburiedinacoffinwiththeheadfacingtheholycity of Mecca,afterwhichtherefollowsafuneraryprayerceremonyideallyledbyeitherarelativeorarecognizedleader of thelocalMus-limcommunity.Thedeadarethoughttoenteranindefinitetransitionalstate-duringwhichthewickedbegintoexperi-encepunishmentandthevirtuousto ... theculturalheritage.Yetthevibrantchange(tambourine)dance of thevillagersinfront of thecommu-nityhallisverycommonaftertheday'stoilandparticularlyonfestiveoccasions.Medicine.People,crops,andcattlearebelievedtobepro-tectedfromdiseasesbythevillagetutelarydeity.Thepropiti-ation of otherdeitiesalsoisthoughttohelpprotectpeoplefromdiseases.Themenhavegreatinclinationforfolkdoctorsandtheirmedicine.Mostdiseasesareduetomalnutritionandunsanitaryconditions.Modernmethods of treatment,22BaigaComparativeNotesonthePlainsBhuiyas.Ranchi:ManinIndiaOffice.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916).'Baiga."TheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India.Vol.2,7 7-9 2.Lon-don:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.HUGHR.PAGE,JRBaluchiETHNONYMS:Baloch,BaluchOrientationIdentification.TheBaluchiarepredominantlySunniMuslim,seminomadicpastoralists,whosehomelandsstrad-dletheIran-Pakistanborderaswellasincludingasmallpor-tion of southernAfghanistan.Location.Baluchistanisthename of thewesternmostprovince of Pakistan,aswellas of thetransnationalterritory of thetraditionalBaluchihomeland.Thislargerregionwascarvedupbytheimperialpowersconcernedmorewithease of administrationthanwithrecognition of theterritoriallimits of theinhabitants.ThetraditionalBaluchiterritoryextendsfromthesoutheasternportion of theIranianPlateauacrosstheKirmanDeserttothewesternborders of SindandthePunjab,andfromtheGumalRiverinthenortheasttotheArabianSeainthe south. Thisisalargelyinhospitableland,much of itbarrendesertorharshmountainousterrain.Ba-luchiterritoryliesoutsidethemonsoonbelt,andannualrain-fallisverylow,notexceeding16centimeters.Throughouttheregion,wintersareharshandcold,andsummersareveryhot.Inthemountains,therainscomeinOctoberandMarch,whileinthelowlandstheycomeinJulyandAugust.Demography.PopulationfiguresfortheBaluchiaresomewhatsuspect,inpartbecause of theunreliability of census-takingproceduresacrossthethreemajorpoliticalunitsthatnowcontrolBaluchiterritory,andpartlybecausethecriteriaforascribingBaluchiidentityarenottightlyde-fined.Onthestrength of linguisticcriteria,thereareanesti-mated5millionor ... hemustlearntoreadtheclassicalArabiclanguage)caneventuallybecometheworshipleader(mullahorimam) of alocalmosqueifsochosenbythecongregation.Furtherstudy of theQuranand of Muslimlaw(thesharia)mayqualifyamantobeareligiousleaderwithawiderfollowing,greaterstature,andsometimessignificantpoliticalinfluence.Bengali29Roland,Joan(1989).JewsinBritishIndia.Waltham,Mass.:BrandeisUniversityPress.Strizower,Schifra(1971)."VerbalInteractionamongtheBeneIsrael."InternationalJournal of theSociology of Language13:7 1-8 5.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1988)."TheInfluence of CasteIdeologyinIsrael."InCulturalTransition,editedbyM.Gottesman,15 0- 161.Jerusalem:MagnesPress.SHALVAJ.WEILBengaliETHNONYMS:Bangali,Bangladeshi(formerlyBengalee,Baboo)OrientationIdentification.TheBengalipeoplespeaktheBengali(Bangla)languageandliveintheBengalregion of theIndiansubcontinentlocatedinnortheastern South Asia, andmostfolloweithertheHinduortheMuslimfaith.TheBengalre.gionisdividedpoliticallybetweenthenation of BangladeshandtheIndianstate of WestBengal.BengalisthemselvesrefertotheirregionasBangladesh,meaningsimply'theBen-galihomeland,"atermadoptedbythepeople of easternBengalwhentheywonsovereignindependenceforthenation of Bangladeshin1971.ThenativeethnictermforthemselvesisBangli -of which"Bengali"isananglicization.However,Bengaliswhoarecitizens of BangladeshwillalsomostreadilycallthemselvesBangladeshi.Location.Lyingatthenorth of theBay of Bengalandroughlybetween22"and26°Nand86°and93°E,theBengalregionconsistslargely of avastalluvial,deltaicplain,builtupbytheGangesRiverandwateredalsobytheBrahma-putraRiversystemoriginatingintheeasternHimalayaMountains.Asinmuch of South Asia, monsoonwindsbringarainyseasonthatcanlastfromApriltomid-November.Bengal'stotalareaisapproximately233,000squarekilo-meters, of whichabout38percent(justunder89,000squarekilometers)isinIndia,theremaining62percent(144,000squarekilometers)constitutingthenation of Bangladesh.Demography.Accordingtothelastavailable(1981)cen-suses,India'sWestBengalcontainedsome47millionpeople(35percent)andBangladesh86millionpeople(65percent)claimingtobeprimaryspeakers of theBengalilanguage,withthetotal of around133millionconstitutingthe"cope"ethnicBengalipopulation.Tothistotalmustbeaddedatleastan-other7millionBengalispeakerslivinginadjacentornearbystates of India-Assam,3million;Bihar,2million;Tripura,1.4million;Orissa,378,000;Meghalaya,120,000;andNaga-land,27,000-formingakind of "Bengalidiaspora"that,al-thoughconcentratedinnortheastern South Asia, isactuallyworldwide,withlargenumbers of Bengalislivingasimmi-grantsintheUnitedStates,UnitedKingdom,andCanada.Insum,Bengaliscomprisedapopulation of about140mil-lionin1981,onewhichcanbeexpectedtohavegrownbyatleast25percentbythetimedatafrom1991censusesbe-comesavailable.Bengalispeakersmakeup85percent of thepopulation of WestBengal,whichotherwiseishometoanadditional9millionnon-Bengalipeople.Most of thesearefromotherparts of India,livinginthemetropolis of Calcutta,thestatecapital,buttherearesignificantnumbers of non-Bengalipeoplelocallyclassedas'tribals"inruralWestBengalaswell.Bangladeshisfarmorehomogeneous;allbut1percent of itspeopleidentifythemselvesasBengali.Most of theremaining900,000consist of non-Bengaliethnicgroupsalsolocallydesignatedas"tribal,"andthemajority of thesearespeakers of Tibeto-Burmanandotherminoritylanguages,oftenlivinginborderareas of thecountry.Somespeakers of dialects of Hindi-UrduremaininBangladeshaswell.OverallpopulationdensitiesinWestBengalwererecordedat615peoplepersquarekilometerin1981,rangingfrom466insomeruralareasto56,462inurbanlocalities(especiallyCal-cutta).InBangladeshoveralldensitiesreached624personspersquarekilometerby1981,risingto2,179intheurbanareas(especiallyDhaka,thenation'scapital),butalsoregis-teringaquitehigh693personspersquarekilometerinpart of thecountryside.LinguisticAffiliation.Likemost of thelanguages of northern South Asia, BengalibelongstotheIndo-Iranian(sometimesalsocalledIndo-Aryan)Branch of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.DescendedfromancientSanskrit,Bengalicontainsforty-sevensounds:elevenvowels,twenty-fivecon-sonants,foursemivowels,andseven"breathsounds"(includ-ingsibilantsandaspirates).Itsscript,alsoSanskrit-derived,containsfifty-sevenlettersymbols.TheBengalilanguageisassociatedwithalongliterarytradition,prideinwhichisamajorfactorinBengaliethnicandnationalidentity.ABen-gali,RabindranathTagore,wasthefirstAsiantoreceivetheNobelPrizeforliterature(in1913).Theliterarylanguagewithwhicheducatedspeakersarefamiliaris,however,quitedistinctfromtheurbanandruralspeech of thelesswelledu-cated.Theeasterndialects of Bengali,notablythosespokenintheSylhetandChittagongdistricts of Bangladesh,differquitenoticeablyfromthoseheardinWestBengal.HistoryandCulturalRelationsBengalismentionedasadistinctregion of South Asia insome of theearliestHindutexts,andthroughoutthefirstmil-lenniumAD.itwasgovernedbyasuccession of BuddhistandHindurulers.Islamicarmiesarrivedintheregioninthelatetwelfthandearlythirteenthcenturies,andgradualMuslimconquest-culminatinginMughalruleafter1576-setthestageforwidespreadconversion of thelocalpopulationtoIslam,especiallyineasternBengal.Notlongthereafter,Euro-peancontactwith,andcompetitionforpoweron,theIndiansubcontinentbegan,andtheBritishperiod of India'shistoryisusuallydatedfromEngland'stakeover of theadministra-tion of Bengalin1757.Lastinguntil1947,BritishrulehadaprofoundimpactonBengalicultureandsociety,especiallywiththeintroduction of Englishasthemedium of highered-ucationafter1835.HindusrespondedmorerapidlythandidMuslimstoopportunitiesprovidedbyEnglisheducation,and56Burushoherhusbanddivorceher.Childrenremainwiththemother(untiltheyreachtheage of 10)ifadivorceisgranted.Duringthistime,thehusbandisrequiredtoprovidechildsupport.Widowsmustwaitthreemonthsandsevendaysafterthedeath of aspousebeforeremarrying.Thewaitforawidoweristwomonthsandsevendays.Polygynyisnotprohibited.DomesticUnit.Smallextendedfamilies(theprocreatedfamily of oneindividualintheseniorgenerationandthose of atleasttwointhenextgeneration)withlimitedpolygynyarethenorm.Inheritance.Thefather of afamilyownsall of thefamilyproperty.Hemaychoosetodividehispropertyamonghisoff-springbeforehisdeathoritmaybedividedafterhedies.Uponhisdeath,hisestateisdividedequallyamonghissons.Sonsmaychoosetoworkanylandinheritedtogether(i.e.,asagroup)ortheymaydivideitamongthemselves.Sonsbysec-ondwivesinheritagrandson'sshare.Theyoungestsoninher-itsthefamilydwelling.Provisionisusuallymadesothattheeldestsoninheritsthebestland.Adaughterisnotpermittedtoinheritproperty.Shemaybeallowedtheuse of certainpropertyduringherlifetime.Unmarrieddaughtersmustbecaredfor(includingtheprovision of adowry)bytheestate of adeceasedfather.Apricottrees(andtheirproduce)areoftenwilledtodaughters.Socialization.Thesocialization of childrenisaresponsi-bilitysharedbybothparents,withthebulk of itbeingas-sumedbythemother.Siblingsalsoshareinthistask.In1934,apublicschoolsystemwasdonatedandputintoplacebytheAgaKhan,thusplacingpart of theburdenforchildrearingonteachers.SociopoliticalOrganizationBurushosocietycontainsfiveclasses:theThamo(royalfam-ily);theUyongko/Akabirting(thosewhomayoccupyoffices of state);theBar/Bare/Sis(landcultivators);theShadarsho(servants);andtheBaldakuyo/Tsilgalasho(bearers of bur-densfortheThamoandUyongko).TheBericho(Indianblacksmithsandmusicians),whomaintaintheirowncus-tomsandspeaktheirownlanguage(Kumaki),arealsoanim-portantpart of Burushosocialstructure.AgeandgenderstratificationdonotobtainamongtheBurusho.Thehead of stateisthemir,whoseauthorityinallmat-tersisabsolute.Heisassistedinthedispatch of hisdutiesbyagrandvizier.Mirsareresponsibleforthedistribution of jus-ticeaswellasthemaintenance of localcustomsandtribalfes-tivals.Avillagearbob(chief)andchowkidar(sergeantatarms)areappointedforeachvillage.Khalifasareappointedbythemirtopresideatimportantoccasionsinthelife of theindividualandthecommunity.IthasbeennotedthatatonetimeretainerstocertainvillagerswerepaidbytheBritishgov-emmentforoccasionalservicesandthatcertainofficialswithinavillagewerechargedwiththecare of visitors.Thethreat of deportation(forthepurpose of engaginginpublicservicetothemirorforthecompletion of publicworks)andtheimposition of finesaretheprimarymeans of maintainingsocialcontrol.ExternalrelationsbetweentheBurushoandotherpeopleshavebeenstable.Intervillageri-valryischannelednonviolentlyintopolomatches.Althoughtheattitudes of theBurushotowardtheirneighborsinNagirarelessthanfriendly,armedconflictisfarfromnormal.BothHunzaandNagirsupportedthemilitaryactionthatledtotheannexation of theregiontoPakistan.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefsandPractices.TheBurushohavebeenMuslimformorethan300years.Theyareadherents of theIs-mailisect(headedbytheAgaKhan)andhavemadesuchmodificationsinreligiousbeliefandpracticeastorenderthissystem of Islamicbeliefpracticablewithintheirsocialanden-vironmentalsetting.NosystematizedeschatologicalsystemexistsamongtheBurusho.Itisgenerallybelievedthatatsomepointinthefuturethelivingandthedeadwillbere-united.Bitaiyo(maleandfemaleprognosticators)foretellthefuturebyinhalingthesmoke of burningjunipertwigs.NoprofessionalpriesthoodexistsamongtheBurusho.Themirappointsseveralliteratemenaskhalifastoofficiateatburials,weddings,andnamingceremonies.Theseindividualsdonotperformthesedutiesonafull-timebasis.Religiousceremonyplayslittlepartinthedailylife of theBurusho.Ritualprayerandfastingarepracticedbysome.Whilelittleisknown of pre-Islamicreligiouspractices,itisbelievedthatatonetimesacrificewasofferedtotheboyo(divinitiesthoughttooccupyaplaceabovethefortatHini).Thecommunalweddingcere-monyheldon21Decemberisalsoanimportantpart of theBurushoritualcycle.Arts.Embroideryandwoodcarvingmaybenotedasexam-ples of Burushovisualart.Dancingandmusic(bothbeingimportantcomponents of Burushoceremoniallife)areat-tested.Thesamecanbesaid of dramaticart,performancesbeingsponsoredoncertainspecialoccasions.Burushooralliteraturecontainsfolklore(indigenousandborrowed),anec-dotes,andsongs.Medicine.Avariety of naturalsubstances(roots,herbs,andberries)isusedformedicinalpurposes.Accesstoscientificmed-icineisalsoavailable.ThebeliefisstillheldbysomeBurushothatsupernaturalsplayamajorroleinthecause of humanill-ness.Indigenousmedicalpractitionersarelacking.BibliographyClark,J.(1963)."HunzaintheHimalayas:StoriedShangri-LaUndergoesScrutiny."NaturalHistory72:3 8-4 5.Lorimer,DavidL.(193 5-1 938).TheBurushaskiLanguage.3vols.InstituttetforSammenlignendeKulturforskning,SerieB:Skifter,29, 1-3 .Oslo:H.Aschehoug&Co.(W.Nygaard):Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress.Lorimer,E.0.(1938)."TheBurusho of Hunza."Antiquity12: 5-1 5.Lorimer,E.0.(1939).LanguageHuntingintheKarakoram.London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin.O'Leary,TimothyJ.(1965)."BurushoCulturalSummary."NewHaven,Conn.:HumanRelationsAreaFiles.Tobe,JohnH.(1960).AdventuresinaLand of Paradise.Emmaus,Pa.:RodaleBooks.HUGHRPAGE,JRBengali31Trade.Asnotedabove,periodiclocalmarketsdottheBengalcountryside,andtheseinturnarelinkedtoperma-nent,dailymarketsinlargerprovincialtownsandultimatelytomajorurbancommercialcenters.Manypeasantsengageinpettymarketingtosupplementtheirprimaryoccupation,butlarge-scaleaccumulationandtransportation of majorcrops,especiallyriceandjute,andartisanproductsaretypicallycar-riedoutbywholesalerswhomovefrommarkettomarket.Aselsewherein South Asia, someHinducastegroupsspecializeincertainkinds of tradeandcommercialtransactions(e.g.,thoserelatedtogoldandotherjewelryorspecificconsump-tionitemsotherthanrice).BecauseBengalpossessesalaby-rinthinenetwork of rivers,providingboattransportationtoandbetweenriversidecentersisamajoractivityformany.Commerceisoverwhelminglymale-dominated,sinceadultwomenareusuallyrequiredtolimittheiractivitiestotheirhomesteadsandimmediatesurroundingsandthusarenotpermittedtoengageinsignificanttradingactivity.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbybothgenderandoccupationalspecializationishighlymarkedthroughout South Asia, includingBengal,particularlysointheruralareas.Regardless of aruralfamily'soccupationalspecialty,menengageinactivitiesthattakeplaceoutsidethehome,whilewomenarelimitedtothosethatcanbeperformedwithinitsconfines.Thus,forexample,inrice-farmingfami-liesmenperformalltheworkinthefields-plowing,plant-ing,weeding,andharvesting-andoncethecropisbroughtintothehomesteadwomentakeupthetasks of threshing,drying,andhuskingthecrop.Asimilarkind of intra-(versusextra-)homesteaddivision of laborbygenderoccursinfami-lieswithnonagriculturaloccupationalspecializations.Notsurprisingly,domesticandchild-rearingtasksfallwithinthewomen'sdomainaswell.Thedegreetowhichwomenareper-mittedtoworkoutsidethehomeis,however,relatedtotheeconomicandsocialstatus of thefamily.Apoororlandlessfarmer'swifemayspendpart of herdayprocessingagricul-turalgoodsinawealthierhousehold,forexample,tosupple-mentherfamily'smeagerincome,andamongthelower-rankedservicecastes(seebelow)thetabooonwomenworkingoutsidethehomeisconsiderablylessstrict.In...

... adivinerhasidentifiedwhatistobedone.Thereareallmanner of privatecuringrituals,andtheseareheldbywhomeverknowshow,notbyprofessionals;theytendtoinvolvesacrificestointrudingspirits,soulrecall-ing,andtheleaving of miniatureimages of wealthoutsidethevillageforthespirits.Therearefewdefiniteseasonalcalen-dricalceremonies,butvillageritesmustbeheldbeforeclear-ing,planting,andharvesting.Allsorts of means(suchasob-servingcracksinheatedeggshells,thebileductsinpiglivers,orhowadyingfowlcrossesitslegs)areusedfordiviningthesource of troublesandtheauspiciousness of plans.Arts.Withminorexceptions,allChinartisnonrepresen-tative,andmanyChinusedtofindithardeventorecognizeadrawnorpaintedhumanfigure,thoughphotographswereclearenoughtothem.Floral-geometricdecorationisfoundintheweavingandinthememorialpostsmentionedearlier.Some of thedesignfiguresconventionallystandforthings-forexample,forvariouskinds of possessionsbelongingtoapersonbeingcommemorated-butnoneisiconic.DiseaseandCuring.Thefirstrecourseinthetreatment of diseasesandeven of woundsistheuse of mediumswhoar-rangefortheplacation of thespiritsresponsible,whomightotherwisepreventrecovery.Alongsidethisthereisawideva-riety of quiteidiosyncratictreatment,chiefly of anherbalna-ture,whichismainlypassedonfrommotherstodaughtersanddaughters-in-law.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeadareburied,andintheSouthernChinhillsthereissecondaryreburial of thebonesinasmalljar.Ingeneraltheblanket-wrappedcorpseisin-terredinastone-linedchamberinoneside of averticalpit.Thosewhohavediedaviolentdeathandwhothereforearelikelytohavebecomedangerousghostsareburiedinasepa-rategravesite,remotefromthevillageandsurroundingtrails.Therange of memorialconstructionsisconsiderable,butamongthemshouldbementioned-inadditiontothecom-memorativeposts-thestoneplatformsinandaroundthevillage,onwhichpeoplecanrestandonwhich,somesay,thespirit of thedeceasedmaysometimescomeandrest;andtheclusters of miniaturehousesontallstilts,inwhichperi-odicofferings of foodandminiaturefurnishingsareplacedforthespirit of thedeceased.Aninterestingfeature of thestoneplatforms(inthecase of deceasedmales),behindwhichthememorialpostsareraised,istheline of smallstonesthatmayalsobepresent,eachrepresentingeitherahumanvictim of thedeceasedor,equivalently,anotherman'swifeseducedbythedeceased.Modemmemorialstoneshavewrittenonthemlists of thedeceased'spossessionsinlife,ofteninastonishingdetail,downtotheoddenameledtincuporpair of woolensocks.SeealsoMizoBibliographyCarey,B.S.,andH.P.Tuck(1896).TheChinHills.2vols.Rangoon:GovernmentPress.Lehman,F. K. (1963).TheStructure of ChinSociety.Urbana:University of IllinoisPress.Lehman,F. K. (1970)."OnChinandKachinMarriageCy-cles."Man,n.s.5:11 8-1 25.Lehman,F. K. (1989)."InternalInflationaryPressuresinthePrestigeEconomy of theFeast -of- MeritComplex."InUpland-LowlandContrastsinMainlandSoutheast Asia, ed-itedbySusanB.Russell,8 9-1 02.NorthernIllinoisUniver-sityCenterforSoutheast Asia StudiesOccasionalPaper.DeKalb.Parry,N.E.(1932).TheLakhers.London:Macmillan.Shakespear,John(1912).TheLusheiKukiClans.London:Macmillan.CochinJew71dianSociety,editedbyMiltonB.SingerandBernardS.Cohn,39 7-4 11.Chicago:Aldine.Patterson,MaureenL.P.(1970)."ChangingPatterns of Oc-cupationamongChitpavanBrahmans."IndianEconomicandSocialHistoryReview7:37 5-3 96.Patterson,MaureenL. ... enment,anddeath of theBuddha;theyobserveKathinChibarDanandotherBuddhistoccasions.Villagersalsounitetopropitiatethemalevolentspirits.IndividualChakmahouseholdsmayalsoarrangeritualstocounteractillnessandcropdamage.Medicine.Illnessisattributedtofright,spiritpossession,oranimbalance of elementsinthebody.MostChakmawillstillcallinavillagebaidyo.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeadbodyisburnt;kinandaf-finesmournforaweek,andthentheyarrangesatdinnatoprayforpeaceforthedepartedsoul.TheBuddhistmonkleadsthecremationandsatdinna.SeealsoBangaliBibliographyBangladesh,Government of (1983).ChittagongHillTracts:DistrictStatistics.Dhaka:BangladeshBureau of Statistics.Bangladesh,Government of (1989).StatisticalYearBook of Bangladesh.Dhaka:BangladeshBureau of Statistics.Bernot,Lucien(1964)."EthnicGroups of ChittagongHillTracts."InSocialResearchinEastPakistan,editedbyPierreBessaignet,13 7-1 71.Dhaka:AsiaticSociety of Pakistan.Bessaignet,Pierre(1958).Tribesmen of theChittagongHillTracts.Dhaka:AsiaticSociety of Pakistan.Dewan,BirajMohan(1969).ChakmaJatirItibritta(Thehis-tory of theChakma).Rangamati:KaliShankar.Ishaq,Muhammad,ed.(1972).BangladeshDistrictGazet-teers:ChittagongHillTracts.Dhaka:Government of Bangladesh.MOHAMMEDHABIBURRAHMANChenchuETHNONYM:junglepeopleTheChenchus of AndhraPradesh(formerlyHydera-bad)inhabitthehillycountrynorth of theKistnaRiver,whichformsthemostnortherlyextension of theNallamalaiHillsandisgenerallyknownastheAmrabadPlateau.Itliesbetween16'and16'30'Nand78'30'and79'15'E.Thewhole of ... squarekilometer.Therearefewtowns of anysize.ThelargestisAizawl,capital of MizoramState,withapopulationexceeding100,000.Owingtotheabsence of flatlandsandreadycommunicationswithmajorplainsareasinIndiaandMyanmar(Burma),thenumber of non-Chinpeopleslivingintheregionisnegligible.LinguisticAffiliation.TheChinlanguagesbelongtotheKuki-ChinSubgroup of theKuki-NagaGroup of theTibeto-BurmanFamily.Theyarealltonal,monosyllabiclanguages,anduntilthelatenineteenthcentury,whenChristianmis-sionariesdevelopedRomanalphabetsforatleastthemajorChinlanguages(includingMizo),none of themwaswritten.Thereareexcellentgrammarsanddictionaries of suchmajorlanguagesasMizo,Lai(Haka)Chin,Laizo(Falam)Chin,Tedim(Northern)Chin,andn'Men(Southern)Chin.HistoryandCulturalRelationsOurearliestnotice of ChinisinstoneinscriptionsinBurma of thetwelfthcentury,whichrefertoChinlivinginoradja-centtothemiddleChindwinRiver of northwesternBurma.InthenextcenturytheChindwinPlainandthetributaryKabaw-KaleValleywereconqueredandsettledbytheShan(aTai-speakingpeople of theregion),andfromthenonmoreandmore of theChinwerepushedupintothemountains(nodoubtdisplacingtheircloserelativesalreadylivingthere).BytheseventeenthcenturythesepressuresincreasedowingtotheBurmesewarswiththeKaleShanandwithManipur.Thisbroughtaboutmajorpopulationmovementswithinthemountainregion,andthepresentdistribution of peoplesinthemountainsgoesbackmainlytotheeighteenthcentury.TheKukiareremnants of peoplewhowerepushedoutfromthemainChinareas of occupationbytheancestors of theMizo,andwhothentookrefugeundertheprotection of themaharajas of Manipur.TheChinandMizopeopleswerein-dependent of anymajorstateuntiltheimperialerawhen,inthelatenineteenthcentury,theywerebroughtunderBritishrule:theMizointheLushaiHillsFrontierDistrict of India,theChinintheChinHills of Burma.Withtheachievement of independenceforIndiaandBurmainthelate1940s,thesedistrictsbecamerespectivelytheUnionTerritory of Mizoram(MizoramStatewithintheIndianUnionsincethelate1980s)andtheChinSpecialDivision,nowChinState, of theUnion of Burma,nowMyanmar.However,inspite of theirtraditionalfreedomfromanysemblance of outsideruleoradministrationbeforethecolonialperiod,thesepeoplesweredependentupontheplainscivilizations of IndiaandBurma.Theygotalltheironfortheirtoolsandweaponsfromtheplains,whichtheyreforgedlocally,andtheylookedtothe70ChitpavanBrahmanKinship,MarriageandFamilyTheChitpavancastecontainsfourteengotras(kingroupsbasedonamythicalancestor),whichplayarolechieflyinde-terminingmarriagepatterns.Onemaynotmarrywithinone'sgotraorwithsomeonefroman"unfriendly"gotra.Outsidemarriage,themostimportantunitisthehouseholdfamily,andinadditiontothatthekula,anexogamousclanusuallybasedonafamilyname,isimportant.Amostunusualfeature of thecastearefamilyhistories,calledkula-vrittantasinMarathi,eachbasedonaclannamesuchasLimaye,Karan-dikar,Bapat,etc.Originally60(accordingtotheSahyadriKhanda-seeabove),therearenowabout400lastnames.Since1914,fifty-fivebookscoveringthehistories of forty-sevenkulas(andinvolvingintotal80surnames)havebeenpublished,offeringanunusualopportunitytostudychangesinoccupationandlocation,thenature of householdgods,themarriagepatterns,etc. of theseChitpavanfamilies.Itisperhapssignificantthatnogenealogyinthekula-vrittantastracesancestorstoa...

... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of theEurasianchain of thatlanguagestock.Thereisanunderlyingcomponent of Tamil-Malayalam.SinceconversiontoIslam,numerousAra-bicandPersianwordshavebeenborrowed.Thebounds of thelanguageareclear,butthethreesouthernatollsandMalikuhavetheirowndialects.Thescriptisunique,inventedforDivehithreecenturiesagofromacombination of ArabicandIndianprinciples of script.Itsuitsthelanguagewellandiseasytolearn.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheMaldiveswereknowntoveryearlyIndianseafarers,suchassailedfromGujaratinthemiddle of thefirstmillenniumB.c.andsettledinSriLanka,andarementionedinearlyworkssuchastheBuddhistJdtakatalesandtheSriLankanepics.EarlysettlementwasevidentlyfromKerala,diffusedthroughtheLakshadvip(Laccadive)Islandsbyfishermenandbythekings of Keralawhomadeconquestsbysea,accordingtoTamilliterature of theearlycenturiesA.D.TheMaldiveswereperhapstouchedbyIndonesianculture(whichpassedthroughtoMadagascar)roughlyatthesametime,andtheis-landswerewellknowntoclassicalGreekgeographers.Per.siansbegantradingabouttheseventhcentury.ThecountrywasconqueredseveraltimesbyTamilandKeralakingsinmedievalcenturies.ThemostsignificantsettlementwasbySinhalasfromSriLanka,perhapsbypoliticalexiles,whichgavetheMaldivestheirlanguage,theoldSinhalascript,TheravadaBuddhism,andSriLankanbeliefsandfoods.This...

... herdeceasedhusband.Socialization.Theambition of everyGondwomanistobearason.Barrennessinawomanisconsideredacurse.Preg-nancyandbirtharesurroundedwithprotectiveritesagainstmagicspellsandevilinfluences.Childrenaregenerallywel-comeandtreatedwithaffection.Althoughsonsarepreferred,daughtersarewelcometoo.Childrengrowupwithoutmuchrestriction,butthecommunityteachesthemcorrectbehav-ior.Childrenareearlyinvitedtotakeoversometasks,firstplayfully,theninearnest.Boysspontaneouslyseemtoprefermalecompany,whilegirlsseemtogravitatenaturallytowardotherfemales.Thechangetoadulthoodisgradual;thereisnoinitiationceremony.Thefirstmenstruation of agirlisnotspeciallycelebrated,butshedoeslearninadvancewhatpro-hibitionsshehastoobserve.OnlythreeGondsectionsinthe south haveyouthdormitories,andonlytheMuriasusethedormitoryfortheeducation of youthinmarriedandciviclife.TheotherGondsectionshavenodormitorysystem.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.SincetheGondsarespreadoverawidearea,therearemanylocalsubsectionsthathavenoso-cialcontactwitheachother.ThemoreSanskritizedthesesec-tionsare,thehigheristhesocialranktheyclaim.Butthehighestrankisgiventothedescendants of theGondrajasandtheirretainers,theRaj-GondsandKatholias.Amongthesetwosectionswefindthegreatestnumber of Gondswithsubstantiallandholdings.OtherGondsectionsoutside of GondavanaaretheKisans,inthe south of Biharandintheneighboringdistricts of Orissa.TheGondsreachedeventhehillsalongthesouthernbank of theGanges.TheretheyareknownasMajwarsorMajhis(headmen).AkintotheGondsareanumber of othertribes,suchastheBhattras,Koyas,KondaKapus,KondaDeras,andHalbas.TheKhonds of Orissa,anotherimportanttribe,alsomayoriginallyhavebeenGonds.PoliticalOrganization.TheentireGondtribewasneverapoliticalunit.Tribalsolidaritydoesnotextendbeyondtheconfines of asubsection.ThebasicpoliticalunitistheGondvillagecommunity.Itisademocraticorganizationinwhichtheheadmanandotherofficialsarechosenbythevillagers.Eachvillagehasitscouncil,withofficialsliketheheadman,thepriest,thevillagewatchman,andfourorfiveelders.Moreimportantaffairsarediscussedanddecideduponbyallthemen of thecommunity.Avillagehasalsoitsservantcastes,suchastheAhir(cowherds),Agaria(blacksmiths),Dhulia(drummers),andPardhan(bardsandsingers).Atthetowns of Garha-Mandla,Kharla,Deogarh,andChanda,theleadingheadmenmanagedtorisetotherank of rulers(rajas)andtoestablishdynastiesthatlastedforcenturies.ButtheveryfactthattheserajassurroundedthemselveswithHinduofficialsandeagerlyadoptedHinduorMogulmethods of administra-tionprovesthatroyaltywasalientotribaldemocracy.InthepresentpoliticalsituationtheGondsare,despitetheirnum-bers,politicallypowerless,whichispartlybecause of thistri-baldisunitybutalsobecause of theircomparativelack of edu-cationanddrive,andtheirgreatpoverty.ThosefewGondswhoaremembers of thelegislativeassembliesoreventhena-tionalparliament(LokSabha)areeitheralienatedfromtheirtribalcultureoreasilymanipulatedbyotherpoliticians.ConflictandSocialControl.Insettlingdisputesthecourt of firstinstanceisthevillagecouncil(panch),whichispre-sidedoverbytheheadman.Usuallyitstrivestorestorehar-monybetweenthelitigantsratherthantoimplementcus-tomarylaw.Asettlementcommonlyinvolvesafine,orex-communicationinvaryingdegrees.Thosewhooffendagainsttherule of clanexogamyincursupernaturalsanctions.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligion of theGondsdoesnotdif-fermuchfromthat of thenumerousothertribesincentralIndia.Likethem,theGondsbelieveinahighgodwhomtheycalleitherbyhisHinduname,"Bhagwan,"orbyhistribalname,"BaraDeo,"the"GreatGod."Butheisanotiosedeityandisrarelyworshiped,thoughhisnameisofteninvoked.Heisapersonalgod-eternal,just,merciful,maker of thefertileearthand of man-thoughtheuniverseisconceivedascoex-istingwithhim.IntheGondbeliefsystem,besidesthishighgodtherealsoexistagreatnumber of maleandfemaledeitiesandspiritsthatpersonifyvariousnaturalfeatures.Everyhill,river,lake,tree,androckisinhabitedbyaspirit.Theearth,water,andairareruledbydeitiesthatmustbeveneratedandappeasedwithsacrificesandofferings.Thesedeitiesandspir-itsmaybebenevolent,butoftentheyarecapricious,malevo-lent,andpronetoharminghumanbeings,especiallyindivid-ualswhohavemadethemselvesvulnerablebybreakingarule of thetribalcode.Thedeitiesandspirits,especiallytheances-torspirits,watchoverthestrictobservance of thetribalrulesandpunishoffenders.ReligiousPractitioners.Gondsdistinguishbetweenpriestsandmagicians.Thevillagepriestisappointedbythevillagecouncil;however,hisappointmentisoftenhereditary.Hisresponsibilityistoperformallthesacrificesheldatcer-tainfeastsforthevillagecommunityforwhichhereceivesaspecialremuneration.Sacrificesandreligiousceremoniesonfamilyoccasionsareusuallyperformedbythehead of thefamily.Thedivinersandmagicians,ontheotherhand,areunofficialcharismaticintermediariesbetweenthesupernat-ural world andhumanbeings.TheGonds,liketheothertri-bals of centralIndia,believethatmostdiseasesandmisfor-tunesarecausedbythemachinations of evilspiritsandoffendeddeities.Itisthetask of thesoothsayersanddivinerstofindoutwhichsupernaturalagencieshavecausedthepres-entsicknessormisfortuneandhowtheycanbeappeased.Ifsoothsayersanddivinerscannothelp,magiciansandsha-mansmustbeemployed.Magiciansbelievethatbymagicfor-mulasanddevicestheycanforceaparticulardeityorspirittocarryouttheircommands.Shamansarepersonswhoeasilyfallintotrancesandarethenbelievedtobepossessedbydei-tiesorspiritsthatprophesythroughtheirmouths.Thesefre-quentecstasiesdonotseemtohaveanydetrimentalmentalorphysicaleffectsontheshamans,whomaybemaleorfe-male.Magicmaybe"white"or"black":itiswhiteifitcoun-teractsblackmagicoreffectsacurewhenasicknesshasbeenGaro83thebeginningsilentbarterwaspossiblebecauseeachpartyunderstoodfromlonginvolvementtherespectivevalues of theirgoods.Thisprocesshascontinuedtothepresent,withincreasinginvolvement of tradersfromneighboringareas,andhasnowbecomefullymonetized.Cotton,ginger,anddriedchiliesproducedbytheGarosaresoldtothetraders.TheGarosinturnpurchasepottery,metallictools,andotherindustrialgoodssuchasclothfromthetraders.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbetweenmembers of thehouseholdisasfollows:themalesareresponsibleforclearingjungleandsettingfiretothedebrisforshiftingculti-vation,whilewomenareresponsibleforplanting,weeding,andharvesting.Duringthepeak of theagriculturalopera-tionsthemensometimeshelpthewomen.Constructionandrepair of thehousearemaleduties.Menmakebaskets,whilewomencarrycropsfromthefieldandfirewoodfromjungle.Womenlookafterthekitchenandpreparebeer,andmenservethebeertoguests.Womenrearthechildrenandkeepthedomesticanimals.Bothmenandwomensellfirewoodandvegetablesinthemarket.LandTenure.Landforshiftingcultivationisownedbytheclan.Eachvillagehasatraditionallydemarcatedarea of itsowntermedadok.Thisareaissubdividedintoplotsthatareusedforcultivationinacyclicorder.Theplotsaredistrib-utedtothefamilies.Allotment of thegeneralplotsisdonebycommonconsensus of thevillageelders,buttheflatareaforpermanentwetcultivationisownedbyindividuals.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGarosreckontheirkinshipthroughthemother.Individualsmeasurethedegree of theirrelationshiptooneanotherbythedistance of theirmatrilin-eages.Formen,children of theirsistersorsisters'daughtersareveryimportantkin.Forwomen,children of theirsisters'daughtersareequivalenttothose of theirowndaughters.KinshipTerminology.ThekinshiptermsusedbytheGarosformaset,whichisbroadenoughsothateachGarocanbeassignedaterm.Thetermsarearrangedinasystemthatclassifiesthekin.Thisclassificationisbasedonnineprinciples,asfollows:(1)sex,(2)generation,(3)relativeage,(4)moietymembership,(5)collaterality,(6)inheritance,(7)type of wife,(8)intimacy of relationship,(9)speaker'ssex.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Descentismatrilineal,residenceuxorilocal.Themother'sbrother'sdaughtertype of cross-cousinmar-riageisthemostwidelyacceptedandprevalentamongthepeople.Itisarigidcustomthatamanmustmarryawomanfromtheoppositechatchi(moiety).Therule of chatchiexogamystipulatesthataman'smother'sfatherwillbeintheoppositechatchiandaman'swife'spotentialhusbandswillbeinhisownchatchi.Aftermarriageamankeepsuphisrela-tionwithhismachong(clan).Hisrelationwithreferencetohiswife'smachongisdesignatedasgachi.Marriageestab-lishesapermanentrelationbetweentwomachong,knownasakim.Aftermarriage,amalemovestotheresidence of hiswife.Inthecase of anokrom(husband of theheiress of prop-erty),marriagedoesnotcreateanewhouseholdbutratheraddsanewleaseonlifetoanoldhousehold.Evenafterthedeathordivorce of aspousetheakimrelationcontinues.Itistheresponsibility of thedeceased'smachongtoprovideare-placementspousetothesurvivingpartner.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdistheprimaryproductionandconsumptionunit.AGarohouseholdcomprisesparents,unmarriedsonsanddaughters,amarrieddaughter(heiress),andherhusbandandtheirchildren.Inprincipleamarriedgranddaughterandherchildrenshouldbeincluded,butinre.alitygrandparentsrarelysurvivetoseetheirgrandchildrenmarried.Somehouseholdsmay-forshortperiodsonly-includedistantrelativesornonrelatedpersonsforvariousreasons.Inheritance.PropertyamongtheGarosisinheritedinthefemaleline.One of thedaughtersisselectedbytheparentstobetheheiress.Ifthecouplehavenofemalechild,agirlbe-longingtothemachong of thewife(preferablythedaughter of hersister,whetherrealorclassificatory)isadoptedtobeanheiress.Sheisnotconsideredtobetheabsoluteowner of theproperty.Decisionaboutthedisposal of propertyistakenbyherhusband,whoisconsideredtobethehouseholdauthority(nokniskotong).Afterthedeath of thefather-in-lawresponsi-bilitytransferstotheson-in-law.Ifadeadmanissurvivedbyawidow,shestaysinthefamily of herdaughterandissome-timesreferredtoasanadditionalwife(Uk) of herdaughter'shusband.Socialization.Childrenstarthelpingtheirmothertolookaftertheinfantswhentheirmotherisbusywithwork.Todaytherearedifferenteducationalinstitutions-namely,themis-sionschoolsandotherIndianestablishments-thatactasmajoragents of education.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InGarosocietythemostimportantsocialgroupisthemachong(clan).Amachongisanexoga-mousmatrilinealdescentgroupwhereinaGaroisautomati-callyassignedbybirthtotheunilinealgroup of hismother.Achatchi(moiety)isdividedintomanymachong.Eachmar-riedcouplechoosesonedaughter-or,iftheyhavenone,theyadoptacloserelative of themother-tobeheiress(noknadongipikamechik) of thefamily.Herhusbandtradi-tionallyisselectedfromthelineagegroup of thefatherandisacceptedasthenokrom of thehouse.Heresideswithhiswifeinherparents'house.Hehastotakeontheresponsibility of lookingafterhisparents-in-lawduringtheiroldage,andhiswifeinheritstheproperty.PoliticalOrganization.Traditionally,theGaroswerenotapoliticallyorganizedsociety,andeventodaythereexistsnoclear-cutpoliticalstructure.Chieftainshipinvolvesreligiousfunctionsonly.SocialControl.Thekinshipsystem,thekinshipbond,andtherelatedvaluesystemactasaneffectivemeans of socialcontrol.Formerlythebachelors'dormitorieswereimportantagents of socialcontrol.Conflict.AmongtheGarosmostdisputesariseovertheis-sues of property,inheritance,anddomesticquarrelswithinthefamily.Suchproblemsaretoalargeextentsettledbythemahari(lineage) of theoffendedandtheoffender.Anewsit-uationdevelopswhensomeone'scattlecausedamagetoan-other'scrops.Insuchasituationthenokma(villagehead-man)actsasanintermediaryonly.IfhefailstosettletheGurung95PoliticalOrganization.Until1962theGurungvillagesweregovernedbyhereditaryclanleadersandvillagehead-men.In1962thenationalgovernmentinstitutedanelectoralsystemwherebyvillagesaregroupedtogetherinunits of five,calledpanchayats,anddividedintoneighborhoodsorwardsfromwhichlocalcouncillorsareelected.Theelectoratealsochoosesapradhanpancheanduperpradhan(likeamayorandvicemayor,respectively)toleadthepanchayat.SocialControl.Gossipandfear of witchattackarecom-monmeans of socialcontrol.Thelocalcouncilisabletolevyfinesagainstpanchayatresidents,andforseriouscrimesgov-ernmentpolicemaybecalledin.Conflict.Disputesareoftenresolvedbyelderstrustedbythepartiesinvolved.Ifthisdoesnotprovideasolutionthentheymaybebroughtbeforethevillagecouncilor,asalastre-sort,tothedistrictcourt.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGurungspracticeaform of TibetanBuddhismstronglyinfluencedbythepre-Buddhistreligion of Tibet,andtheyalsoobservemajorHindufestivals,suchasDasain.Theybelieveinsometenets of BuddhismandHindu-ism,suchaskarma,yettheyhaveaset of beliefsaboutanaf-terlifeintheLand of theAncestorsandinlocaldeitiesthatarepeculiarlyGurung.Gurungsbelievetheirlocaletobein-habitedbysupernaturalforestcreaturesandbyavariety of formlesswraithsandspirits.Some of theseexistinand of themselves,whileothersarebelievedtobethespirits of hu-manswhohavediedviolentdeaths.GurungsbelieveinthemajorHindudeitiesandintheBuddhaandbodhisattvas.Particularvillageshavetheirowndeities,whicharefelttobeespeciallypowerfulintheirimmediatesurroundings.ReligiousPractitioners.Practitioners of thepre-BuddhistGurungreligion,calledpanjuandklihbri,areactiveintheperformance of exorcismsandmortuaryrites.Buddhistlamasarealsoimportantinfuneraryrituals,aswellasperformingpurificationritesforinfantsandsomeseasonalagriculturalrituals.WealthierGurungsoccasionallycalllamasintoper-formhouse-blessingceremonies.Brahmanpriestsaresum-monedtocasthoroscopesandperformdivinationsattimes of misfortune.Dammisfromthelocalservicecastesarebelievedtobeparticularlypotentexorcistsandareoftencalledincases of illness.Arts.Gurungsmakenothingthattheywouldidentifyasart.Thegoodsthattheyproduce,suchasbasketsandblan-kets,areusefulandtendtobe of aconventionalplaindesign.Theartistry of Gurungsisexpressedintheirfolkmusicanddanceandespeciallyintheevanescentform of songex-changesbetweenyoungmenandwomen.Medicine.Gurungsoftenemployexorcistsaswellassci-entificdrugswhensufferingfromanillness.Scientificmedi-cineishighlyvalued,butitiscostlyandisnoteasilyavailableinruralareas.Herbsandplantsarealsousedintreatingill-nessandinjury.DeathandAfterlife.Deathis of centralsymbolicimpor-tanceforGurungs.Thefuneraryritual(pae)isthemaincere-monialoccasioninGurungsociety,involvingtwonightsandthreedays of ritualactivity.Itisattendedbykin,villagers,andalargenumber of peoplewhocomefortheconvivialityandspectacle.Buddhistlamasandthepanjuandklihbripriests of thepre-Buddhistreligionmayofficiateatthepae.Deathisbelievedtoinvolvethedissolution of elementsthatmakeupthebody,sothattheearthelementreturnstoearth,airtoair,firetofire,andwatertowater.Thisprocessleavestheplahorsouls(nineformenandsevenforwomen),whichmustbesentthroughtheperformance of thepaetotheLand of theAncestors.Therelifecontinuesmuchasitdoesinthepresent world, andfromtherethespiritcantakeotherrebirths.SeealsoGurkha;NepaliBibliographyMacfarlane,Alan(1976).ResourcesandPopulation:AStudy of theGurungs of Nepal.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Messerschmidt,DonaldA.(1976).TheGurungs of Nepal.Warminister:Aris&Phillips.Pignede,Bernard(1966).LesGurungs:UnePopulationhinalayenneduNepal.TheHague:Mouton.ERNESTINEL.McHUGH82GaroHajong,theKoch,theRabha,theDalau,andtheBanaiswhoresideontheadjacentplains of theneighboringdistrict.Thereremainsanobscurityabouttheorigin of theword"Garo."Theyareknownas"Garos"tooutsiders;buttheGarosalwaysdesignatethemselvesas"Achik"(hillmen).TheGarosaredividedintoninesubtribes:theAwe,Chisak,Matchi-Dual,Matabeng,Ambeng,Ruga-Chibox,Gara-Gan.ching,Atong,andtheMegam.Thesearegeographicsub-tribes,buttheyarealsodialectalandsubculturalgroups.Ac-cordingtotheirbeliefsandreligion,theGarosaredividedintothe"Songsarek"(thosewhofollowindigenousbeliefsandpractices)andtheChristians.Location.ThetwoGaroHillsdistrictsaresituatedbe-tween25°9'and26°1'Nand89°49'and91°2'E,coveringanarea of 8,000squarekilometers.ThedistrictsborderBangla-deshonthe south andwestandAssamonthenorth.Hillscovermost of thedistrict,withsomeadjacentfringes of plainsborderingthemonsoonarea,producingthickvegetationonthehills.Thereareanumber of hillystreamsandrivers;ex-ceptfortheSimsangRiver,whichformsawidefloodplain,noneisnavigable.Demography.Accordingtothecensus of Indiafor1971,Garosnumbered342,474.ChristianGaroswere54.3percent of thetotalGaropopulation;nowtheymaybemorethan60percent of thetotalGaropopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.AccordingtoSirGeorgeGrierson'sclassificationinTheLinguisticSurvey of India,GarobelongstotheBodoSubsection of theBodo-NagaSection,undertheAssam-BurmaGroup of theSino-TibetanorTibeto-BurmanLanguageFamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThereremainsnorecord of whentheGarosmigratedandset-tledintheirpresenthabitat.Theirtraditionallore,asre-cordedbyA.Playfair,indicatesthattheymigratedtotheareafromTibet.Thereisevidencethattheareawasinhabitedbystone-usingpeoples-PaleolithicandNeolithicgroups-inthepast.Aftersettlinginthehills,Garosinitiallyhadnocloseandconstantcontactwiththeinhabitants of thead-joiningplains.In177 5-1 776theZamindars of MechparaandKaraibari(atpresentintheGoalparaandDhuburidis.tricts of Assam)ledexpeditionsintotheGarohills.ThefirstcontactwithBritishcolonialistswasin1788,andtheareawasbroughtunderBritishadministrativecontrolintheyear1873.SettlementsThepopulationinaGarovillagemayrangefrom20to1,000persons.Thepopulationdensitytendstodecreaseasonemovestowardtheinteriorareasfromtheurbanareas of thedistricts.Villagesarescatteredanddistantfromoneanotherintheinteriorareas.Thesevillagesaregenerallysituatedonthetop of hillocks.Thehousesarebuilt,togetherwithgrana-ries,firewoodsheds,andpigsties,onpilesaroundtheslope of thehillock,usinglocallyavailablebamboo,wood,grass,etc.Theapproachtotherectangularhouseisalwaysbuiltfacingtheleveledsurface of thetop,whiletherearpart of thehouseremainshorizontaltotheslope.Nowadaysnewpile-typebuildingsusingwoodandironasmajorcomponentsarebeingmadeinsometraditionalvillagesalso.Inaddition,buildingssimilartothose of theneighboringplainsareconstructed.Thevillagesmayremaindistantfromagriculturalfields(hum).Inordertoguard ... isgovernedbyrepre-sentativeselectedbyuniversaladultfranchisewhoconstituteavidhansabha(legislativeassembly).Amajoritypartyformsthegovernment.Thehead of thestateisthegovernor,ap-pointedbythepresident of India.Thestategovernmenthasverywidepowersformaintaininglawandorder,levyingtaxes,andcarryingoutdevelopmentwork.Italsosharesresourceswiththeuniongovernment.Gandhinagaristhecapitalcity of thestate.Thestateisdividedinto19districts,whicharefurthersubdividedinto184talukas.Localself-governmentbyelectedrepresentativesfunctionsatvillage,taluka,anddis-trictlevelandalsointownsandcities.Thelocalgovernmentperformsfunctionsrelatedtopublicamenities,education,anddevelopment.Itraisesresourcesbylevyingtaxesandin.comefrompropertyandalsoreceivesaidgrantsfromthestategovernment.Industrialinvestmentisstronglyencouraged.SocialControl.Gujarattodayhastheusualinstitutions of astatepoliceforceandahierarchy of lawcourts,rangingfromthesubmagistrate'scourttothestatesupremecourt.InallcourtsthecentralwritistheIndianPenalCode.Butinaddi-tiontotheseinstitutions,whichwerefirstdevelopedundertheBritishadministration of theoldBombayPresidency,thereisalsoanindigenoussystem of casteandvillagecoun-cils.Thecastecouncilisfoundinanyvillageorsmalltownwherethenumbers of anyonecasteorcasteblocaresuffi-cienttowarrantit.Thiscouncilconsists of themaleheads of themostprominentfamiliesinthecaste,anditsfunctionistomaintainequanimitywithothercastesbyseeingthattradi-tionalpatterns of behavior(thecaste'sdharma)arefollowed.Finesandminorphysicalpunishmentmaybehandeddowntothosewhooffendagainstthesepatterns.Publichumilia-tion,suchasabeatingwithsandals,isausualpunishment.Thereisalsoavillagecouncil(grampanchayat)whichisGurung93greatestpercentage of theirpopulation of allthegroups),Magar,Tamang,Sunwar,Limbu,andRai.Gurkhasclaimde-scentfromthewarlikeRajputs of Chittaur,inRajasthan,say-ingtheyweredriventhencetotheNepalesehillsbytheMus-liminvasions.TheGurkhamilitarytraditioncanbetracedbacktothesixteenthcenturywhenthekingdom of Gorkhawasconqueredbythefirstkings of theShahThakuridynasty.Bytheend of theeighteenthcenturytheGurkhaKingdom,asitwasthenknown,hadexpandedcontrolovermuch of whatisnowNepalandhadbegunpushingnorthintoChinaandTibet.Expansion south intoIndiawasresistedbytheBrit-ish(whowereexpandingnorthward),butin1815theNepa-leseweredefeated.TheBritishwereimpressedbytheGurkhasandobtainedpermissiontorecruitthemfortheBritish-IndianArmy.Therecruitswereorganizedintoethnicregimentsandparticipatedwithdistinction(onthegovernmentside)intheIndianMutiny of 185 7-5 8,theSecondAfghanWar(187 8- 1880),andtheBoxerRebellion(1900).By1908the12,000GurkhaswereorganizedintotenregimentsastheGurkhaBrigade.During World WarIand World WarIIthenumber of Nepalesemilitaryvolunteersincreasedtomorethan200,000andadditionalunitswereformed.In1947theGurkhaBrigadewasdisbandedandsincethenvariousGurkhaunitshaveservedwiththeBritisharmy,theIndianarmy,theNepalarmy,andtheUnitedNationspeacekeepingforces.Today,theyaremainlyusedintheCrownColony of HongKong(whichwillreverttoChinain1997).WithBrit-ain'sintegrationintoEurope,Gurkhasarebeingphasedout of theBritisharmy.GurkhaveteransplayasignificantsocialandeconomicroleinNepalesesociety.Theyenjoyhighstatusandareoftenelectedcommunityleaders,andtheincomefromtheirpen-sionsprovidesasteadysource of cashfortheirfamiliesandcommunities.NepaleseworkinginIndiaaswatchmenarealsosometimesreferredtoasGurkha.SeealsoGurung;Limbu;Magar,Nepali;Rai;Sunwar;TamangBibliographyVansittart,Eden,andB.V.Nicolay(1915).Gurkhds.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Reprint.1985.NewDelhi:B.R.PublishingCorp.GurungETHNONYMS:noneOrientationIdentification.TheGurungsareapeopleinhabitingthefoothills of theHimalayasincentralNepal.Theiroriginsareuncertain,thoughlinguisticevidencesuggeststhattheiran-cestorsmayhavemigratedfromTibetabout2,000yearsago.Location.Themajority of Gurungvillagesarelocatedonmountainslopesatelevationsbetween1,050and2,100me-tersinthefoothills of theAnnapurnaandLamjungHimalayaandHimalchuliinNepalat28°0'to28°30'Nand83°30'to84°30'E.TowardtheHimalayanrange,therearewidegorgeswithtallcraggyridgesrisingabovethem.Thesearedottedwithvillages,sethighonthemountainsides.Oftentherewillbejungleaboveavillageandbelowitacascade of terracedfields.Wintersarecoldanddry,thoughitseldomfreezes.Monsoonrainscomefromthe south insummer.Tempera-turesrangefromabout0°to32°C."Gurungcountry"issitu-atedbetweentwodistinctecologicalzones,thealpinemoun-tainhighlandsandthelowsubtropicalvalleys.Likewiseitexistsbetweentwogreatculturalandsocialtraditions,Ti.betanBuddhismtothenorthandIndianHinduismtothe south. Demography.The1981Nepalcensusreported174,464GurungspeakersinNepal,makingup1.2percent of thecountry'stotalpopulation.Thesefiguresreflectasmallernumber of Gurungsthanactuallyexist,sincetheyindicateonlythosewhonamedGurungastheirmothertongueandnotallGurungsspeakthelanguage.ThecensusshowsGurungstobemostnumerousinthedistricts of Lamjung,Syangja,Kaski,Gorkha,Tanahu,Parbat,andMananginGandakiZone,centralNepal.LinguisticAffiliation.GurungbelongstotheTibeto-BurmanLanguageFamilyandresemblesotherlanguages of peoples of themiddlehills of Nepal,suchasThakaliandTamang.Ithasatonalstructureandnowrittenform.MostGurungsarebilingualandtendtobefluentfromchildhoodinNepali,theSanskriticlanguagethatisthelinguafranca of thenation.HistoryandCulturalRelationsGurunglegendsdescribea"GhaleRaja,"akingwhoruledtheGurungsinancienttimes.HewasoverthrownbytheNepaliraja of aneighboringprincipalityaboutthefifteenthcenturyAD.Bythesixteenthcentury,Khasakings of theShahfamilyhadconqueredmost of theprincipalitiesthatmakeuppres-ent-dayNepal.GurungsactedasmercenariesinKhasaar-mies,includingthose of PrithviNarayanShah,theancestor of thepresentking of Nepal,whocompletedunification of thekingdom of NepalwhenheconqueredtheKathmanduValleyin1769.Because of theirservice,Gurungsenjoyedrel-ativelyhighstatusinthenewkingdom.Theycontinuedtoactasmercenaries,andinthenineteenthcenturytheNepalesegovernmentsignedatreatyallowingtheBritisharmytore-cruitthemandotherhillpeoplesintotheGurkharegiments,inwhichtheycontinuetoserve.Beyondancientlegendanddocumentedrelationswiththenation-state(suchasmilitaryservice),littleisknownaboutthehistory of Gurungs.TheGurungsareneithergeographicallyisolatedfromothergroupsnorunaware of thesocialconventionsandcul-turalvalues of thepeoplesaroundthem.Theyareinvolvedintradingrelationswithmembers of neighboringethnicgroups,includingThakalisandTibetans,andhigh-casteHindumer-chantswhotravelthroughthevillagessellinghouseholdgoods.Gurungsalsohaveongoingpatron-clientrelationshipswithmembers of blacksmithandtailorservicecasteswholiveinhamletsattachedtoGurungvillages.Althoughinterethnic88GrasiatohavecomefromMewarmanycenturiesago,"andastheystillhavetheirinternal'Gots'orcircles of affinity(suchasParmars,Chouhan,Rathoi,etc.)uponthemodel of aregularclan,wemayperhapsassumethattheyarethedescendants of RajputsbyBhilwomen,"accordingtoP.C.Dave.InMaharashtraStatetheGrasiasareonthelist of ScheduledTribesas"Dungri-Grasias."TheGrasiasspeakadialect of theirownthatisclosetoBhili,withBhilibeingcloselyrelatedtoGujarati.SettlementsGrasiahousesarefoundontheslopes of hillswiththeirfieldsextendingoutinfront.Thehousesusuallyeachhaveoneroomandanopenverandawithwalls of mudorsplitbambooplasteredwithmud.TheroofsarecoveredwithhandmadeflattilesmadebytheGrasiasthemselves.Sometimes,though,thehouses of thepoormayhavegrassthatchingcoveringtheroofs.Aspecialshedforthecattleisoftenconstructedontheside of oroppositetothehouse,andoftenfodderisstoredontheroofs of thesesheds.Toshelterguests,aspecialshedwithatiledroofisbuiltoppositethehouse of theheadman.EconomyGrasiasaregenerallyvegetarianbuthavebeenknownocca-sionallytoenjoynonvegetarianfoods.Maizeisthefoodsta-ple,whichisgrownbyeveryGrasiawhohaslandforcultiva-tion.Itispreparedbycookingthecoarsemaizeflourwithbuttermilkandaddingsomesalttoit.Sometimesbreads of maizeflourarealsoprepared.WhenlittlewheatandmaizeareavailabletheGrasiasuseinferiorgrainlikekuro(Italianmil-let?)asasubstitute,andwhennecessaryjunglerootsandtu-bersareused.Menprimarilydotheworkthatrequiresthemostphysi-calstrength,suchasplowingandotheragriculturalwork,pre-paringfencesforthefields,construction of houses,felling of trees,andsomehouseholdworksuchaschurning of thecurdsforbutter.Womendothecooking,tendtothecattleandmilkthecows,buffalo,andgoats,bringdrinkingwater,grindgrain,etc.,andlookafterthechildren.Therearenoso-cialstigmasattachedtoeithermen'sorwomen'swork.Womenveiltheirfacesinthepresence of eldermalerelations of theirhusbands,buttheyaregenerallyfreetomoveaboutinsocietylikemenandarenotconsideredinferiortomen.Girlsshareasimilarfreedomwithboys.Oncetheyaregrownuptheyhavethefreedomtochoosetheirownhusbands.Thelargestsign of femalesocialoppressionisthatwomenaren'tallowedtoownpropertyontheirown,notevenifitwaslefttothembytheirfather.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyOnlyextremecircumstancessuchasabjectpoverty,debilitat-ingdisease,etc.keepGrasiamenandwomenfrommarrying,astheGrasiasbelievemarriageisanecessityforall.Boysmarrybetweentheages of 18and24,andgirlsbetween14and18.Theselection of amateusuallyiswithoutritualandinvolvesselectingaspouseandthenlivingtogetherwithoutanymarriageceremony.Thisarrangementmayvaryinsomeareasbecause of Hinduinfluence.Theonlyrestrictionsarethatthebride-pricemustbepaidandthatthemarriagecan-notbebetweencousins.Divorceoftenoccursiftheboydoesnotlikethegirl.Itiseasyandfreelypermitted.Thetermsnatra,ornata,refertowidowremarriage,whichisquitecommonandwhichinvolvesthehandingout of breadandjaggerytorelatives,andthemanmakingapay-ment of moneytothewidow'sfatherandprovidingtheneces-sarymarriageclothestothewidow.Polygynyoccursbutpolyandryisunknown,althoughmostGrasiamenmarryonlyonce.Because of thesocialstructurethatexistsit ... asamoregeneralizedorganizingprincipleinGurungsociety.Descentinterms of rightstolineagere-sourcesandclanaffiliationispatrilineal,butdescentthroughthemother'slineinfluencesmarriagepossibilitiesandpro-hibitions.KinshipTerminology.TheGurungshaveawidearray of kinterms,whicharehighlydifferentiatedandprecise.Birthorderandrelativeageareimportantmatricesinthestructure of Gurungkinship.KintermsareusedfornearlyeveryonewithwhomGurungsinteract;unrelatedpersonsareassignedafictiveterm.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriageandchildbearingareimportanttotheassumption of fulladultstatusforGurungs.Marriagesarear-rangedwhendaughtersareintheirmid-tolateteensandsonsintheirlateteenstotwenties.Inpreviousgenerationstheageatmarriageforgirlswasearlier,fromabout9to13.AmongGurungs,cross-cousinmarriageispreferred.Thecat-egory of crosscousinisbroad,includingalargenumber of classificatoryrelatives.Residenceispatrilocal,withaprefer-enceforvillageexogamy.Divorcecanbeinitiatedbyeitherthemanorthewoman.Bride-wealthintheform of goldjew-elryisgiventothebrideatmarriage.Ifthehusbandinitiatesadivorcewithoutduecomplaint,suchasadultery,thewifehastherighttokeepthebride-wealth.However,ifthewifecausesorinitiatesthedivorcesheisrequiredtoreturnthebride-wealthtoherhusband.DomesticUnit.AmongGurungs,thedomesticunitchangesovertime.Ahouseholdwillbeginasanuclearfamily,and,assonsreachadulthoodandmarry,theirbridescomeintotheparentalhomeandremaintherewhiletheirfirstoneortwochildrenaresmall.Thedomesticunitisthenanextendedfamilyforaperiod of fivetotenyears.Astheson'schildrengrow,hewillbuildaseparateresidence,usuallynexttothat of hisparents.Inheritance.ResourcesaredistributedequallyamongsonsinGurungsociety.Ifthereisnoson,adaughtercanin-herit,andtheson-in-lawwillcometoresideinthehousehold of hisparents-in-law.Thepatrimonymaybedividedpriortothedeath of thefather.Inthatcase,thefathercanreserveasmallportion.AlthoughitrunscontrarytoGurungcustom,Nepaleselawspecifiesthatunmarriedadultdaughtersshouldinheritashare of familyproperty.Socialization.Childrenaretaughttobeobedientandre-spectful of elders.Theylearnbyimitationandtheactiveen-couragement of theolderchildren,whooftencareforsmallerones.Corporalpunishmentisoccasionallyused,andunrulychildrenmaybeisolatedbriefly.Moreoftenchildrenarecoaxedtowardgoodbehaviorandinstructedthroughstoriesaboutpossiblesocialandsupernaturalconsequences of badbehavior.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Gurungsocietyisorganizedintotwotiersorsubgroupscalledthe"CharJat"or"fourclans"andthe"SoraJat"or"sixteenclans."Thesubgroupsareendoga-mousandwithinsubgroupseachclanisexogamous.TheCharJatgrouphastraditionallyclaimedsuperiorstatustotheSoraJatgroup.Clanswithineachsubgroupintermarryandotherwisetreatoneanotherasequals.Grasia87causedbyblackmagic.Gondsalsobelieveintheevileyeandinwitchcraft.Awitchisusuallyawomanwhobyherevilpowerbringssicknessanddeathtopeopleintheneighbor-hood.Whendiscovered,sheispubliclydisgracedandex-pelledfromthevillageorevenkilled.Ceremonies.TheGondscelebratemanyfeastsconnectedmainlywiththeagriculturalseasonsandwithlife-cycleevents(birth,marriage,sickness,anddeath).Onallfestiveocca-sionssacrificesandofferingsareperformedeitherbytheoffi-cialvillagepriest,bythesoothsayersandmagicians,orbythehead of thefamilythatiscelebratinganevent.Allthesesacri-ficesareaccompaniedbyappropriateceremonies of symbolicsignificance.Theofferingsandsacrificescanbeeitheranimalorvegetable;itdependsonthetype of deitybeingaddressed.Femaledeitiesgenerallydemandthatbloodbespilled;thevictimsareusuallychickensorgoats,sometimesmalebuffalo,and,occasionallyinthepast,humanbeings.Vegetableoffer-ingsincludefruits(especiallycoconuts),flowers,coloredpowder,andstrings.Arts.Likemosttribals,theGondsareaccomplishedarti-sansandcanmanufacturealmostalltheimplementstheyre-quirefortheirworkonthefarmandintheforest,allfurnitureinhouseandkitchen,andall of theirornamentsanddecora-tions.Theyareartisticallygifted:theypainttheirhousewallswithartisticdesigns,andtheycarvememorialpillarsinwoodandstonefortheirdead.Theyhaveinventedvariousoriginaldancesandarepassionatedancers.Theyaregoodmusiciansonthedrum,theflute,andotherinstruments.Theyaregoodsingers,thoughthemelodies of theirsongssometimessoundmonotonousandmaynotbe of theirowninvention.Theyareinventiveincomposingnewsongs,folktales,legends,andmythsandinretellingthemdramatically.Theyhavecom-posedagreatepiccelebratingtheoriginsandexploits of acul-tureheronamedLingo.Medicine.TheGondsarefullyawarethatcertaindiseaseshaveanaturalcause,andtheyknowmanyjunglemedicinestocuresuchdiseases.Butwhentheseremediesremaininef-fective,theyresorttomagicaldevices.DeathandAfterlife.AfterdeathanadultGondmanorwomaniscremated;childrenareburiedwithoutmuchcere-mony.Ceremoniesareperformedatthefuneraltopreventthesoul of thedeceasedfromfindingitswaybacktoitshouseandvillage.TheGondsbelieveinanafterlife.Theybelieveeachhumanbeinghastwosouls,thelifespiritandtheshadow.Theshadowmustbepreventedfromreturningtoitshome,oritwillharmthesurvivingrelatives.ThelifespiritgoestoBhagwantobejudgedandrewardedbyreincarnationintoahigherformorpunishedinapool of bitingworms;afterawhilethesoulisrebornandbeginsanewlife.Othersbelievethatthesouljoinstheotherancestors of theclan,especiallyafterastonememorialhasbeenerected.StillothersbelievethatthesoulisabsorbedinBhagwanorBaraDeo.Thebeliefinthesurvival of theancestralspiritsis,however,quitestrong.Theseancestorspiritswatchoverthemoralbehavior of thelivingGondandpunishoffenders of triballaw.Thustheyactasstrictguardians of theGondcommunity.SeealsoAgaria;Ahir;Baiga;Kond;KoyaBibliographyElwin,Verrier(1943).MariaMurderandSuicide.London:OxfordUniversityPress.2nded.1950.Elwin,Verrier(1944).TheMuriaandTheirGhotul.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Fuchs,Stephen(1960).TheGondandBhumia of EasternMandla.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.2nded.1968.Bombay:NewLiteraturePublishingCo.Fiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1948).TheAboriginalTribes of Hyderabad.Vol.3,TheRajGonds of Adilabad.Lon-don:Macmillan.Fiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon,andElizabethvonFilrer-Haimendorf(1979).TheGonds of AndhraPradesh:TraditionandChangeinanIndianTribe.NewDelhi:VikasPublishingHouse.Grigson,William(1938).TheHillMarias of Bastar.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Russell,RV.,andHiraLal(1916).'Gond."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India.Vol.3,3 8-1 43.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Ooster-hout:AnthropologicalPublications.Singh,Indrajit(1944).TheGondwanaandtheGond.Luck-now:UniversityPublishers.STEPHENFUCHSGrasiaETHNONYMS:Bhil-GrasiaBhomia,Dungri-Grasia,Gara,Garasia,GirisiaOrientationTheterm"Grasia"referstotheRajputandotherlandholdersinsections of GujaratandRajasth,wheretheyholdlandsgiventothemasgaras(landlords)bythechieftainsformain-tenance.Itissaidthattheterm'Grasia"isderivedfromthenativetermfor"landlords."TheGrasiasaretheprincipalin-habitants of theBhakkarsection of PakistaniPunjab,andalso of parts of KachchhDistrict,inGujarat.SirJohnMalcolmnotedthattheterm"Girasias"denotes"chiefswhoweredrivenfromtheirpossessionsbyinvadersandestab-lishedandmaintainedtheirclaimtoashare of therevenueupontheground of theirpowertodisturborpreventitscol-lection."ThewordcanbederivedfromtheSanskritgiras,whichsignifies"mouthful,"andinthepastitwasusedmeta-phoricallytodesignatethesmallshare of theproduce of thecountrythattheseplunderersclaimed.TheGrasiasaresaid92Gujaratiheadedbythevillageheadman(patel)andcontainsleadingrepresentatives of each of thecastegroups.Itsfunctionispartlytoconductformalcommunityaffairs,suchasseason-alfestivals,andpartlytoresolveintercastedisputesandoffenses.Conflict.Becausetherehasbeenlittlelaborunrestinre-centtimes,Gujarathasbecomearelativelyprosperousstate.Publiclifehashoweverbeenmarredbyseveralriotsledbyupper-castestudents,inprotestagainstthegovernmentpol-icy of reservingplacesinthecollegesforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes.ReligionandExpressiveCultureGujaratiHindusaredividedintoalargenumber of religioussects.Therearetwobroadcategories:thosewhoworshiponeoracombination of some of thegreatVedicdeitiesor of thePuranicaccretionstotheorthodoxpantheon;andthosewhodenytheregulardeitiesandprohibitidolworship.TheformeraretheShaivites,ShaktasorDeviBhaktas,Vaishnavites,andthefollowers of minordeities.ThelatterbelongtotheAryaSamaj,KabirPanthi,andothersuchfairlymodernsects.Thesesectsarenotmutuallyexclusive.ReligiousBeliefs.AGujaratiHinduattachesthegreatestimportancetobathing.Heorsheobservesfastsonceaweekandeveryeleventhdayinafortnight.AGujaratiHindube-lievesinHeaven,Hell,andthetransmigration of thesoul.Onehopestobetterone'spositioninthisandthelifetocomebyone'sdevotiontoGod,bydan(charity),andbydaya(mercytowardfellowhumanbeingsandcows,etc.).GujaratiJains,thoughfewinnumber,occupyanimportantplaceinGujaratisocietyandtheeconomy.Jainismrejectstheauthor-ity of theVedasandthespiritualsupremacy of theBrahmans.Thehighestgoal of Jainismisnirvanaormoksha,thesettingfree of theindividualfromthesanskara,thecycle of birthanddeath.TheJainsaredividedintotwosects,DigambarisandSvetambaris.ThecowisworshipedandconsideredsacredbyHindus.Besidesworshipingvariousidols,anaverageHinduworshipsanimals,trees,fire,etc.andbelievesinbhuts(pos-sessingspirits).Beliefinomensisalsocommon.Hindusbe-lievethattheresult of everyundertakingisforeshadowedbycertainsignsandhints.ReligiousPractitioners.Thelife-cycleceremoniesareper-formedbyBrahmans.Wanderingholymen,however,arere.veredirrespective of theircaste,religion,ororigin.Gujaratisalsopatronizemenwhohaveareputationforbeingabletoridtheindividual of bhuts.Ceremonies.Ceremoniesareperformedatbirth,mar-riage,anddeathwhenrelativesareinvitedforfeasts.Amongtheimportantfestivalsare:Diwali,thefestival of lamps;Hindunewyear'sday,whichisthenextdayafterDiwali;UtranorSankrant,afestival of theharvest;andNavratra,afestival of the"ninenights"involvingafolkdancecalledGarba.Arts.RasandGarbaareimportantfolkdancesperformedbybothmalesandfemales.Melas,fairseitheratpilgrimageplacesoronthebank of ariverduringcertainfestivals,attractalargecrowdwherepeopledance,sing,andwatchbullfightsorcockfights.Bhavaiisapopularfolkdrama,generallyper-formedinopenspacesinvillagesandtowns.Woodandstonesculpturesdecoratingtemples,palaces,andprivatebuildingsarewellknown.Paintingscalledsathiaandrangoli,donebyusingpowderedchalk,aremadebywomenatthethreshold of theirhousesforfestivalsandotherceremonies.Thecalicoprinting of Gujaratisfamous.TattooingiscommonamongcertaincastesinSaurashtraandnorthGujarat.Medicine.Traditionally,diseasewasbelievedtobecausedbyanimbalance of elementsinthebody,aswell...