This page intentionally left blank Non-Governmental Organisations in International Law Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are playing an increasing political role on the international scene, and their position in relation to international law is generally regarded as important but informal Their actual legal status has not been the subject of much investigation This book examines the legal status of NGOs in different fields of international law, with emphasis on human rights law By means of a thorough examination and systematisation of international legal rules and practices, Anna-Karin Lindblom explores the rights, obligations, locus standi and consultative status of NGOs This investigation is placed within a wider discussion on the representation of groups in the international legal system Lindblom argues, on the basis of a discourse model of international decision-making, that non-governmental organisation is an important form of public participation that can strengthen the flawed legitimacy of the state-centric system of international law A N N A - K A R I N L I N D B L O M , L L D , is Special Adviser in human rights issues in the Ministry of Justice (Division for Democratic Issues), Sweden She was previously a lecturer in public international law at Uppsala University, Sweden CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL AND COMPARATIVE LAW Established in 1946, this series produces high quality scholarship in the fields of public and private international law and comparative law Although these are distinct legal sub-disciplines, developments since 1946 confirm their interrelation Comparative law is increasingly used as a tool in the making of law at national, regional and international levels Private international law is now often affected by international conventions, and the issues faced by classical conflicts rules are frequently dealt with by substantive harmonisation of law under international auspices Mixed international arbitrations, especially those involving state economic activity, raise mixed questions of public and private international law, while in many fields (such as the protection of human rights and democratic standards, investment guarantees and international criminal law) international and national systems interact National constitutional arrangements relating to ‘foreign affairs’, and to the implementation of international norms, are a focus of attention The Board welcomes works of a theoretical or interdisciplinary character, and those focusing on the new approaches to international or comparative law or conflicts of law Studies of particular institutions or problems are equally welcome, as are translations of the best work published in other languages General Editors James Crawford SC FBA Whewell Professor of International Law, Faculty of Law, and Director, Lauterpacht Research Centre for International Law, University of Cambridge John S Bell FBA Professor of Law, Faculty of Law, University of Cambridge Editorial Board Professor Hilary Charlesworth Australian National University Professor Lori Damrosch Columbia University Law School Professor John Dugard Universiteit Leiden Professor Mary-Ann Glendon Harvard Law School Professor Christopher Greenwood London School of Economics Professor David Johnston University of Edinburgh Professor Hein Koătz Max-Planck-Institut, Hamburg Professor Donald McRae University of Ottawa Professor Onuma Yasuaki University of Tokyo Professor Reinhard Zimmermann Universitaăt Regensburg Advisory Committee Professor D W Bowett QC Judge Rosalyn Higgins QC Professor J A Jolowicz QC Professor Sir Elihu Lauterpacht CBE QC Professor Kurt Lipstein Judge Stephen Schwebel A list of books in the series can be found at the end of this volume Non-Governmental Organisations in International Law Anna-Karin Lindblom camʙʀɪdɢe uɴɪveʀsɪtʏ pʀess Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cʙ2 2ʀu, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521850889 © R J Crampton 1997, 2005 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2005 ɪsʙɴ-13 ɪsʙɴ-10 978-0-511-13523-1 eBook (EBL) 0-511-13523-8 eBook (EBL) ɪsʙɴ-13 ɪsʙɴ-10 978-0-521-85088-9 hardback 0-521-85088-6 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of uʀʟs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Contents Acknowledgements List of abbreviations page Part I Theoretical framework The main issues and their context 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The legitimacy of international law Introduction Democracy and representation in international law A changing international scene: globalisation and the diffusion of state power The transnationalisation of civil society and the increasing role of NGOs Legitimacy and international law Conclusion: the role of NGOs in a discourse model of international law 1.3 The diversity of NGOs: definitions and delimitations Definitions of ‘NGO’ in international instruments and doctrine Defining ‘NGO’ for the purpose of the study Historical and conceptual background 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The historical view of the subjects of international law 2.3 Intergovernmental organisations as subjects of international law vii xv xvii 3 6 12 15 22 28 36 36 46 53 53 54 58 viii CONTENTS 2.4 The ‘sui generis’ subjects of international law Introduction The Order of Malta The International Committee of the Red Cross 2.5 The classical concepts relating to international legal personality in modern doctrine 2.6 The relationship between personality and the making of international customary law International legal theory and non-state actors 3.1 Introduction 3.2 The actors of international law in international legal theory Introduction The rule approach Who are the actors of international law? How can it be determined that a new actor has become part of the legal system? The process approach Who are the actors of international law? How can it be determined that a new actor has become part of the legal system? International law and international relations Who are the actors of international law? How can it be determined that a new actor has become part of the legal system? 3.3 Conclusions Introduction States as the dominant actors of international law The increasing role of non-state actors States and the conferral of international legal status Generally accepted sources An inductive method Part II Legal and empirical survey Rights and obligations 4.1 Theoretical background The concept of ‘rights’ 63 63 64 68 74 77 79 79 82 82 84 84 87 91 91 96 100 103 107 109 109 111 111 112 113 115 119 121 121 121 INDEX transnational see transnational corporations cosmopolitan democracy 26, 30, 31, 524 Council of Europe Fundamental Principles on the Status of NGOs 23–5, 140, 166–8, 170, 515 NGOs and 196–7: co-operation with 416–25, 445, 519; definitions 40–3 counsel, NGOs as 302 Court of First Instance (CFI) 264, 302, 346 Cox, Robert 101 Craven, Matthew 148 Crawford, James criminal groups 45, 49, 52 criminal law, international 187 critical approach 80 customary law 113 legal personality and 77–8 recognition in 89 Dahl, Robert 14 Danzig Railway Officials case 55–6, 112, 123, 124, 127–8 Davidson, Scott 355 death penalty 229–30, 276, 340–1 decision-making, Aarhus Convention on public participation in 160–4, 515, 526 procedure for individual communications 285–8, 517 democracy civil society and 15–17 communicative 35 cosmopolitan 26, 30, 31, 524 fairness and 24 globalisation and 14–15, 31, 524 international law and 6–12, 23, 29 nature of 10, 11 self-determination and 26 Desmond McKenzie v Jamaica case 351, 353 digital divide 17 diplomatic protection 107, 124, 131 direct applicability ILO Conventions 159–60 treaties 129 disappeared people 340 disarmament, Conference on Disarmament 448, 485, 520 disaster relief, code of conduct for 200–1 discourse theory 27, 28–36, 524 discrimination, racial see racial discrimination drugs issues 373 Dunant, Henry 69 duties/obligations 187–201, 300 under Aarhus Convention 162, 163 549 under ECHR 135, 170–1 under European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisations 166 under European Social Charter 177, 178 under ICCPR 144–6 under ICESCR 150–2 under ILO Conventions 154, 157–8, 160, 192 NGOs 190, 192–3, 217, 516: co-operation with IGOs 193–8 rights and 121, 122–3, 125 social responsibilities 188, 189, 516 UN Declaration on Human Rights Defenders 192–3 Earth Summit 373 Ecuador, Mining Development and Environmental Control Technical Assistance Project 244–5 elections, process of 7, employment contracts 491 enforcement of rights 124, 133 environmental issues Aarhus Convention on public participation in decision-making 160–4, 515, 526: procedure for individual communications 285–8, 517 Conference on Environment and Development (Rio 1992) 447, 450–5, 480, 483, 484, 485 Conference on the Human Environment (1972) 450 Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context 288 Framework Convention on Climate Change 451, 460, 485: Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto) 447, 460–3, 484, 485 international law 29 Erdemovic´ case 313 Espoo Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context 288 European Communities – Measures Affecting Asbestos and Asbestos-Containing Products case 323–6, 327 European Communities – Trade Description of Sardines 327 European Convention on Human Rights 48, 168–77, 191, 216, 219, 515 assembly and association rights 169–72 550 INDEX European Convention on Human Rights (cont.) fair hearing right 173–4 freedom of religion 174–5 legal nature of rights under 177 non-party participation in Court of Human Rights 328–45, 364, 365, 518 peaceful enjoyment of possessions right 176–7 respect for private life right 176 standing (locus standi) 171, 177, 216, 246–57, 298, 302, 515: concept of NGO and victim requirement 247–53; NGOs as parties before Commission and Court 253–5; procedure 246–7 European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisations (1986) 40–1, 49, 164–6, 515, 521–2 European Court of Justice (ECJ) 264–71, 302 non-party participation 345–50, 364, 518 standing before 264–71 European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities 139 European Social Charter 177–80, 515 collective complaint procedure 257–64, 517 European Union (EU) 13, 14, 85 co-operation with NGOs 425–31, 445 Court of First Instance (CFI) 264, 302, 346 EU Commission 425: NGOs and 426–31; non-party participation 328 EU Council 426 European Court of Justice 264–71, 302: non-party participation 345–50, 364 existence rights 134, 135–6 expert witnesses, NGOs as 302, 309–10 expression right see free expression right fairness 24–5 fair hearing right 142, 173–4 Falk, Richard 104 FIELD 482 financial markets 13 Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) 505–6, 507 forced labour 263 framework agreements 501–3 Framework Convention on Climate Change 451, 460, 485 Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto) 447, 460–3, 484, 485 Franck, Thomas 7–8, 11, 17, 23–5, 28, 29, 104 free expression right 7, 172–3, 182 issues raised in cases before ECHR 257 Freedom and Democracy Party (OăZDEP) v Turkey case 247–8 freedom of religion 142, 174–5 Fundacio´n de Ayuda Social de las Iglesias Cristianas 230 Furundzija case 312 Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Dam Project case 304 gender transsexuality 339–40 see also women Ge´ne´rale Sucrie`re v Commission of the EU case 347–8, 350 Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field (1864) 70 Geneva Conventions (1949) 70, 202–4, 205, 495, 516 humanitarian organisations and 205–15 globalisation 12 civil society and 16 democracy and 14–15, 31, 524 diffusion of state power and 12–15, 524 inclusion and 32 legal pluralism and 95 protest campaigns against 18–19 government and the state agreements with NGOs 494–6 conferral of international legal status and 112–13 consent by 25–6 as dominant actors of international law 111 globalisation and diffusion of power of 12–15, 524 government-organised NGOs 45 individuals’ rights and 126–7 legitimacy 6, 22–8, 524 liberalism and 101 obligations: under Aarhus Convention 162, 163; under ECHR 135, 170–1; under European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisations 166; under European Social Charter 177, 178; under ICCPR 144–6; under ICESCR 150–2; under ILO Conventions 154, 157–8, 160 realist/neo-realist view of 100, 102 recognition of 6–7, 9, 11 sovereignty 23 undemocratic regimes 9, 12 Grande Oriente d’Italia di Palazzo Giustiniani v Italy case 256 Green Salvation 287 INDEX Greenpeace 19, 266–7, 302 Greenwood, Christopher 491, 494 Group of Associations for the Defence of the Rights of Disabled and Handicapped Persons in Italy v Italy case 225 group rights 1346, 1701 Guăndem v Turkey case 328 Habermas, Juărgen 26, 27–8, 30–2, 34, 524 Harris, David J 85, 124, 125, 127, 131, 169 health and safety at work, European Social Charter and 177, 178 Held, David 11, 26–7, 30, 31 Henkin, Louis 123, 125 Henry Kalenga v Zambia case 284 Higgins, Rosalyn 91, 93–4, 96–7, 111, 112 Hobe´r, Kaj 494 Hohfeld, Wesley 121–2, 125, 130, 131, 300 Holy Monasteries case 250–1 Holy See 64 human rights see rights Human Rights in China (HRIC) 383–4 humanitarian aid 201–15, 217, 516 care of wounded 210 civil conflict 203, 206, 213, 214 code of conduct for 200–1 humanitarian organisations and 205–15 prisoners of war 211–12 protection of civilians in conflicts 212, 213, 214 Huri-Laws v Nigeria case 185–6 hybrid NGOs 46 Ignacio Ellacurı´a SJ et al v El Salvador case 351 indigenous peoples, UN and 389, 390, 391–2 individuals legitimacy and 28 NGOs as representatives of 228–30, 232 rights under international law 124, 125, 126–7, 131–2: group rights and 134, 135–6; organisation rights and 137–8; participation in organisations 139 as subjects of international law 55, 56, 96–7 see also standing (locus standi) Indonesia Auto case 318 inductive method 115–17 informal bodies 43 Institut de Droit International 43 institutionalism 101 insurgent groups 64 intention of parties, rights and 127–8 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 437–8 551 non-party participation in legal process 350–4 standing before 274–7, 517 Inter-American Court of Human Rights 277–9 non-party participation 354–61, 364, 518: advisory opinions 358–61; contentious cases 355–8 intergovernmental organisations agreements with NGOs 496–506, 507–9 co-operation with NGOs 193–8, 366–7, 444–5, 518–19, 526: African Union 438–44, 445, 519; Council of Europe 416–25, 445, 519; European Union 425–31, 445; formal 193–8; ILO 410–16, 519; operational 198, 521; Organization of American States (OAS) 431–8, 445, 519; United Nations 367–410, 445, 519 customary law and 78 employment contracts and 491 powers 75 resolutions 113–14 as subjects of international law 58–63, 87 Interights 229–30, 276 international agreements 487–94, 506–9 between IGOs and NGOs 496–506, 507–9 between states and NGOs 494–6 framework agreements 501–3 memoranda of understanding (MOUs) 497, 498–501 project agreements 503–6 see also individual agreements International Association of Lawyers Against Nuclear Arms 219 International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) 18 International Centre for Not-for-Profit Law 16 International Commission of Jurists 442, 464 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) 373 international conferences 446–8, 479–86, 519–20, 526 Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto) 447, 460–3, 484, 485 Conference on Disarmament 448, 485, 520 Conference on Environment and Development (Rio 1992) 447, 450–5, 480, 483, 484, 485 552 INDEX international conferences (cont.) Conference on the Human Environment (1972) 450 Rome Conference for an International Criminal Court (1998) 447, 463–79, 482, 484: influence of NGOs on negotiations 468, 470–9, 519; legal framework for NGO participation 467–70; research interviewing 464, 465–7 rules for NGO participation in 448–50, 480 Women’s Conference 480 World Conference on Human Rights (1993) 447, 464, 480, 483, 484, 486 International Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination 190–2, 516 Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 231–4, 395, 402–4 International Co-Operative Alliance 375 International Court of Justice (ICJ) 115, 517 non-party participation in 303–10, 363, 365, 518 nuclear weapons opinion 219–23, 306, 307, 309, 363, 517 standing before 219–23 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) 8, 51, 128, 132, 139, 140–7, 514, 520 association rights under 140–4, 147 obligations of states under 144–6 reporting system 146 supervision mechanism 145–6, 224–30 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) 129, 137, 139, 147–52 Draft Optional Protocol 230–1 implementation in national law 151–2 obligations of states under 150–2 supervisory mechanism 152 trade union rights under 148–50 International Criminal Court non-party participation 310 Rome Conference for an International Criminal Court (1998) 447, 463–79, 482, 484 influence of NGOs on negotiations 468, 470–9, 519 legal framework for NGO participation 467–70 research interviewing 464, 465–7 standing before 224 Statute 115 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), non-party participation 310, 314–17, 364 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) non-party participation 310–14 standing before 224 International Federation of Trade Unions (IFTU) 309 International Human Rights Law Group 278 International Labour Organisation (ILO) 33, 307 Committee on Child Labour 413 Committee on Freedom of Association 237–9, 414 Conference Committee on Application of Standards 413–14 Conventions 154–60, 412–13, 514 consultation procedure 157: direct applicability 159–60; obligations under 154, 157–8, 160, 192; right to organise under 155–7, 172; supervision of compliance 158–9, 237 co-operation with NGOs 410–16 consultative procedure 415–16, 521 tripartite structure 410–16 freedom of association procedures 237–9, 514 General Conference 410–14 Governing Body 412 transnational corporations and 199 international law 6–36 democracy and 6–12, 23, 29 discourse theory and 27, 28–36, 524 environmental 29 humanitarian law 201–15, 516 legal process see international legal process legitimacy and 6, 22–30, 523–6 organisation rights in 139–40 recognition of governments and 6–7 sources of law 113–15 subjects see legal personality/subjects of law theoretical issues in see theoretical issues in international law International Law Commission 60, 464, 465–7, 488, 489, 492, 493, 507 International League for the Rights of Man 303, 305–6, 307, 309 international legal process 91, 94, 300–3 new international legal process 91, 94, 98–9, 111 transnational legal process 91, 94, 98–9 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 18, 520 International Organisation for Standardisation 22 International Peace Bureau 219 INDEX International Pen, Constitutional Rights Project and Interights v Nigeria case 185 international relations theories 81, 82, 83, 100–9, 110, 111 new actors entering legal system 107–9 who are the actors of international law 103–7 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 47 ISKCON et al v The United Kingdom case 174 J R T and the W G Party v Canada case 225 Jamuna Bridge Project 243–4 Jessup, Philip 57 Jones, Peter 136–7 Juan Carlos Abella v Argentina case 353–4 Karadzˇic´ and Mladic´ case 313 Karner v Austria case 344 Kenya Human Rights Commission v Kenya case 186 Keohane, Robert A 33, 34 Kilic´ v Turkey case 328 Koh, Harald Hongju 94, 95, 98 Koskenniemi, Martti 79, 109 Kurt v Turkey case 340 Kyoto Protocol 460 L A on behalf of U R v Uruguay case 227 LaGrand case 123 Lamagna v Australia case 143, 227 landmines Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (1997) 70 International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) 18 Ottawa Land Mine Conference (1997) 471 Lauterpacht, Hersch 56–7, 97, 130, 131, 218 Lawyer’s Committee on Nuclear Policy 220 League of Nations 54, 58, 63, 134 Leary, Virginia 414 legal advice, access to 337–8 legal capacity 75 rule-oriented approaches 86, 88 Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia case 306 legal personality/subjects of law 51, 52, 54–7, 116, 514 classical concepts relating to 74–7 customary international law 77–8 individuals 55, 56, 96–7: new actors entering legal system 107–9 553 intergovernmental organisations 58–63, 87 international law–international relations approach 103–7 process-oriented approach 91–6: new actors entering legal system 96–9 rule-based approaches 84–7: new actors entering legal system 87–91, 99 states as dominant actors of international law 111 ‘sui generis’ subjects 63–74, 520: International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) 63, 68–74, 112; Order of Malta 63, 64–8, 112, 520 see also legal status of NGOs legal pluralism 95 legal process, international see international legal process legal status of NGOs 81, 116, 168, 513–21, 526 under European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisations 165–6 standard-setting and 521–3 states and conferral of international legal status 112–13 legitimacy individual and 28 international law and 6, 22–30, 523–6 meaning of 23 states 6, 22–8, 524 Leonel de Jesu´s Isaza Echeverry v Colombia case 354 lex mercatoria 22, 95 liberalism 101, 103–4, 111 liberation movements 203, 214 Libyan Oil Arbitration case 490, 494 Ligue Camerounaise des Droits de l’Homme v Cameroun case 282 Linklater, Andrew 32 Loaza Tamayo v Peru case 356, 357 local government 47 locus standi see standing Lubicon Lake Band v Canada case 226, 227 Ludwigshafener Walzmuăhle Erling KG v EEC case 347 MacCormick, Neil 122 McGinley and Egan v The United Kingdom case 341 Malanczuk, Peter 75, 123–4, 125, 127, 130, 131, 490 Malone v The United Kingdom case 330 manufacturing sector, globalisation and 13 554 INDEX Marı´a Eugenia Morales de Sierra v Guatemala case 276, 352 Marks, Susan 10, 27, 33 Martı´nez, Miguel Alfonso 188 Mary and Carrie Dann v US case 350 The Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v Nicaragua case 357 Mbaye, Ke´ba 442 Me´decins Sans Frontie`res 18 media, globalisation and 13 membership of NGOs 20 memoranda of understanding (MOUs) 497, 498–501 methodological issues 79–82 inductive method 115–17 MEVOPAL SA v Argentina case 181–2 Mikmaq case 226 military coups 443 mines see landmines minorities 49 indigenous peoples 389, 390, 391–2 rights of 7, 12, 134, 136, 137, 139 Mireille Meskens v European Parliament case 349 Modinos v Cyprus case 253, 341 monitoring mechanisms 131–2 morality, legitimacy and 25–6 Morgenthau, Hans 102 Mosler, Hermann 88–9, 90, 99, 300, 302 multinational corporations see transnational corporations (TNCs) Murphy, Sean D Murray v The United Kingdom case 337–8 National Union of Belgian Police case 179, 255 National Union of Journalists and Others v The United Kingdom case 255 neo-realism 100 New Haven school 91, 92, 108, 112 new international legal process 91, 94, 98–9, 111 NGO Coalition for the Establishment of an International Criminal Court (CICC) 468, 470–9 Nobel Peace Prize 18 non-governmental organisations (NGOs) 3, 4–5, 33–6 definitions 525: international instruments and doctrine 36–46; this study 46–52 increasing role of 16, 17–22 numbers 19 see also individual topics and organisations non-party (third party) participation 301, 302, 363–5, 517–18, 521 African Commission and Court of Human Rights 361–2, 518 European Commission 328 European Court of Human Rights 328–45, 364, 365, 518 European Court of Justice 345–50, 364, 518 Inter-American Commission 350–4 Inter-American Court of Human Rights 354–61, 364, 518: advisory opinions 358–61; contentious cases 355–8 International Court of Justice (ICJ) 303–10, 363, 365, 518 International Criminal Court (ICC) 310 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) 310, 314–17, 364 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) 310–14 World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement procedure 317–27, 363–364, 365 non-profit organisations 38, 39, 41, 42, 47–8 North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC), citizen submission procedure 288–98, 517 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 288, 289 Norway, aid programmes 21 Nowak, Manfred 140, 142, 144 nuclear weapons ICJ opinion on 219–23, 306, 307, 309, 363, 517 testing 341 Nuremberg International Military Tribunal 187 O’Connell, Mary Ellen 98, 112 Odinkalu, Chidi Anselm 362 Open Door and Dublin Well Woman v Ireland case 251, 257 Oppenheim, Lassa 54–5, 74, 131 Order of Malta 60, 205 as ‘sui generis’ subject of international law 63, 64–8, 112, 520 United Nations and 371 Order of Santa Maria Gloriosa 76 Organization for African Unity (OAU) 305, 370, 438 see also African Union Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises 198 Organization of American States (OAS) Councils 436–7 INDEX General Assembly 432, 435–6 General Secretariat 435–6 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 437–8 NGOs and 43, 197–8, 431–8, 445, 519 organisation rights 134–87, 216–17, 514, 520 individual rights and 137–8 instability threat from 137, 138 in international law 139–40 limitations 190–2 organisations, right to participate in 139 Oscar Romero v El Salvador case 354 Ottawa Land Mine Conference (1997) 471 Paez v Sweden case 328 Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) 370 Parti e´cologiste ‘Les Verts’ v European Parliament case 269 participation 524 Aarhus Convention on public participation in decision-making 160–4, 515, 526: procedure for individual communications 285–8, 517 non-parties in legal system see non-party (third party) participation process-orientation and 95 right to participate in organisations 139 Paulus, Andreas 84, 112 Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) 307 Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War 219, 306 Plattform Aărzte fuăr das Leben v Austria case 169, 256 Plaumann & Co v Commission case 265 pluralism 95 policy orientation 91–3, 97–8, 111 political parties 18, 41, 42, 45, 48–9 population issues, International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) 373 positivism 83, 108 power 104–6 prisoners of war 211–12 private contacts, transnational 19 private life, right to respect for 176 process-oriented theories 80, 82, 83, 91–9, 111, 113 new actors entering legal system 96–9 who are the actors of international law 91–6 professional associations 170 profit-making organisations 42 project agreements 503–6 555 property protection in conflicts 213 right to peaceful enjoyment of possessions 176–7 Prosecutor v Samuel Imanishimwe et al case 316–17 protest campaigns 18–19, 29 Purcell and Others v Ireland case 252 Putnam, Robert 16 Quaker Council for European Affairs (QCEA) 263 racial discrimination 190–2 Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 231–4, 395, 402–4 International Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination 190–2, 516 racist groups 138 Rafael Ferrer-Mazorra et al v US case 351 Raz, Joseph 122, 134, 136 realism 100, 102 recognition customary law 89 government/state 6–7, 9, 11 international legal personality and 76–7 Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement 20, 21, 205, 516 code of conduct 200–1 Geneva Conventions (1949) and 206, 207, 208, 209, 213 international agreements 487, 494–6, 507, 509 International Committee (ICRC) as ‘sui generis’ subject of international law 63, 68–74, 112 United Nations and 370–1 regime theory 101 regulation 22, 45 religion, freedom of 142, 174–5 religious congregations 42 remedies, rights and 130–3 Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations case 58–60, 87, 90, 112 representatives, NGOs as 228–30, 232, 302–3 rights 117, 121–3, 215, 520 enforcement 124, 133 group rights 134–6, 170–1 intention of parties 127–8 monitoring mechanisms 131–2 non-state rights 123–33 556 INDEX rights (cont.) organisation rights 134–87, 216–17, 514, 520: individual rights and 137, 137–8; instability threat from 137, 138; in international law 139–40 remedies and 130–3 terms of treaties and 128–30 theoretical issues 121–34 transnational corporations and 199–200 see also individual rights Rio Conference on Environment and Development (1992) 447, 450–5, 480, 483, 484, 485 Rodley, Nigel 394, 395 Rome Conference for an International Criminal Court (1998) 447, 463–79, 482, 484 influence of NGOs on negotiations 468, 470–9, 519: examples of influence 478–9; internal strategy of NGO Coalition 477; modalities for NGO participation 471–2; role of different organisations 478; strategies and working methods of NGOs 472–7 legal framework for NGO participation 467–70 research interviewing 464, 465–7 rule-oriented theories 80, 81, 82, 83, 84–91, 111, 112, 113, 115 new actors entering legal system 87–91, 99 who are the actors of international law 84–7 Rwanda, International Criminal Tribunal 310, 314–17, 364 Schermers, Henry G 61, 85, 366 sea, law of 491 self-determination right 7, 26, 134, 136, 147 Seyersted, Finn 61 Shaw, Malcolm N 76 Sheffield and Horsham v UK case 339–40 Shelton, Dinah 363 silence, right to 337 Silverman, David 466 Simma, Bruno 84, 112 Slaughter, Anne-Marie 10, 103–4, 109 slavery 443 social responsibilities, draft declaration on 188, 189, 516 social security systems, globalisation and 13 Socialist Party and Others v Turkey case 255 Soering v The United Kingdom case 330, 340–1 sources of law 113–15 South West Africa case 84 South West Africa People’s Organization (SWAPO) 370 sovereignty 23 standardisation 22, 95 standard-setting, legal status of NGOs and 521–3 standing (locus standi) 218–19, 298–9, 517, 521 1503 Procedure 236–7, 521 Aarhus Convention procedure for individual communications 285–8, 517 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights 186–7, 279–85: African Commission 279–85, 517, 521; African Court 285, 517 American Convention on Human Rights 181–2, 271–9: Inter-American Commission 274–7, 517; Inter-American Court 277–9; procedure 271–4 Committee Against Torture 234–5 Committee on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 235–6 Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 231–4 European Convention on Human Rights 171, 177, 216, 246–57, 298, 302, 515: concept of NGO and victim requirement 247–53; procedure 246–7 European Court of Justice 264–71, 302 European Social Charter collective complaint procedure 257–64, 517 International Court of Justice (ICJ) 219–23 International Criminal Court (ICC) 224 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) 224 International Labour Organization (ILO), freedom of association procedures 237–9 North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) 288–98, 517 UN Human Rights Committee 224–31 UNESCO procedure for individual communications 239–41, 521 World Bank Inspection Panel 241–6 see also non-party (third party) participation Stankov and United Macedonian Organisation Ilinden v Bulgaria case 248–9, 256–7 state see government and the state Stichting Greenpeace Council (Greenpeace International) and others v Commission case 266–7, 302 strike, right to 148, 149, 179 subjects of law see legal personality/ subjects of law INDEX ‘sui generis’ subjects of international law 63–74, 520 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) 63, 68–74, 112 Order of Malta 63, 64–8, 112, 520 supervision mechanisms Aarhus Convention 163 European Social Charter 178, 180 ICCPR 145–6, 224–30 ICESCR 152 ILO Conventions 158–9, 237 Sutherland v UK case 328 Svenska Journalistfoărbundet v Council of the EU case 268–9 Sweden, aid programmes 21 Swedish Engine Drivers’ Union v Sweden case 255 Switzerland aid programmes 21 Red Cross and 495 Syndicat National des Professions du Tourisme v France case 261 Tadic´ case 311 terrorist groups 49, 52, 138, 204, 332–4, 522 Teubner, Gunther 95, 96 The´oneste Bagosora case 316 theoretical issues in international law 79–82, 109–11 actors of international law and 82–117: increasing role of non-state actors 111–12; new actors entering legal system 87–91, 96–9, 107–9; states as dominant actors of international law 111; who are the actors of international law 84–7, 91–6, 103–7 critical approach 80 inductive method 115–17 international law–international relations approach 81, 82, 83, 100–9, 110, 111: new actors entering legal system 107–9; who are the actors of international law 103–7 process-oriented approach 80, 82, 83, 91–9, 111, 113: new actors entering legal system 96–9; who are the actors of international law 91–6 rights 121–34 rule-oriented approach 80, 81, 82, 83, 84–91, 111, 112, 113, 115: new actors entering legal system 87–91, 99; who are the actors of international law 84–7 sources of law 113–15 states and conferral of international legal status 112–13 557 states as dominant actors of international law 111 third parties see non-party (third party) participation torture 338–9 Convention Against Torture 234–5 United Nations Committee Against Torture 234–5, 395, 399–401 World Organisation against Torture 262 trade unions 41, 42, 307 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and 184 civil service 141 closed shop 341 ECHR and 134, 170, 171–2 European Social Charter and 179–80 ICESCR and 137, 148–50 ILO Conventions and 155–7, 172 as non-party participants in court 347, 349 rights to join 140, 216 transnational corporations (TNCs) 106 human rights issues and 199–200 ILO and 199 international obligations 189 OECD Guidelines for 198 United Nations and 199–200 transnational legal process 91, 94, 98–9 transnational private contacts 19 Transnational Radical Party (TRP) 385 transnationalism 102 transsexuality 339–40 treaties 7, 52, 113 directly applicable 129 monitoring mechanisms 131–2 non-state rights-holders on the international plane and 128–30 self-executing 129 Vienna Conventions 487–8, 488–9, 493, 506, 509 tripartism 410–16 Tyrer v The United Kingdom case 329 undemocratic regimes 9, 12, 138 Union of Arab Banks 50 United Communist Party of Turkey and Others v Turkey case 255 United Nations 117 1503 Procedure 236–7, 521 Charter 37, 38, 39, 47, 59 civil society and 406–10 codes of practice and 199–200 Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) 392–3, 451, 455, 485 Committee Against Torture 234–5, 395, 399–401 558 INDEX United Nations (cont.) Committee on Conventions and Recommendations 240–1 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 395, 397–9 Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 235–6, 395, 401–2 Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination 231–4, 395, 402–4 Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Member of their Families 395, 406 Committee on the Rights of the Child 395, 404–6 Declaration on Human Rights Defenders 140, 152–4, 192–3, 515 draft declaration on social responsibilities 188, 189, 516 Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) 371, 519, 523: consultative arrangements 374–86; standing committee on NGOs 382–6; subsidiary bodies and extraconventional mechanisms 387–94 Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) 505–6, 507 General Assembly 220, 221: co-operation with NGOs 369–73 High Commissioner for Human Rights 459 High Commissioner for Refugees 498, 499–502, 504–5 Human Rights Commission 9, 387–9, 473, 516 Human Rights Committee 395, 396–7: standing before 224–31, 224–30 International Committee of the Red Cross and 74 international conferences 446–8, 479–86: Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto) 447, 460–3, 484, 485; Conference on Disarmament 448, 485, 520; Conference on Environment and Development (Rio 1992) 447, 450–5, 480, 483, 484, 485; Conference on the Human Environment (1972) 450; Rome Conference for an International Criminal Court (1998) 447, 463–79, 482, 484, 519; rules for NGO participation in 448–50, 480; Women’s Conference 480; World Conference on Human Rights (1993) 447, 464, 480, 483, 484, 486 legal personality 58–60, 87 NGOs and 19, 194–6, 523: co-operation with 367–410, 445, 519; Council Committee of NGOs 195–6; definitions 37–40; reform proposals 406–10 Order of Malta and 67–8 Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues 390 reform proposals 33, 406–10 Security Council 13: co-operation with NGOs 373–4, 408 Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights 390–1 UNESCO procedure for individual communications 239–41, 521 Working Groups: on Arbitrary Detention 394; on draft declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples 389, 392; on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances 393; on Indigenous Populations 391–2; on permanent forum for indigenous peoples in the UN system 390 World Health Organization (WHO) 115, 220, 502–3, 505 United States – Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products case 318–22 United States – Imposition of Countervailing Duties on Certain Hot-Rolled Lead and Bismuth Carbon Steel Products Originating in the UK case 322–3 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 139, 239, 516 Van Dijk, P 170 Van Hecke, Georges 491, 508 Van Hoof, Godefridus 78, 170 Van Rooy, Alison 34 Vatican 64 Verein ‘Kontakt-Information-Therapie’ and Jagen v Austria case 175 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) 487–8, 506, 509 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties between States and International Organizations or between International Organizations (1986) 488–9, 493, 506, 509 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action 458–9 Waltz, Kenneth 100 war see conflict/war Weil, Prosper 84 Weissbrodt, David 391 INDEX welfare systems, globalisation and 13 Westphalia, Peace Treaty of 54 Wiessner, Siegfried 96, 97 Willard, Andrew R 96, 97 Williams, Jody 18 Winterwerp v Netherlands case 329 women Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women 139 rights of 139 United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women 235–6, 395, 401–2 Women’s Conference 480 World Bank 16, 18, 50, 498 Draft Handbook on Good Practices Relating to Non-Governmental Organizations 45 Inspection Panel 241–6 World Conference Against Racism 384 World Conference on Human Rights (1993) 447, 464, 480, 483, 484, 486 World Court see International Court of Justice 559 World Court Project 219–21, 517 World Federation of Trade Unions 375 World Food Programme (WFP) 21, 497, 499–502, 503–4 World Health Organization (WHO) 115, 220, 502–3, 505 World Organisation against Torture 262 World Trade Organization (WTO) 18 dispute settlement procedure 317–27, 363–364, 365 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) 20 wounded, care of 210 X and Church of Scientology v Sweden case 174, 253 X on behalf of S G F v Uruguay case 228 X Union v France case 252 Young, Iris Marion 35 Young, James and Webster v The United Kingdom case 329, 341 Yugoslav war trials see International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL AND COMPARATIVE LAW Books in the series Non-Governmental Organisations in International Law Anna-Karin Lindblom Democracy, Minorities and International Law Steven Wheatley Prosecuting International Crimes Selectivity and the International Criminal Law Regime Robert Cryer Compensation for Personal Injury in English, German and Italian Law A Comparative Outline Basil Markesinis, Michael Coester, Guido Alpa, Augustus Ullstein Dispute Settlement in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea Natalie Klein The International Protection of Internally Displaced Persons Catherine Phuong Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law Antony Anghie Necessity, Proportionality and the Use of Force by States Judith Gardam International Legal Argument in the Permanent Court of International Justice The Rise of the International Judiciary Ole Spiermann Great Powers and Outlaw States Unequal Sovereigns in the International Legal Order Gerry Simpson Local Remedies in International Law C F Amerasinghe Reading Humanitarian Intervention Human Rights and the Use of Force in the International Law Anne Orford Conflict of Norms in Public International Law How WTO Law Relates to Other Rules of Law Joost Pauwelyn Transboundary Damage in International Law Hanqin Xue European Criminal Procedures Edited by Mireille Delmas-Marty and John Spencer The Accountability of Armed Opposition Groups in International Law Liesbeth Zegveld Sharing Transboundary Resources International Law and Optimal Resource Use Eyal Benvenisti International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law Rene´ Provost Remedies Against International Organisations Basic Issues Karel Wellens Diversity and Self-Determination in International Law Karen Knop The Law of Internal Armed Conflict Lindsay Moir International Commercial Arbitration and African States Practice, Participation and Institutional Development Amazu A Asouzu The Enforceability of Promises in European Contract Law James Gordley International Law in Antiquity David J Bederman Money-Laundering A New International Law Enforcement Model Guy Stessens Good Faith in European Contract Law Reinhard Zimmermann and Simon Whittaker On Civil Procedure J A Jolowicz Trusts A Comparative Study Maurizio Lupoi The Right to Property in Commonwealth Constitutions Tom Allen International Organizations Before National Courts August Reinisch The Changing International Law of High Seas Fisheries Francisco Orrego Vicun˜a Trade and the Environment A Comparative Study of EC and US Law Damien Geradin Unjust Enrichment A Study of Private Law and Public Values Hanoch Dagon Religious Liberty and International Law in Europe Malcolm D Evans Ethics and Authority in International Law Alfred P Rubin Sovereignty Over Natural Resources Balancing Rights and Duties Nico Schrijver The Polar Regions and the Development of International Law Donald R Rothwell Fragmentation and the International Relations of Micro-States Self-determination and Statehood Jorri Duursma Principles of the Institutional Law of International Organizations C F Amerasinghe ... International law? ? ?international relations International Labor Organization International legal process International Law Reports International Monetary Fund International non- governmental organisation International. ..This page intentionally left blank Non- Governmental Organisations in International Law Non- governmental organisations (NGOs) are playing an increasing political role on the international. .. in International Law – A Reprise’, in Gregory Fox and Brad R Roth (eds.), Democratic Governance and International Law, p 117 Crawford, ‘Democracy in International Law? ??, Cambridge University Press,