... fromitemshecarriedinanoldarmyrucksack.Hispharmacopoeiaincludedthefol-lowing:someAyurvedictreatmentsavailableinthelocalormoredistantbazaars;abull'stooth;ahumanlegbone;thenavel of< /b> amuskdeer;ashred of< /b> aleopard'stongue;aporcu-pine'sjawbone,plusitsstomach,stillstuffedwiththedriedcontents;atortoiseshell;apiece of< /b> redbrick;ablackstone;andnumerousbits of< /b> leafandbark.Oftenthepatientwasre-quiredtodrinkaconcoction of< /b> selectedground-upbitsfromthisarray.Ground-upbrickwasafrequentlyusedcompo-nent.Harder,nongrindableitemssuchasabull'stoothweremerelytouchedtothemedicine.Ceremonies.Disregardingsmallvariations,themethod of< /b> sacrificegenerallyfollowsapredictablepattern.Theritualtakesplaceatalocalitywherethedeityisthoughttobepres-ent.Itiscarriedoutbyayoungunmarriedboywhohasbathedanddressedhimselfinacleanwhiteloincloth.Aftersanctifyingthegroundwithcowdungandwaterandcon-structingasmallopen-endedroomfromflatstones,heselectsasmallstonetorepresentthedeityandprovidesitwithnewclothingbywrappingwhitestringaroundit.Hethensetsthenewlydresseddeityinthestoneroomandfashionsacow-dungplatformwithanumber of< /b> depressionsinit.Thisheplacesbeforethedeitytoholdfoodofferings.Suchofferingsincludericeflourfriedinghee,puffedrice,ricemixedwithwaterandsage,andcow'smilk.Thedeityishonoredfurtherbydecoratingtheshrinewithturmeric,bits of< /b> coloredcloth,andflowersandbythepresence of< /b> fireintheform of< /b> amustard-oillampinacoppercontainer.Justbeforethesacrifice,thesacrificermakesanincense of< /b> gheeandsageandpraysforwhateverboonhewishesthedeitytogive.Theanimaltobeofferedisreadiedbysprinklingwater,rice,andsageonitsheaduntilitshakesit,thusshow-ingitswillingnesstobesacrificed.Iftheanimalissmallenough,itisthenwavedovertheincensecontainer.Other-wisetheincenseburneriswavedunderit.Nexttheanimalisbeheaded,andthebloodthatspurtsfromthecarcassisdi-rectedtowardtheshrineandtheimageinside.Theheadisthenplacedinfront of< /b> theimage.Thesacrificerthengivestikatoallwhoarepresentbypressingasmallamount of< /b> ricemixedwithbloodontotheirforeheads.One of< /b> theworshipersdoesthesameforhim.Asagiftforhisservices,thesacrificerreceivestheheadandwhateverfoodisnotneededforofferingintheshrine.Sometimesthesacrificedanimaliscookedneartheshrineandeveryoneeatsthefoodsanctifiedbyitshavingbeensharedwithadeity.DeathandAfterlife.AMagarwhodiesdoesnotceasebeingamember of< /b> thefamily.Heorshecontinuestobeaware of< /b> descendantsandcanaffectthem.Thedescendants,inturn,continuetobeaware of< /b> himorherandrealizethatwhattheydocontrols,atleastpartially,thewayheorshetreatsthem.Therearetwokinds of< /b> deceasedancestor.Onekind,calledbai,isaspiritbeingwhowandersaboutonEarthandlikessacrificialblood.Theother,calledpitri,isinheavenanddoesnotlike ... ac-cordancewithMuslimcustom;however,thebridemustbepresentbecauseinSriLankathegroomadornsherwithaweddingnecklaceusuallyhavingacrescentonit.Postmaritalresidenceisatthebride'shouseamongallSriLankanMus-lims,andthecouplemayremainthereforsomemonthsoryears.Divorceisrare,andpolygynyinsignificant.Alargenumber of< /b> mentakebridesfromanyMuslimcategoryexceptthebarbercaste.BibliographyArasaratnam,S.(1964).Ceylon.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:PrenticeHall.Maloney,Clarence(1984)."SriLanka."InMuslimPeoples:A World< /b> EthnographicSurvey,editedbyRichardV.Weekes,72 3-7 < /b> 27.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Mauroof,Mohamed."Aspects of< /b> Religion,Economy,andSo-cietyamongtheMuslims of< /b> SriLanka."ContributionstoIn-dianSociology,n.s.6:6 6-8 < /b> 3.Robinson,Francis,ed.(1989).TheCambridge Encyclopedia< /b> of< /b> India,Pakistan,Bangladesh,SriLanka,Nepal,Bhutan,andtheMaldives.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Yalman,Nur(1967).UndertheBoTree:StudiesinCaste,Kin-ship,andMarriageintheInterior of< /b> Ceylon.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:University of< /b> CaliforniaPress.JAYDiMAGGIOMundaETHNONYMS:Hor,Kol,KolarianOrientationIdentification.Mundarefersprimarilytoagroup of< /b> lan-guages,butthetribesthatspeakthoselanguageshavecollec-tivelybecomeknowntoscholarshipbythesamename.Indi-vidually,ethnicdesignationsare(withimportantalternativesinparentheses):Korku,Santal(includingtheMahalisub-group),Munda,Ho,Bhumij,Birhor,Asur,Turi,Korwa,Kora,Kharia,Juang,Sora(Saora,Savara),Gorum(Parenga),Gadaba,Remo(Bondo,Bonda),andGataq(Didayi,Dire).Some of< /b> thesenames(especiallyKharia,Sora,andGadaba)aresharedwithlocalgroups of< /b> non-Mundaspeakers.Theterm"Munda"appearstobederivedfromaSanskriticrootmeaning"substantial,wealthy,"later"head,"hence"head-man";itwasthusoriginallyatermappliedbyoutsiders,ausagethatbecameespeciallyconsolidatedundertheBritishregime.Theword"Kol"(Kolarian),althoughpejorative,isprobablyreallyacorruption of< /b> theirownhor,kor,etc.,mean-ing"man,"commoninthenorth of< /b> theirareabutreplacedbyremoinsouthernOrissa,India.Location.TheKorkuarelocatedinsouthwestMadhyaPradeshandareisolatedfromotherMunda.ThelastfivegroupsinthelistabovearefoundmainlyintheKoraputandGanjamdistricts of< /b> southernOrissa.TheremainderarefoundmainlyonandaroundtheChotaNagpurPlateau-thatis,insouthernBihar,northernOrissa,easternMadhyaPradesh,andwesternWestBengal,withanoutlier of< /b> KorwainMirzapurDistrict,UttarPradesh.TherearealsosomeSantalinsoutheastNepal(wheretheyarecalledSatar),Bhu-tan,andnorthernBangladesh.Demography.Therearejustover6millionMundaspeak-ers,two-thirds of< /b> whombelongtojustonetribe,theSantal,one of< /b> thelargesttribesonearth.Otherlargegroups of< /b> Mundaspeakers(withcensusfiguresinparentheses)aretheKorku(275,654in1971),Munda(1,181,151in1971),Ho(538,124in1971),Kharia(274,540in1971),andSora(521,187in1971).Therestnumberafewthousandeachatthemost,theBirhor4,300in1971.Togethertheyconstitutewellunder1percent of< /b> thetotalIndianpopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.Mundaisthewesternmostbranch of< /b> theAustroasiaticLanguageFamily,whichisotherwiseas-sociatedmainlywithcontinentalSoutheast Asia.< /b> Thecon-nectionisremoteandhasbeenamatter of< /b> controversybuttodayisgenerallyaccepted:itmanifestsitselfincommonlexemesratherthananysimilaritiesingrammar,wordmor-phology,orphonology.Literacyisgenerallylow,andmostlit-eratureisoralratherthanwritten.However,missionariesandtribaleducatorshavereducedmanytextstowriting,usingtheRomanscriptorone of< /b> theregionalIndianscripts.Therearealsotwodedicatedtribalscripts,oneforSantali(calledolce-mit),theotherforHo.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheviewthattheMundaoriginallyenteredIndiafromSoutheast Asia< /b> isbasedmainlyontheirlinguisticaffiliations;Mappila167languagethathasabsorbedloanwordsfromSanskrit,Arabic,andEuropeanlanguages.Arabicisgenerallyusedforreligiouspurposes.KeralaisthemostdenselypopulatedstateinIndiaandtheeducationallevelthereisquitehigh.HistoryandCulturalRelationsMappilawereevidentlyfirstconvertedtoIslamintheseventhandeighthcenturiesA-D.bytraderswhoarrivedinKerala.Thearrival of< /b> thePortuguesebegantodisruptMappilalifein1498.ThePortuguesesoughtbotheconomicandreligiousdomina-tion.Economically,theysoughtashare of< /b> thespicetradeandaseaconnectionwiththeFarEast.Theirreligiousgoalsstemmedfromthedesire of< /b> thepopetoconquerIslamicandHindusocie-ties.ThePortuguesehaddirectorderstoestablishtheirauthor-ityovertheregionsothattheCatholicreligion,business,andculturewouldflourishinaharmonioussystemthatwouldbegoodforthechurch,thekingandthepeople.ThePortugueseperiodresultedinadeclineintheindigenouseconomicsystem,estrangementfromHinduism,andincreasedbitternessandten-sionbetweentheChristiansandMuslims;finally,theMappilabecamemilitantagainstthePortuguese.Theareacameunderthepoliticalcontrol of< /b> theBritishinthe1790s,andtheyruledMalabarfrom1792to1947.MappilaleadersagreedtopaytheBritishfortheirprotection of< /b> theterritoryandtoacceptadvicefromanappointedBritishadministrator,butin1921theMappilaresistancebegan,continuinguntilIndiawonitsinde-pendencein1947.EconomyTheoverpopulation of< /b> Kerala,andespecially of< /b> theMalabararea,hascausedmanyeconomicproblems.Today,most of< /b> theunemployedareeducatedpeoplefromuniversitiesortrainingschools.Anotherproblemisthatthesepeoplecan-notfindworkinotherstatesbecauseeachstatewantstohireitsowncitizensfirst,beforeabsorbinganyoutsiders.Agricul-tureisthemainoccupation of< /b> theKerala,althoughlandsuit-ableforagricultureislimited.Cashcropsearnareasonableamountfromexport,butthishascausedashortageforlocalconsumption.Rubber,pepper,cardamom,coconut,cashewnuts,tea,andcoffeearethemajorcashcrops.Foodstaplesarerice,pulses,andsorghum.Theareaholdsgreatforeststhatyieldrawmaterialssuchasbamboo,charcoal,andgum.Industrialenterprisesproducebricksandtilesanddooilmill-ing.Thesefactoriesemployasizablepercentage of< /b> thepopu-lation.StillMalabarremainseconomicallyaprimitiveandstagnantarea,anditisnotsurprisingthatinrecentyearstens of< /b> thousands of< /b> residentshavesoughtworkinthePersianGulfcountries.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMatrilinealitywasintroducedtotheMappilafromtheNayarcommunitythatisalsolocatedinMalabar.Leadershipandpropertyownershipweretraditionallyvestedintheoldestsis-ter,apracticethatwasandisveryrareinIslamicsocieties.Amajority of< /b> theMappilanowfollowthepatrilinealsystem;onlysomewealthyfamiliescarryonthematrilinealtradition.Familiesmaintainstrongbondsandmostlyliveunderoneroof.Butmodemconditionsareforcingthispracticetochange,witheachnuclearfamilynowoftenstrivingtoownahomeandconcentrateonitsownsurvivalandprosperity.Islamplaysamajorpartinchildbirth,marriage,death,andburialceremonies.Atmarriage,themarriagecontractandblessingaresignedandreadbyaqazi,areligiousjudge.Followingdeath,theKoranischantedinthemosque,andthenthebodyisburiedfacingtowardMecca.Prayersarechantedathomeontheanniversary of< /b> adeath.Mappilalifehasbeeninfluencedbynewattitudesandtheyhavebecomegreatlyconcernedabouttheirhealthandsurroundings.HeadshavingisnotpracticedanylongerbyMappilamen.ThedowrysystemisbecominglessprominentastheMappilawomenchangetheirsocialstatustothat of< /b> citizens of< /b> Kerala.Women'spositionaspropertyisalsochanging,aswomenarenowseekinghighereducationandbecomingschoolteachers,doctors,etc.Traditionally,thewomen of< /b> lowerlaboringcastesinKeralawererelativelyfreecomparedtowomen of< /b> uppercastes,becausetheycoulddoanyavailablework,whereastheupper-classwomencouldnotdoanythinginap-propriatetotheirsocialstatus;thissituationisalsochangingforthebetter.Polygamyisnotpracticed,eventhoughIslampermitsmentomarryuptofourwives.SocialOrganizationTherearevariousdistinctionswithintheMuslimgroup.Onemajordistinctionisbetweenthose of< /b> Indianandthose of< /b> for-eignorigin.HigherclassstatusisenjoyedbythosedescendedfromtheProphet'sfamily,theSayyids.Oneinternaldistinc-tionisbetweentheUntouchablesandthehighercastesamongtheMappilas.Anotherdistinctgroupareallthose of< /b> Arabdescent.ReligionIslamwasintroducedtoKeralaintheseventhandeighthcen-turiesbySunniArabs.Islaminallprobabilityspreadtopen-insularIndiafromKerala.ArabscamethroughKeralaforthepurchase of< /b> pepperandslaves.Keralawasalsoaveryconven-ientreststopformerchantspassingeastandwestthroughtheIndianOcean.TheseMuslimmerchantsestablishedahar-moniousrelationshipandintroducedIslamtothepeople.TheMappilawerereadypsychologicallyfornewchangesbe-cause of< /b> previouspoliticalandeconomicsetbacks.MostMappilatodayenrichtheirlivesbyprayersandQuranicread-ings.Mullahs(religiousclergymen)arepaidbyfamiliestovisitandconductspecialprayersorchanttheQuran.Map-pilaattendamosqueforreligiousholidaysandsometimestolistentoapreacher.IslampreachesthatlifeisunderoneLordandhiscommandisone;butthisideahasbecomeperhapslessimportantfortheMappilaastheystrugglethroughlife.Mappilacultureischanging,withmodemeducationandcommunistconceptsplayingamajorrole.ThemullahsnowcanrelyonlyonspecialoccasionssuchasRamadanforanop-portunitytosermonizeandstrengthenthepeople'sfaith.SeealsoMalayaliBibliographyAnanthakrishnaIyer,L.K.(1912)."TheJonakanMappilas."InTheTribesandCastes of< /b> Cochin.Vol.2,45 9-4 < /b> 84.Madras:Higginbotham&Co.Reprint.1981.NewDelhi:CosmoPublications.Malayali165ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligiousbeliefs of< /b> thoseMaharswhohavenotconvertednowarebasicallythose of< /b> mostHindulowcastesinMaharashtra:astrongbeliefinpossession,participa-tioninthefestival of< /b> thegodKhandoba,activeparticipationinthewarkaricultandthepilgrimagetoPandharpur,anddevotiontovariousnon-Sanskriticgods.TheMaharsweretraditionallytheservants of< /b> thevillagegoddessMariai,thegoddess of< /b> pesti-lence.Sincetheconversion,many of< /b> thepotrajclasswhoservedthegoddesshavegivenupthatworkItisclearfromthegazet-teers of< /b> theBritishinthelatenineteenthcenturythatMaharshadmanysomewhatunusualreligiouspractices,butthegreatrationalreformmovementhasmadeanyrecentstudy of< /b> specialcastepracticesimpossible.Thereweredevrishis(treatments of< /b> illnessbyashandmantras)amongtheMahars,andtherestillmaybe.Somepotrajservants of< /b> thegoddessstilloperate,butinmanyvillagesthecare of< /b> theMariaitempleisnowinthehands of< /b> theMangs.Theleadership of< /b> thecastediscouragesHindupractices,andmanythatarestillperformedaredonesowithoutmajorityapproval.ForthosewhohaveconvertedtoBuddhism,therational,nonsuperstitious,egalitarianform of< /b> BuddhismpromulgatedbyAmbedkardominates.Hediedshortlyaftertheinitialconversionceremonyin1956,andtheconvertshaveslowlybuiltviharas(monasteries)inwhichtomeetforBuddhistworship,havecreatedasangha(community) of< /b> monks,havetaughtPallandgivenmorallessonstothechildren,andhaveat-temptedtoestablishconnectionswithBuddhistsinothercoun-tries.TheTheravadaform of< /b> BuddhismisthebaseforAmbedkar'steaching.Hisgrandson,PrakashAmbedkar,isnowhead of< /b> theBuddhistSociety of< /b> India.BeliefingodorghostpossessioniscommoninIndia,andMaharsnotfirmlyfixedinBuddhistrationalitytakepartinpossessionrituals.Ceremonies.NopeculiarlyMaharceremonieshavebeenreported.Arts.FortheMahar,theneo-Buddhistmovementhasproducedaflowering of< /b> arts of< /b> allsorts.Maharstraditionallywerepart of< /b> tamasha,thevillagetheater,andsongwastradi-tionallyaMaharproperty.SincetheBuddhistconversion,lit-eraturehaspouredforth,creatinganewschool of< /b> Marathilit.eraturecalled"DalitSahitya."Poetry,plays,autobiography,andshortstoriesnowareanessentialpart of< /b> theveryimpor-tantMarathiliteraryscene.Thereisalsosomeemphasisonotherarts,andmostDalitliteraryworksareillustratedwithDalitart,butnooneartisthasyetachievedthefame of< /b> thewriterssuchasDayaPawarorNamdeoDhasal.ThelatesttrendinDalitliteratureiswritingbywomen,especiallyauto-biographies of< /b> minimallyeducatedwomen.Medicine.TheMahardidnotdevelopanyparticularlyMaharspecialtiesinthisarea.DeathandAfterlife.Buddhistconvertsdonotholdwiththetheory of< /b> rebirth.Maharsgenerallyholdthestandardbe-liefs of< /b> lower-classHindus.SeealsoMaratha;Neo-Buddhist;UntouchablesBibliographyAmbedkar, B. R.(1989).Dr.BabashahebAmbedkar:WritingsandSpeeches.6vols.Bombay:EducationDepartment,Gov-ernment of< /b> Maharashtra.Enthoven,ReginaldE.(1922)."Mahir."InTheTribesandCastes of< /b> Bombay.Vol.2.Bombay:GovernmentCentralPress.Keer,Dhananjay(1954).Dr.Ambedkar:LifeandMission.Bombay:PopularPrakashan.3rded.1971.Robertson,Alexander(1938).TheMaharFolk.Calcutta:YMCAPublishingHouse;OxfordUniversityPress.Zelliot,Eleanor(1978)."Dalit-NewCulturalContext of< /b> anOldMarathiWord."InContributionstoAsianStudies,editedbyClarenceMaloney.Vol.9,LanguageandCivilizationChangein South< /b> Asia.< /b> Leiden:E.J.Brill.ELEANORZELLIOTMalayaliETHNONYMS:Keralite,Malabari(innorthKerala),Malaya-lee,Travancorean(in south< /b> Kerala).Locatedonthefarsouthwesternedge of< /b> India,Keralaisastatewhosehistoryhasalwaysbeenmoldedbyitsgeogra-phy.Ineffectitconsists of< /b> along,narrow,butextremelyfer-tilestrip of< /b> coastlandbackedbythehighmountainranges of< /b> theWesternGhats,whicharebrokenbyveryfewpasses.Nu-merousshortandfast-flowingstreamscomedownfromthesemountainstodisgorgeintothecoastalbackwatersthatrunforgreatlengthsbehindtheoceanbeaches.Ithasthusbeennaturalthatmany of< /b> theMalayaliswhoinhabitthecoastalarealooktotheseaforfishingandtrade,andconverselythatnumerousforeignmaritimepowershavelookedtotheformerprincipalities of< /b> Keralafortrade,religiousconverts,andsometimesslavesorloot.Thustheculture of< /b> thepeoplehasbeenformedbyforeigncontactstoagreaterextentthanwastrueforanyotherpart of< /b> premodernIndia.HellenistictradersfromAlexandriaandevenRome,Arabsailors,Chineseex-plorers,thePortuguesefleet of< /b> VascodaGama,theDutch,andFrenchandBritishimperialistsrepresentedthehighpoints of< /b> afairlyconstantcommerceacrosstheIndianOcean;Keralahappenstoliealmostinthecenter of< /b> thatocean.AncientshippingthatwentfromtheRedSeatoMal-akka,fromJavatoMadagascar,fromChinatoArabia,nearlyalwaysstoppedinKeralaforwater,food,andtrading.Hencetheextremeethnicandreligiousdiversity of< /b> thestate.Itisone of< /b> thesmallestIndianstates,with38,863squarekilometersanda1981population of< /b> 25,453,680persons.Keralaproducesirrigatedrice,coconuts,pepper,cardamom,andotherspices,aswellastwovaluableplantationcrops,teaandcoffee.Itsotherimportanteconomicresourcesareitsfisheries,timber,ironore,andtourism.Malayalis,whomaysimplybedefinedasthosepeoplewhospeaktheDravidianlanguageMalayalam(theKeralastatelanguage,closelyrelatedtoTamil),includenotonlya164MaharSettlementsTheMaharquarters,calledthemaharwada,werealwaysout-sideMaharashtrianvillages,traditionallytotheeast,ordownriver.Inthenineteenthcentury,colonies of< /b> Maharsgrewinrailwaytowns,inmilltowns,nearammunitionfacto-ries,andinBritisharmycantonmentareas(whereMaharswereservants),butcityhousingnowissegregatedmorebyeconomiclevelthanbycaste.Thevillagepattern of< /b> segrega-tionisstillstrictlyobserved.TheMaharvillagehutistypical of< /b> thepoorintheMaharashtrianarea.Therearenospecialfeatures.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Traditionally,theMaharswereservantstoallthevillage,withanumber of< /b> responsibilities.Theywerethedecidingvoicesinlanddis-putes,buttheyalsobroughtwoodtotheburninggrounds,carriedoffdeadanimals,tookmessagestoothervillages,caredforthehorses of< /b> travelinggovernmentofficials,mendedthevillagewall,actedasvillagewatchmen,andservedthevil-lageheadmanastowncriers.Inthiscapacitytheywerewatan-dars(leaseholders)andsoheldsomeland,buttheywereneverprimarilyagriculturists.Maharswhennotengagedinvillagedutiesservedasagriculturallaborers.Intheeasternportion of< /b> theMarathi-speakingregion,Maharshadmoreeconomicfreedom,andtheyweresometimesweaversorcon-tractors.Maharskeptnodomesticanimals,andtheydespisedtheMangsfortheirpigkeeping.Maharswereexpectedtoeattheflesh of< /b> thecattlecarcassestheydraggedfromthevillage,andthisconsumption of< /b> carrionbeefbecameanearlytargetforMaharreformers.IndustrialArts.TheMaharpossessednoskillotherthanwallmendingtocarrythemintothemodemperiod.SomeMaharsbecamemasonsintheearlytwentiethcentury.Trade.TheMahar'suntouchabilitypreventedany"clean"trade,andtheChambharshadamonopolyonleatherwork,whichtheMahardidnottouch.Division of< /b> Labor.Bothmenandwomenworkedinthefieldsasagriculturallaborers.Onlymenservedaswatandarvillageservants.LandTenure.ThewatandarlandownedbytheMaharsfortheirvillageservicewasnotalienable.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.AlthoughtheMaharsseemtobeafairlyconsistentcastegroupacrosstheMaharashtraarea,therewerepotqatdivisionsinvariousareas.Thesepotjatswereendogamous,rankedaccordingtostatus,andtosomeextentbasedonoccupation.Fromthe1920son,Maharreformersattemptedtowipeoutpotjatdifferences,andthedivisionstodayarelargelyignored.Thecasteispatrilineal,butpovertydictatedlessstressonthejointfamilyandmoreimportanceforwomenthanamongmanyhighercastes.KinshipTerminology.MaharkintermsarethesameasthoseusedbyBuddhistsinMarathi.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Thecross-cousinmarriagesystem of< /b> south< /b> Indiaand of< /b> somecastesinMaharashtraiscommontotheMahars.Marriagetomother'sbrother'sdaughterorfather'ssister'ssonisallowed.Therehasneverbeenabartowidowre-marriage.Residenceisgenerallypatrilocal,butthisislessstrictlyobservedthaninhighercastes.DivorceisandhasbeenpracticedinformallyamongthelowercastesinIndia,in-cludingtheMahars.DomesticUnit.Thejointfamilyistheideal,butpovertyandmobilitymakethislesscommonthaninmanycastes.Socialization.AsiscommoninIndia,boysareraisedper-missively,girlsmuchmorestrictly.Inthemodernperiod,therehasbeenmuchstressoneducation,onpride,andoncleanliving,andmanyBuddhistscredittheirmotherswiththestimulustoimprovethemselves.Inheritance.Propertydescendspatrilineallytomalein-heritors,althoughinpoint of< /b> factitisrareforMaharstoownanyland.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Manyfeatures of< /b> Maharcasteorga-nizationthatexistedbeforethereformperiodhavedisap-peared.Thereseemstohavebeenacaste"guru"(aspiritualcounselornotaversetospeakingwithUntouchables)insomeareas,butthereislittledescription of< /b> thispractice.Localleadershipseemstobedeterminednowbymerit,wealth,andpoliticalskill.Thereneverwasacastecenternoranover-archingcasteorganization.PoliticalOrganization.Dr. B. RAmbedkarbeganhisfirstpoliticalparty,theLabourparty,in1935,andsincethattime,mostMaharsandneo-Buddhistshaveconsideredthemselvesmembers of< /b> hissuccessiveparties:theScheduledCastesFed-erationfrom1942andtheRepublicanpartyfrom1956.Sincethepartieshavebeenunabletoattracthigher-castemembers,theyremainunimportantpoliticallyatthenationalandstatelevels.Ambedkar'sfollowersare,however,verypoliticallyaware,andtheydofigureinlocalpoliticswheretheyhavethenumbersandtheleadership.Anorganizationcallingitselfthe"DalitPanthers,"aftertheBlackPanthers of< /b> theUnitedStates,aroseintheearly1970s,ledbyeducatedMaharsorBuddhists.Afterinitialsuccesses,theDalitPantherssplitintovariousgroups,butmilitantlocalgroupsoperateeffec-tivelyeventodayinvariousslumlocalities.Anissuesuchasthebanning of< /b> one of< /b> Ambedkar'sbooksin1988broughthalfamillionScheduledCastesintothestreets of< /b> Bombayinone of< /b> thatcity'smosteffectivepoliticalprotests.SocialControl.Thereisnomechanismforcontrol,otherthantheexampleorthechiding of< /b> localleaders.Conflict.Competitionandrivalrywithinthegrouparekeen.AmbedkarwasabletounifytheMaharthroughhisex-ceptionalqualifications,planning,andrecognitionbyoutsideforcesaswellasbyhischarisma;nootherleaderhasbecomeacceptabletoall.ThePanthergroupsandthepoliticalpartiesareallfactionalized.TheBuddhistconversionmovementhasbroughtabouteffortstounifyonthebasis of< /b> religiousmoral-ityaswellasageneraldisapproval of< /b> politicalinfighting.Mauritian173ethniclines.TheHindu-dominatedMauritiusLabourpartyruledtheislandfromitsindependenceto1982,anditsleader,SirSeewoosagurRamgoolam(190 0-1 < /b> 985),wasanimportantsymbol of< /b> nationalunity.Themostimportantpo-liticalpartiestodayaretheHindu-dominated"MouvementSocialisteMauricien"(MSM)andtheostensiblynonethnic,butinpracticeCreole-Muslimalliance,"MouvementMili-tantMauricien"(MMM).Theso-calledbest-losersystem,whichsupplementstheWestminsterelectoralsystem,ensurestherepresentation of< /b> ethnicminoritiesintheparliament.AmaintaskforindependentMauritiansocietyhasbeentocre-atepoliticalconsensusandsomedegree of< /b> culturalintegra-tion.Thishasbeenachievedinpolitics.Althoughpartiesre-mainethnicincharacter,thereiswideconsensusregardingtherules of< /b> parliamentarydemocracy.SocialControl.Mauritiushasnomilitaryforce,andaspe-ciallytrainedsegment of< /b> thepoliceforceisresponsibleforcontrollingviolentconflict.Mauritianlawisanamalgam of< /b> NapoleonicandBritishjudicialprinciples.Althoughoftenaccused of< /b> corruption,thecourtsystemfunctionseffectively.Atthevillagelevel,conflictsoverproperty,adultery,orotherminorcrimesareoftensolvedinformally,sometimesinvolv-ingrespectedeldersasmediators.Ethnicconflictsareavoidedorresolvedthroughinformalpolicies of< /b> avoidanceandthroughawidespreadideology of< /b> tolerance,aswellasfor-malpolicies of< /b> compromise.Conflict.Therehavebeentwogeneralstrikes(1970and1979)sinceMauritianindependence.Strikesandotherforms of< /b> protestarewidespreadamongworkersinthemanu-facturingindustry,whofeeltheyareunderpaidandover-worked.Ethnicconflicts,whichturnedviolentthroughriotsin196 5-1 < /b> 968,areusuallymediatedby,andexpressedthrough,theformaljudicialandpoliticalsystems.Inrecentyears,drugcrimeshavebecomecommon.Violentcrimesarerare.Therapidrate of< /b> economicgrowthmayhelpexplainthecomparativelack of< /b> manifestsocialconflict,especiallyethnicconflict,incontemporaryMauritius.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligions of< /b> MauritiusareHindu-ism(52percent),RomanCatholicism(31percent),Islam(16percent)andBuddhism(1percent).WithinHinduismtherearemanyvariants,whichcorrespondtovariantsfoundinIndiaitself.Low-castepractices of< /b> animalsacrificearecommoninruralareas.MarathaandTamilvariants of< /b> Hin-duismarealsodistinctiveinrelationtothedominantBiharivariety.Everyyear,theMahaShivaratriiscelebratedbyHin-dus,whomarchtoalakeinsouthernMauritius(sincetheGangesistoodistant).MostMuslimsareSunnis;afewareShiasandAhmadis.AlocalCatholiccustomisanannualpil-grimagetothetomb of< /b> Jacques-D1siriLaval,anow-beatifiednineteenth-centurypriest.Syncretistbeliefsarecommon,andtraces of< /b> heterodoxEuropeanandIndianbeliefsandtra-ditionalAfricanbeliefscanbeidentifiedamongHindusandCreolesalike,particularlyinruralareas.Beliefinwitchcraftiscommon,butitisrarelyimportantsocially.ReligiousPractitioners.TheCatholicchurchisledbytheArchbishop of< /b> theMascareignesandtheSeychelles,themostpowerfulreligiouspersoninMauritius.Catholicpriestsarehighlyrespectedandpowerfulintheirlocalcom.munities.Manyareinvolvedinsocialwork.HindupunditsandMuslimimamsarealsopowerful,althoughtheirreli-gionsdonotrequireformalleadership.Punditsandimamswieldpowerinritualandinthecontext of< /b> HinduandMus-limyouthclubs(baitkasandmadrassahs,respectively).Bud-dhismis of< /b> negligibleimportanceinMauritius;most of< /b> theBuddhistsarealsoCatholics.Thelonganis(Frenchlonganiste)isasorcererwithconsiderablepowerinmanylo-cations.Hisorhermagicalpowerconsists of< /b> theabilitytohealthesick,divinethefuture,andinfluencepeople'schar-acter.Thelonganisisusedbypeople of< /b> allethnicgroups;mostlonganisareCreolesorHindus.Ceremonies.Therearethreespectacularannualreligiousceremonies.TheTamilfestivalCavadiisarite of< /b> passagein-volvingfirewalking;itisparticipatedinbymanynon-Tamils.TheCatholicPireLavalpilgrimageisexclusivelyChristian,andtheMahaShivaratriisexclusivelyHindu.Allmajorritu-alsandfestivals of< /b> thelargestreligioustraditions,includingtheChineseNewYear,arecelebratedbytheirfollowers.Arts.Theonlyindigenousartform of< /b> Mauritiusisthesega,aform of< /b> musicsimilartotheTrinidadcalypso,havingbeenshapedintheencounterbetweenFrenchplantersandAfri-canslaves.Nowevolvedintopopanddancemusic,thesegaisverypopular.Indiantraditionalandpopularmusicarealsowidespreadandareperformedlocally,butEuropeanclassicalmusichasonlyalimitedappeal.Theliterature of< /b> Mauritiusiscomparativelyrich;authorswritemostlyinFrenchandHindi,althoughradicalnationalistshaveinrecentyearstakentowritinginKreol.WhereasMauritianliteraturetendstodealwithethnicityandthesearchforculturalidentity,thevisualartstendtoberomanticandnature-worshipingincharacter.Medicine.Asmanyassevendistinctivetraditionalmedi-calsystemshavebeenidentifiedinMauritius,inadditiontoscientificmedicine.Mauritianstendtobelievein,andusetheservices of,< /b> severaldifferentpractitioners of< /b> medicine.Heal-ingtechniquesmayrangefromIndianAyurvedicmedicinetoChineseherbalmedicineandtheincantations of< /b> thelon-ganis.Althoughthemainkillersareheartdiseaseanddiabe-tes,acommoncomplaintismoveler("badair"),whichisper-ceivedaspsychosomatic.Thegeneralsymptomsaregiddinessandtiredness.Healthservicesarefree,andallmajorvillageshaveadispensary.DeathandAfterlife.Thebeliefinanafterlifeisuniver-sallycommon,anddeathisgenerallyacceptedasaninevita-blefate.HindusandChristiansarrangewakesfortheirde-ceased.MuslimandChristiangraveyardsarevisitedaroundthetime of< /b> importantreligiousceremonies,andflowersareplantedonthegraves.TheHinduscrematetheirdeceased.BibliographyArno,Toni,andClaudeOrian(1986).L'ileMaurice,uneSoci&t9Multiraciale.Paris:L'Harmattan.Benedict,Burton(1961).IndiansinaPluralSociety.London:HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice.Bowman,LarryW.(1990).Mauritius:DemocracyandDevel-opmentintheIndianOcean.Boulder,Colo.:Westview.Mogul179He,hissecretary,andmembers of< /b> hiscouncilareelectedthroughadultfranchiseonthebasis of< /b> politicalparty.Thisdemocraticsystemreplacesthetraditionalsystembasedonprivilegeandnonprivilege.Thevillagecouncilmanagestheaffairs of< /b> thevillage:mattersconcerningagriculturalactivi-ties,allocation of< /b> agriculturalplots,collection of< /b> taxes,distri-bution of< /b> water,control of< /b> themarket,communityactivities,andwelfare of< /b> thepeople.Thereligiousactivitiesareat-tendedtobythedifferentchurch ... ac-cordancewithMuslimcustom;however,thebridemustbepresentbecauseinSriLankathegroomadornsherwithaweddingnecklaceusuallyhavingacrescentonit.Postmaritalresidenceisatthebride'shouseamongallSriLankanMus-lims,andthecouplemayremainthereforsomemonthsoryears.Divorceisrare,andpolygynyinsignificant.Alargenumber of< /b> mentakebridesfromanyMuslimcategoryexceptthebarbercaste.BibliographyArasaratnam,S.(1964).Ceylon.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:PrenticeHall.Maloney,Clarence(1984)."SriLanka."InMuslimPeoples:A World< /b> EthnographicSurvey,editedbyRichardV.Weekes,72 3-7 < /b> 27.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Mauroof,Mohamed."Aspects of< /b> Religion,Economy,andSo-cietyamongtheMuslims of< /b> SriLanka."ContributionstoIn-dianSociology,n.s.6:6 6-8 < /b> 3.Robinson,Francis,ed.(1989).TheCambridge Encyclopedia< /b> of< /b> India,Pakistan,Bangladesh,SriLanka,Nepal,Bhutan,andtheMaldives.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Yalman,Nur(1967).UndertheBoTree:StudiesinCaste,Kin-ship,andMarriageintheInterior of< /b> Ceylon.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:University of< /b> CaliforniaPress.JAYDiMAGGIOMundaETHNONYMS:Hor,Kol,KolarianOrientationIdentification.Mundarefersprimarilytoagroup of< /b> lan-guages,butthetribesthatspeakthoselanguageshavecollec-tivelybecomeknowntoscholarshipbythesamename.Indi-vidually,ethnicdesignationsare(withimportantalternativesinparentheses):Korku,Santal(includingtheMahalisub-group),Munda,Ho,Bhumij,Birhor,Asur,Turi,Korwa,Kora,Kharia,Juang,Sora(Saora,Savara),Gorum(Parenga),Gadaba,Remo(Bondo,Bonda),andGataq(Didayi,Dire).Some of< /b> thesenames(especiallyKharia,Sora,andGadaba)aresharedwithlocalgroups of< /b> non-Mundaspeakers.Theterm"Munda"appearstobederivedfromaSanskriticrootmeaning"substantial,wealthy,"later"head,"hence"head-man";itwasthusoriginallyatermappliedbyoutsiders,ausagethatbecameespeciallyconsolidatedundertheBritishregime.Theword"Kol"(Kolarian),althoughpejorative,isprobablyreallyacorruption of< /b> theirownhor,kor,etc.,mean-ing"man,"commoninthenorth of< /b> theirareabutreplacedbyremoinsouthernOrissa,India.Location.TheKorkuarelocatedinsouthwestMadhyaPradeshandareisolatedfromotherMunda.ThelastfivegroupsinthelistabovearefoundmainlyintheKoraputandGanjamdistricts of< /b> southernOrissa.TheremainderarefoundmainlyonandaroundtheChotaNagpurPlateau-thatis,insouthernBihar,northernOrissa,easternMadhyaPradesh,andwesternWestBengal,withanoutlier of< /b> KorwainMirzapurDistrict,UttarPradesh.TherearealsosomeSantalinsoutheastNepal(wheretheyarecalledSatar),Bhu-tan,andnorthernBangladesh.Demography.Therearejustover6millionMundaspeak-ers,two-thirds of< /b> whombelongtojustonetribe,theSantal,one of< /b> thelargesttribesonearth.Otherlargegroups of< /b> Mundaspeakers(withcensusfiguresinparentheses)aretheKorku(275,654in1971),Munda(1,181,151in1971),Ho(538,124in1971),Kharia(274,540in1971),andSora(521,187in1971).Therestnumberafewthousandeachatthemost,theBirhor4,300in1971.Togethertheyconstitutewellunder1percent of< /b> thetotalIndianpopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.Mundaisthewesternmostbranch of< /b> theAustroasiaticLanguageFamily,whichisotherwiseas-sociatedmainlywithcontinentalSoutheast Asia.< /b> Thecon-nectionisremoteandhasbeenamatter of< /b> controversybuttodayisgenerallyaccepted:itmanifestsitselfincommonlexemesratherthananysimilaritiesingrammar,wordmor-phology,orphonology.Literacyisgenerallylow,andmostlit-eratureisoralratherthanwritten.However,missionariesandtribaleducatorshavereducedmanytextstowriting,usingtheRomanscriptorone of< /b> theregionalIndianscripts.Therearealsotwodedicatedtribalscripts,oneforSantali(calledolce-mit),theotherforHo.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheviewthattheMundaoriginallyenteredIndiafromSoutheast Asia< /b> isbasedmainlyontheirlinguisticaffiliations;Mappila167languagethathasabsorbedloanwordsfromSanskrit,Arabic,andEuropeanlanguages.Arabicisgenerallyusedforreligiouspurposes.KeralaisthemostdenselypopulatedstateinIndiaandtheeducationallevelthereisquitehigh.HistoryandCulturalRelationsMappilawereevidentlyfirstconvertedtoIslamintheseventhandeighthcenturiesA-D.bytraderswhoarrivedinKerala.Thearrival of< /b> thePortuguesebegantodisruptMappilalifein1498.ThePortuguesesoughtbotheconomicandreligiousdomina-tion.Economically,theysoughtashare of< /b> thespicetradeandaseaconnectionwiththeFarEast.Theirreligiousgoalsstemmedfromthedesire of< /b> thepopetoconquerIslamicandHindusocie-ties.ThePortuguesehaddirectorderstoestablishtheirauthor-ityovertheregionsothattheCatholicreligion,business,andculturewouldflourishinaharmonioussystemthatwouldbegoodforthechurch,thekingandthepeople.ThePortugueseperiodresultedinadeclineintheindigenouseconomicsystem,estrangementfromHinduism,andincreasedbitternessandten-sionbetweentheChristiansandMuslims;finally,theMappilabecamemilitantagainstthePortuguese.Theareacameunderthepoliticalcontrol of< /b> theBritishinthe1790s,andtheyruledMalabarfrom1792to1947.MappilaleadersagreedtopaytheBritishfortheirprotection of< /b> theterritoryandtoacceptadvicefromanappointedBritishadministrator,butin1921theMappilaresistancebegan,continuinguntilIndiawonitsinde-pendencein1947.EconomyTheoverpopulation of< /b> Kerala,andespecially of< /b> theMalabararea,hascausedmanyeconomicproblems.Today,most of< /b> theunemployedareeducatedpeoplefromuniversitiesortrainingschools.Anotherproblemisthatthesepeoplecan-notfindworkinotherstatesbecauseeachstatewantstohireitsowncitizensfirst,beforeabsorbinganyoutsiders.Agricul-tureisthemainoccupation of< /b> theKerala,althoughlandsuit-ableforagricultureislimited.Cashcropsearnareasonableamountfromexport,butthishascausedashortageforlocalconsumption.Rubber,pepper,cardamom,coconut,cashewnuts,tea,andcoffeearethemajorcashcrops.Foodstaplesarerice,pulses,andsorghum.Theareaholdsgreatforeststhatyieldrawmaterialssuchasbamboo,charcoal,andgum.Industrialenterprisesproducebricksandtilesanddooilmill-ing.Thesefactoriesemployasizablepercentage of< /b> thepopu-lation.StillMalabarremainseconomicallyaprimitiveandstagnantarea,anditisnotsurprisingthatinrecentyearstens of< /b> thousands of< /b> residentshavesoughtworkinthePersianGulfcountries.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMatrilinealitywasintroducedtotheMappilafromtheNayarcommunitythatisalsolocatedinMalabar.Leadershipandpropertyownershipweretraditionallyvestedintheoldestsis-ter,apracticethatwasandisveryrareinIslamicsocieties.Amajority of< /b> theMappilanowfollowthepatrilinealsystem;onlysomewealthyfamiliescarryonthematrilinealtradition.Familiesmaintainstrongbondsandmostlyliveunderoneroof.Butmodemconditionsareforcingthispracticetochange,witheachnuclearfamilynowoftenstrivingtoownahomeandconcentrateonitsownsurvivalandprosperity.Islamplaysamajorpartinchildbirth,marriage,death,andburialceremonies.Atmarriage,themarriagecontractandblessingaresignedandreadbyaqazi,areligiousjudge.Followingdeath,theKoranischantedinthemosque,andthenthebodyisburiedfacingtowardMecca.Prayersarechantedathomeontheanniversary of< /b> adeath.Mappilalifehasbeeninfluencedbynewattitudesandtheyhavebecomegreatlyconcernedabouttheirhealthandsurroundings.HeadshavingisnotpracticedanylongerbyMappilamen.ThedowrysystemisbecominglessprominentastheMappilawomenchangetheirsocialstatustothat of< /b> citizens of< /b> Kerala.Women'spositionaspropertyisalsochanging,aswomenarenowseekinghighereducationandbecomingschoolteachers,doctors,etc.Traditionally,thewomen of< /b> lowerlaboringcastesinKeralawererelativelyfreecomparedtowomen of< /b> uppercastes,becausetheycoulddoanyavailablework,whereastheupper-classwomencouldnotdoanythinginap-propriatetotheirsocialstatus;thissituationisalsochangingforthebetter.Polygamyisnotpracticed,eventhoughIslampermitsmentomarryuptofourwives.SocialOrganizationTherearevariousdistinctionswithintheMuslimgroup.Onemajordistinctionisbetweenthose of< /b> Indianandthose of< /b> for-eignorigin.HigherclassstatusisenjoyedbythosedescendedfromtheProphet'sfamily,theSayyids.Oneinternaldistinc-tionisbetweentheUntouchablesandthehighercastesamongtheMappilas.Anotherdistinctgroupareallthose of< /b> Arabdescent.ReligionIslamwasintroducedtoKeralaintheseventhandeighthcen-turiesbySunniArabs.Islaminallprobabilityspreadtopen-insularIndiafromKerala.ArabscamethroughKeralaforthepurchase of< /b> pepperandslaves.Keralawasalsoaveryconven-ientreststopformerchantspassingeastandwestthroughtheIndianOcean.TheseMuslimmerchantsestablishedahar-moniousrelationshipandintroducedIslamtothepeople.TheMappilawerereadypsychologicallyfornewchangesbe-cause of< /b> previouspoliticalandeconomicsetbacks.MostMappilatodayenrichtheirlivesbyprayersandQuranicread-ings.Mullahs(religiousclergymen)arepaidbyfamiliestovisitandconductspecialprayersorchanttheQuran.Map-pilaattendamosqueforreligiousholidaysandsometimestolistentoapreacher.IslampreachesthatlifeisunderoneLordandhiscommandisone;butthisideahasbecomeperhapslessimportantfortheMappilaastheystrugglethroughlife.Mappilacultureischanging,withmodemeducationandcommunistconceptsplayingamajorrole.ThemullahsnowcanrelyonlyonspecialoccasionssuchasRamadanforanop-portunitytosermonizeandstrengthenthepeople'sfaith.SeealsoMalayaliBibliographyAnanthakrishnaIyer,L.K.(1912)."TheJonakanMappilas."InTheTribesandCastes of< /b> Cochin.Vol.2,45 9-4 < /b> 84.Madras:Higginbotham&Co.Reprint.1981.NewDelhi:CosmoPublications.Malayali165ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligiousbeliefs of< /b> thoseMaharswhohavenotconvertednowarebasicallythose of< /b> mostHindulowcastesinMaharashtra:astrongbeliefinpossession,participa-tioninthefestival of< /b> thegodKhandoba,activeparticipationinthewarkaricultandthepilgrimagetoPandharpur,anddevotiontovariousnon-Sanskriticgods.TheMaharsweretraditionallytheservants of< /b> thevillagegoddessMariai,thegoddess of< /b> pesti-lence.Sincetheconversion,many of< /b> thepotrajclasswhoservedthegoddesshavegivenupthatworkItisclearfromthegazet-teers of< /b> theBritishinthelatenineteenthcenturythatMaharshadmanysomewhatunusualreligiouspractices,butthegreatrationalreformmovementhasmadeanyrecentstudy of< /b> specialcastepracticesimpossible.Thereweredevrishis(treatments of< /b> illnessbyashandmantras)amongtheMahars,andtherestillmaybe.Somepotrajservants of< /b> thegoddessstilloperate,butinmanyvillagesthecare