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DIMENSIONS OF WORD MEANING NAMING Ferdinand de Saussure theorizes that a “sign” has two parts: signifier and signified. The signifier is the form that the sign will take, whether it is a sound or image and the signified is the meaning that is conveyed. The word is the signifier which stands for an object. Some things are easy to name but there are imaginary and abstract things such as: love, hate, anger, etc which are not easy to name. We think of names of people or places, which are proper names. Proper names are definite. DENOTATION The denotation of a word is its ‘meaning’ in the narrowest logical and semantic sense: what a word denotes is what it refers to. E.g. the denotation of the word winter corresponds to the season between autumn and spring (no matter whether it is cold or snowing).
CHAPTER DIMENSIONS OF WORD MEANING NAMING Ferdinand de Saussure theorizes that a “sign” has two parts: signifier and signified The signifier is the form that the sign will take, whether it is a sound or image and the signified is the meaning that is conveyed The word is the signifier which stands for an object Some things are easy to name but there are imaginary and abstract things such as: love, hate, anger, etc which are not easy to name NAMING We think of names of people or places, which are proper names Proper names are definite DENOTATION - The denotation of a word is its ‘meaning’ in the narrowest logical and semantic sense: what a word denotes is what it refers to E.g the denotation of the word winter corresponds to the season between autumn and spring (no matter whether it is cold or snowing) DENOTATION Denotation is the ability of a word to identify all those things or objects that are correctly covered by it Denotation of a word or expression is independent invariant and utterance- DENOTATION A word can have multiple denotations For example, the dictionary lists more than 20 distinct meanings for the word low "A low wall bordered the field" "John was feeling low today." REFERENCE - Reference is the relationship that holds between a word or expression and the objects it refers to (called referent) eg: “I saw a car in the corner” a car refers to a particular member REFERENCE Eg: My daughter wants to be a doctor (reference in my daughter, not in a doctor) The speaker wants to indicate a particular thing in a particular situation, not things in general REFERENCE Eg: A good student is a person who studies well There is no reference, or in other words, no referent DENOTATION vs REFERENCE Denotation is invariant and utterance-independent Reference is variable and utterance-dependent NATURE OF SEMANTIC CHANGE - Elevation of meaning: Eg: Minister: a servant, an attendant – head of a state department TRANSFERENCE OF MEANING A word is said to be used in a transferred meaning when it is meant to refer simultaneously to the object or notion which it generally denotes and to another object or notion which is in some way related with the first one on the basis of similarity or association Transference from literal meaning to figurative meaning is expressed by the figures of speech The most popular figures of speech are: metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, litotes, irony and euphemisms METAPHOR Metaphor (an implicit comparison/ hidden comparison): is the transference of meaning from one object to another based on similarity between two objects Eg: John is a snake (dangerous) METAPHOR Metaphor may be: • Living: a word is used in unusual meaning: She lent wings to his imagination (J London) Peace is our fortress • Faded: lost its freshness because of long use and became habitual: Her voice is sweet fruitful effort He's an Othello golden youth METAPHOR - Dead metaphor: words which have lost their direct meaning: to ponder To ponder: originally meant to weigh – to meditate, to consider thoughtfully Eg Metaphor based on similarity of behaviour and character: •Similarity of behaviour: a snake, crocodile's tears, an angel, a bookworm, a wirepuller, an Othello, a Cicero •Similarity of character: a lion, a fox, a bee/beaver NOTES • The others are hard to define, for many metaphors are not based on similarity • Eg + I have invested a lot of time in the study no objective inherent similarity between time and a commodity + She tried to avoid breaking his heart (hurt feeling) + I am feeling down (feel sad) • Base: perception, culture and feeling that all human beings share METONYMY Metonymy: can be defined as substitution of one word for another with which it is associated Eg: A kettle boils – the water in the kettle boils According to standard tradition, metonymy is defined as a figure in which one word is substituted for another on the basis of some material, casual, or conceptual relation METONYMY - In classic tradition, the following cases of metonymy are often presented We use the name of container instead of the thing contained: to drink a glass Names of parts of human body may be used as symbols: to have good ears for music METONYMY - The concrete is used instead of abstract: from the cradle to the grave The materials are used for the things made of the materials: glass, silver… The name of the author is used for his works: Volt, Ampere… Part is used for the whole and vice versa: roof for house… HYPERBOLE a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration I beg a thousand pardons I haven't seen you for ages I'm dying of hunger I'd give the world to see him She's got a sea of troubles If I had a mountain of money, I would spend it all on you You have put the whole salt of the world into this soup! LITOTES - In rhetoric, litotes (/laɪtəti:z/) is a figure of speech in which understatement is employed for rhetorical effect, principally via double negatives For example, rather than saying that something is attractive (or even very attractive), one might merely say it is not unattractive - Litotes: expressing something in the affirmative by the negative of its contrary: not bad - good IRONY Its contextual meaning is contrary to the literal meaning for the sake of ridicule or sarcasm He speaks English so well that nobody can understand What a nice mess ! It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket EUPHEMISM Euphemisms: use a milder expression for something unpleasant: restroom for WC, pass away for die… THE END ... (literal meanings) and connotations (suggestive meanings) THE CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT OF MEANING THE CHANGE OF MEANING - New meanings of the words appear - Some old meanings drop out of the language... NATURE OF SEMANTIC CHANGE - Elevation of meaning: Eg: Minister: a servant, an attendant – head of a state department TRANSFERENCE OF MEANING A word is said to be used in a transferred meaning. .. denotes only a certain kind of animal CAUSES OF SEMANTIC CHANGE 2 .3 Attraction of synonyms One of the synonyms gets new meaning, the other synonyms get this new meaning too Eg: catch means to