P1: KcS CY460/Fetzer-FM CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 6, 2004 This page intentionally left blank ii 18:3 P1: KcS CY460/Fetzer-FM CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 6, 2004 18:3 MUSLIMS AND THE STATE IN BRITAIN, FRANCE, AND GERMANY More than ten million Muslims live in Western Europe Since the early 1990s and especially after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, vexing policy questions have emerged about the religious rights of native-born and immigrant Muslims Britain has struggled over whether to give state funding to private Islamic schools France has been convulsed over Muslim teenagers wearing the h ij¯ab in public schools Germany has debated whether to grant “public-corporation” status to Muslims And each state is searching for policies to ensure the successful incorporation of practicing Muslims into liberal democratic society This book analyzes state accommodation of Muslims’ religious practices in Britain, France, and Germany, first examining three major theories: resource mobilization, political-opportunity structure, and ideology It then proposes an additional explanation, arguing that each nation’s approach to Muslims follows from its historically based church–state institutions Professor Joel S Fetzer teaches European and immigration politics at Pepperdine University His research has been funded by the German Marshall Foundation of the United States, the MacArthur Foundation, the Friedrich Ebert Foundation, and the Yale Center for International and Area Studies He is the author of numerous articles and book chapters on comparative immigration politics and on religion and political behavior His most recent book is Public Attitudes toward Immigration in the United States, France, and Germany (Cambridge University Press 2000) J Christopher Soper is Endowed Professor of Political Science and Chair of the Social Science Division at Pepperdine University A graduate of both Yale Divinity School and Yale’s Ph.D program in political science, Professor Soper has written extensively on church–state relations and religion and politics in Europe and the United States Recipient of grants from the American Political Science Association and the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, he is author of Evangelical Christianity in the United States and Great Britain (1994) and coauthor of The Challenge of Pluralism: Church and State in Five Democracies (1997) i P1: KcS CY460/Fetzer-FM CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 ii August 6, 2004 18:3 P1: KcS CY460/Fetzer-FM CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 6, 2004 18:3 Cambridge Studies in Social Theory, Religion, and Politics Editors David C Leege University of Notre Dame Kenneth D Wald University of Florida, Gainesville The most enduring and illuminating bodies of late nineteenth-century social theory – by Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, and others – emphasized the integration of religion, polity, and economy through time and place Once a staple of classic social theory, however, religion gradually lost the interest of many social scientists during the twentieth century Scholarly interest in religiously based political conflict has reawakened with the recent emergence of phenomena such as Solidarity in Poland; the dissolution of the Soviet empire; various South American, Southern African, and South Asian liberation movements; the Christian Right in the United States; and al Qaeda At the same time, fundamental questions are once again being asked about the role of religion in stable political regimes, public policies, and constitutional orders The series Cambridge Studies in Social Theory, Religion, and Politics will produce books that study religion and politics by drawing upon classic social theory and more recent social scientific research traditions Books in the series offer theoretically grounded, comparative, empirical studies that raise “big” questions about a timely subject that has long engaged the best minds in social science Other Books in the Series Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide iii P1: KcS CY460/Fetzer-FM CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 iv August 6, 2004 18:3 P1: KcS CY460/Fetzer-FM CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 6, 2004 18:3 Muslims and the State in Britain, France, and Germany Joel S Fetzer Pepperdine University J Christopher Soper Pepperdine University v    Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521828307 © Joel S Fetzer and Christopher Soper 2005 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2004 - - ---- eBook (NetLibrary) --- eBook (NetLibrary) - - ---- hardback --- hardback - - ---- paperback --- paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate P1: KcS CY460/Fetzer-FM CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 6, 2004 18:3 Dedicated to Christina , , and Ansar Fayyazuddin, dear friend and ally in the quest for justice – JSF Dedicated to my wife, Jane Woodwell, and children, Katharine and David – JCS vii P1: KcS CY460/Fetzer-FM CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 viii August 6, 2004 18:3 P1: IBE 0521828309bib 194 CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 5, 2004 11:54 BIBLIOGRAPHY Sciolino, Elaine 2003a “A Maze of Identities for the Muslims of France.” New York Times, April 9, p A3 2003b “French Threaten Expulsions after Islam Radical Victory.” New York Times, April 16, p A3 2003c “France Envisions a Citizenry of Model Muslims.” New York Times, May 7, p A4 ă Seifert, Annette 2000 Islamisches Zentrum weckt groòe Angste: Anwohner und ă ă ă Geschăaftsleute in Heslach furchten Uberfremdung–Burgermeister Murawski will vermitteln.” Stuttgarter Nachrichten, February 11, p 19 Seksig, Alain 1999 “Les croyants les plus proches de la laăcite a` la francáaise sont les musulmans: un entretien avec Soheib Bencheikh, mufti de Marseille.” Hommes et Migrations 1218(March/April):14–21 Shadid, Wasif, and Sjoerd van Koningsveld 1996 “Political Participation: The Muslim Perspective.” Pp 2–13 in W A R Shadid and P S van Koningsveld, eds., Political Participation and Identities of Muslims in non-Muslim States Kampen, Netherlands: Kok Pharos Shand, Jack D 1998 “The Decline of Traditional Christian Beliefs in Germany.” Sociology of Religion 59(2):179–84 Shatz, Adam 2002 “The Torture of Algiers.” New 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Altenberge, Germany: Verlag fur Schrifttum P1: IBE 0521828309bib CY460/Fetzer BIBLIOGRAPHY 0521828309 August 5, 2004 11:54 197 Warner, Carolyn 1999 “Organizing Islam for Politics in Western Europe.” Paper prepared for presentation at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Atlanta, GA Warren, Mark R 2001 Dry Bones Rattling: Community Building to Revitalize American Democracy Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Watson, Rory 2002 “Terrorism Increases Attacks on Muslims in Europe.” Times (London), May 24, p 17 Webster, Paul 1993 “Death Paris-Style as Pasqua Applies the Right Stuff: Riot Police Clashed in Paris Last Night with Protesters after a Black Youth Was Shot Dead in Custody.” Guardian (London), April 8, p 24 Weil, Patrick 1991 La France et ses e´ trangers: L’aventure d’une politique de l’immigration de 1938 a` nos jours Paris: Gallimard Weil, Patrick, and John Crowley 1994 “Integration in Theory and Practice: A Comparison of France and Britain.” Pp 110–26 in Martin Baldwin-Edwards and Martin A Schain, eds., The Politics of Immigration in Western Europe London: Frank Cass Weiße, Wolfram 2000 “Der Hamburger WegDialogisch orientierter Religionă alle. Pp 2548 in Beauftragte der Bundesregierung fur ă Aussunterricht fur lăanderfrage Islamisher Religionsunterricht an staatlichen Schulen in Deutschland: Praxis – Konzepte – Perspektiven; Dokumentation eines Fachgesprăaches No (Septă Auslăanderfrage ember) Berlin and Bonn: Beauftragte der Bundesregierung fur Weller, Paul, Alice Feldman, and Kingsley Purdam 2001 Religious Discrimination in England and Wales London: Home Office Research Wihtol de Wenden, Catherine 1988 Les immigr´es et la politique Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques Wihtol de Wenden, Catherine, and R´emy Leveau 2001 La beurgeoisie: Les trois aˆ ges ´ de la vie associative issue de l’immigration Paris: CNRS Editions Willaime, Jean-Paul 1998 “Religion and Secular France between Northern and Southern Europe.” Social Compass 45(1):155–74 Woltersdorf, Adrienne 2003 Die falsche Toleranz; Der Migrationsforscher Ralf ă Ghadban kritisiert die uberholten Grundlagen der Auslăanderpolitik in der Stadt ¨ ¨ Seit 20 Jahren betreut er Zuwanderer und Fluchtlinge: ‘Die Kluft is großer geworden’.” TAZ, April 2, section Berlin Aktuell, p 22 Wonnacott, Ronald J., and Thomas H Wonnacott 1985 Introductory Statistics 4th ed New York: John Wiley and Sons Wright, Tony 2001 Speech to House of Commons, DD, MM Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 5th ser., vol 375, col 448 Wuthnow, Robert 1988 The Restructuring of American Religion: Society and Faith since World War Two Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press Xinhua News Agency 1997 “Riot and Robbery Reported on New Year’s Eve in France.” Wire service article December 30, item no 1230252 Ysmal, Colette 2002 “Chirac r´ealise un score que n’avait mˆeme pas atteint de Gaulle lors de la consultation de 1958 (79,3%); Un r´ef´erendum plus qu’une e´ lection pr´esidentielle.” Le Figaro, May 6, section “politique.” P1: IBE 0521828309bib 198 CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 5, 2004 11:54 BIBLIOGRAPHY Zald, Mayer N and John D McCarthy, eds 1987 Social Movements in an Organizational Society New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books Zentralinstitut Islam-Archiv-Deutschland 2000 Muslime vor den Landtagswahlen in Nordrhein-Westfalen. Dokumentation Nr 3/2000 Ergăanzungen Soest: Zentralinstitut Islam-Archiv-Deutschland Zolberg, Aristide R., and Long Litt Woon 1999 “Why Islam Is Like Spanish: Cultural Incorporation in Europe and the United States.” Politics and Society 27:5– 38 Zouari, Fawzia 2002 Le voile islamique: Histoire et actualit´e, du Coran a` l’affaire du foulard Lausanne, Switzerland: Favre P1: JTR 0521828309ind CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 5, 2004 12:0 Index Abdullah, Mohammed, 110 Abed, Renate Nadja, 117 Ad-Darsh, Syed, 36 adh¯an See Muslim: prayers Afzal, Muhammad, 47 Ahmed, Lord, 32, 50 Akhtar, Shabbir, 52 Al-Aqsa School, 45 Alevites, 115, 120 Algeria, Algerian(s), 16, 27, 62–4, 77, 92 Algerian War of Independence, 27, 63–4 ALLBUS Survey, 132, 135, 140–2 al Qaeda, 150 Altschull, Elizabeth, 82, 84, 139 Amer, Fatma, 25, 40 Anglican See Church of England anticlericalism, 18 in Britain, 33, 43 in France, 34, 70, 72, 96 antidiscrimination laws in France, 68 antisemitism in France, 70 Armed Islamic Group (GIA), 66 Association of British Muslims, 60 Association of Muslim Schools in the UK and Eire, 45 asylum See political asylum laws, policies ¨ Ataturk, Kemal, 103 atheism, 71, 73, 77 Ausl¨anderbeauftragter See Ofce of Foreigner Affairs ă Baden-Wurttemberg, 115, 121 Bangladesh, Bangladeshi(s), 9, 42 Barlow, Anne, 57, 59 Bardot, Brigitte, 130 Basic Law (German), 105, 107, 109, 111, 113, 116, 124–7 Bavaria, 117, 121 Bayrou Circular, 79 Bendelac, Alberto, 75, 79 Berguin, Francis, 74–5, 81–2, 84 Berlin, 99, 109, 114–15, 117–18, 123, 127 Birmingham, 1, 12, 40–2, 47, 52 Birmingham Central Mosque, 47 199 P1: JTR 0521828309ind CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 200 Blair government, 4, 32, 46, 49 Blanc, Jackie, 87 blasphemy laws, 37–8, 59 Blatt, David, 14 Bleich, Erik, 14, 53, 55, 93 Board of Deputies of British Jews, 49, 51, 148 Bonhoeffer, Dietrich, 107 Bradford, 37, 44, 49, 53 Brandenburg, 115 Bremen, 113, 118, 121 Bremen Clause, 112–14 British Home Office, 32, 37, 58, 152 British India, 26 British National Party, 4, 28–9, 131 British Nationality Act, 1948, 27–8 Browning, David, 48 Brubaker, Rogers, 14, 55 Buisson, Ferdinand, 71–2 Bundesverfassungsschutz See Office for the Protection of the Constitution ă Burgerund Gartenbauvereins Heslach, 119 Burnley riots, 29, 58 Butt, K S., Cantle Report, 58 Carignon, Alain, 89 Catholic See Roman Catholic Church Catholic Center Party, 106 Catholic Education Service, 58 Cesari, Jocelyne, 53 chaplain(s), 70, 74 Chapuis, Robert, 85 Charvieu-Chavagneux, 88–9 Chaudhary, Zahour Anwar, 41–2 Cheni`ere, Ernest, 62, 78 Ch´erifi, Hanifa, 93 Chev`enement, Jean-Pierre, 92 Chirac, Jacques, 66, 93 Christian Democrats (CDU), 104, 119, 121 Christian schools See church schools Christian Social Union (CSU), 104 Christlich-Islamische Gesellschaft Mannheim, 118 August 5, 2004 12:0 INDEX Church of England, 18, 33–4, 43–4, 54, 56, 57–60, 134, 138, 142–3, 156 church schools, 151–2 See also Islamic schools in Britain, 5, 38, 43–6, 54, 57–8, 151–2 in France, 57, 85 in Germany, 107, 116, 127 church–state theory 6–7, 13, 15, 17–20, 22, 146, 149, 155–7 in Britain, 18, 32–5, 38, 43–6, 54–61 See also Church of England; established church: Britain; religious establishment: in Britain in France, 5, 18, 69, 947, 1556 See also laăcite in Germany, 19, 105–10, 122, 125–9, 156–7 See also multiple establishment; public corporation status church tax, 19, 107, 142 citizenship policies, 11, 14, 55 in Britain, 4, 12, 27–9, 152 in France, 5, 14, 65 in Germany, 5, 12, 14, 100–1, 104, 105, 121–2, 125–6 Collectif des Musulmans de France, 91 collective worship, 39–40, 152 Cologne, 1, 116, 118 colonialism British, 26 French, 63 German, 99 ´ Combes, Emile, 71 Commission for Racial Equality (CRE), 30–1, 35 Commonwealth Immigrants Act, 1962, 28 Comorian(s), 63 Concordant of 1801, 69–70, 72 Confessing Church, 107 ´ Conseil d’Etat, 5, 64, 74, 79–81, 88, 90, 94 Conseil de R´eflexion sur l’Islam en France (CORIF), 92 P1: JTR 0521828309ind CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 INDEX Conseil Franc¸ais du Culte Musulman (CFCM), 91–3, 95, 122 Conservative Party, 27–8, 33 Constitution of the Fifth Republic, 1958, 76 correspondence courses, 81 crime in France, 66, 96 Davie, Grace, 42 D´eclaration des droits de lhomme et du citoyen, 76 de Gaulle, Charles, 62 Delanoăe, Bertrand, 67 Department for Education, Britain, 39–40, 45, 57, 58 Derby Report, 32, 55 d’Estaing, Val´ery Giscard, 64 Deutsch-Islamische Schule, 117 Dezempte, G´erard, 88–9 ˙ IB, ˙ 102–5, 113, 120–1, 125 DIT Diwan, Mohammed Kassim, 47 Doomernik, Jeroen, 11, 104 Douai, Fouad, 96 Dreux, 66 Dreyfus Affair, 70 Dwyer, Claire, 11 East London Central Mosque, 154 East London Communities Organization, 154 economic recession of 1970s, 2, 64 Education Act of 1944, 38, 43–4, 54 Education Act of 1988, 39, 41 Education Ministry, French, 68, 79, 94 education policies, 55 See also religious education in Britain, 4, 38–46, 53–5 in France, 5, 53, 68, 70, 78–87 in Germany, 6, 111–15, 127 El Guindi, Fadwa, 140 Elyas, Nadeem, established church, Britain, 17–18, 32–4, 60 See also Church of England ethnic associations, French, 68 European Convention on Human Rights, 35 August 5, 2004 12:0 201 European Monitoring Center on Racism and Xenophobia, 143, 154 evangelicals in Britain, 135, 138 Evangelische, 98, 102, 105–6, 110–13, 118, 124, 128, 135, 139 evolution, teaching of, 94, 117, 151 ´ Evry, 64, 89, 94 family reunion, 2–3, 15, 29, 31, 64, 67, 101 Favell, Adrian, 14, 29–30, 55 Federal Administrative Court, 115 Federal Constitutional Court, 116 federalism, 53 in Britain, 53, 149 in Germany, 112, 123–5, 149 F´ed´eration Nationale des Musulmans de France (FNMF), 91 feminism, feminist(s), 73, 82–4, 139–40, 152 Femmes Franc¸aises et Musulmanes Engag´ees, 1, 81 Ferry, Jules, 71–2 Ferry Law, 70 File Affair, 72 Findik, Hicabi, 76, 78, 86 ă Foderation der Aleviten Gemeinden in Deutschland, 120 Fonds d’Action Sociale pour les Travailleurs Immigr´es et leurs Familles (FAS), 68 foreign workers See also guestworkers in Britain, 26–7 in France, 63–6 in Germany, 99–102, 125–6 recruitment of, 2, 16, 26–7, 63, 99–101 Forum Citoyen des Cultures Musulmanes (FCCM), 86, 92 foulard See h.ij¯ab fran¸cais de souche, 66–7 France-Plus, 92 Frankfurt, 118, 124 Frˆeche, Georges, 90 Free Democrats, 119 French Code of Nationality, 65 P1: JTR 0521828309ind CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 202 French National Election Study See SOFRES French National Election Study French presidential elections, 2002, 66, 86, 92 French Revolution, revolutionaries, 69, 95–6 Friedrich II, 99 Friedrich Wilhelm I, 99 Front de lib´eration nationale (FLN), 64 Front National See National Front: in France Garbaye, Romain, 12 Gastarbeiter See guestworkers Gaullist(s), 65–6, 79, 135 Gebauer, Klaus, 114, 124 gender theory, 139, 152 genital mutilation, 151 German Constitutional Court, 109 German Democratic Republic, 109 GIA See Armed Islamic Group Grande Mosqu´ee de Lyon, 74, 87 Grande Mosqu´ee de Marseille, 89 Grande Mosqu´ee de Saint-Denis, 86 Granier, Nicole, 75, 83, 87 Green Party, 119, 121 Grenoble, 89 Griffin, Nick, 29 Griffiths, Gill, 40–1 Grundgesetz See Basic Law guestworkers, 15, 100–1, 103–4, 125–6 See also foreign workers Guidice, Fausto, 67 Guiraudon, Virginie, 11, 56, 123 h.al¯al, 22, 42, 85, 116 Hall, John, 25, 57 Hamburg, 113, 115, 121 harkis, 64 Harries, Richard, 57–60 Hasanein, Abdel Sattar, 117 Haut Conseil a` l’Int´egration, 65, 68 ´ Herriot, Edouard, 72 Hewitt, Ibrahim, 45, 58 h.ij¯ab, 3, 22–3, 140 August 5, 2004 12:0 INDEX in Britain, 4, 41–2, 55 in France, 76, 84, 86, 93, 95, 97, 143 in French public schools, 3, 5, 19, 62, 78–84, 93–4, 155–6 in Germany 111, 115–16, 129 Hmito, Abdellatif, 71, 76 Hofmann, Murad Wilfried, 130 House of Commons, 29 House of Lords, 32, 34–5, 50, 59, 142, 149, 156 “House for the Future, A,” 34 See also Wakeman Report Hoyerswerda, 104 human rights, 76, 151 Human Rights Act, 17, 32, 35 Hussain, Shafaq, 52 id al-fit.r, 35, 85 ideological theory, 7, 13–15, 20, 55–6, 94–5, 125–6, 149 Imams, 9, 64, 70, 86, 88, 99, 103, 156 immigration policies, 141, 143 See also citizenship policies, family reunion, political asylum laws, policies anti-immigrant or anti-Muslim platforms 4, 29, 66, 88–9, 131 in Britain, 4, 11, 14, 26–31 in France, 5, 11, 64–7 in Germany, 5, 14–15, 100–2, 104, 123, 149 India, Indian(s), 9, 26–8, 42, 51 ´ Institut National d’Etudes D´emographiques (INED), 68 Institute for German-Turkish Integration Studies and Interreligious Activity, 118 Interior Ministry, French, 77, 88, 92 and Central Office for Religions, 92 international law, 76 IQRA Trust, 59 Ireland, Patrick, 11 Islam, 4, 36–7, 40, 55, 64, 67, 82, 84, 102, 113, 128, 139 See also Muslim(s) and democracy, 6, 149, 153–4 major branches, P1: JTR 0521828309ind CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 INDEX schools of thought, in Western Europe, 2, 11, 139,153 Islamia Primary School, 45, 48 Islamic Foundation, 60 Islamic fundamentalism See Muslim(s): extremism, extremists Islamic Human Rights Commission, 31 Islamic Resource Centre of Birmingham, 1, 51 Islamic schools, 3, 12, 22, 147, 152 See also church schools in Britain, 3, 5, 14, 18, 22, 43–6, 50, 52, 54, 56–9, 132, 148 in France, 19, 63, 85–7, 97, 155 in Germany, 6, 117, 127, 129 ă Islamische Foderation Berlin (IFB), 115 Islamische Gemeinschaft in Deutschland, 121 Islamische Grundschule Berlin, 117 Islamischer Bund Mannheim, 118 Islamisches Zentrum Hamburg, 113 ă Islamisches Zentrum Munchen, 117 Islamophobia, 32, 47 Islamrat, 102, 127 Jeunes Musulmans de France (JMF), 91 Jews, Jewish groups, 4, 135, 152–3 in Britain, 8, 33, 35, 40, 44, 49, 51, 54, 56, 148 in France, 68–9, 74, 85 in Germany, 107–8 Jews’ Relief Act of 1858, 33 Joppke, Christian, 14–16, 28–9, 53, 100, 123 Jospin, Lionel, 66, 79, 93–4 Joxe, Pierre, 92 Justice Party, 52 Kabtane, Kamel, 74, 86, 88 Kada, Saăda, 1, 74, 76, 84 Kaltenbach, Jeanne-H´el`ene, 83, 88 Kaplan Group, 104 Kassovitz, Mathieu, 68 Kaye, Ronald, Kechat, Larbi, 75–6, 80, 86 Kelkal, Khaled, 66, 68 August 5, 2004 12:0 203 Kepel, Gilles, 53 Khoirul, Muhammad, 40 Kirchensteuer See church tax Kăorperschaft des oă ffentlichen Rechts See public corporation status Krausen, Halima, 98, 113, 121 Kulturkampf, 106 Labour Party, 289, 33, 46, 50, 52 laăcite, 5, 18–19, 25–6, 69–76, 78, 94–7, 142, 147, 149, 155–6 soft, 73–6, 78, 83, 156 strict, 73–5, 78, 81–2, 155 La Medina, 93 Lăander, 1089, 11217, 121, 127, 129, 148 ¨ Schule und Landesinstitut fur Weiterbildung, 114 Language and Culture of Origin Courses, 84 Le Carpentier, Philippe, 92, 95 Le Pen, Jean-Marie, 4, 66–7, 95 Le Torneau, Dominique, 76 Leveau, R´emy, 91 Lewis, Philip, 49, 53 Liberal Party, 33 liberal values, 15, 56, 104, 149, 151–2 Lille, France, 12 Lipset, Seymour Martin, 133 List Pim Fortuyn, 131 Local Education Authority (LEA), 39, 43 Local Foreigners’ Representative Board (KAV), 124 Locke, John, 146 London, 26–7 London Central Mosque, 25, 40 Lower Saxony, 115, 121 Ludin, Fereshta, 115–16 Lyon, 1, 66, 68, 76, 81, 86–8, 91 Macpherson, Duncan, 134 Malik, Nadim, 48 Mammeri, Youcef, 74, 83, 86, 91, 96 Manchester, 41, 47 Mandla v Dowell Lee, 35 Mannheim, 104, 118, 122 P1: JTR 0521828309ind CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 204 Marignane, 66, 76, 89 Marseille, 62, 79, 82–4, 86, 89 Martinez, Louis, 71 McRoy, Anthony, 52 ´ Medersa ta’lim oul-islam/Ecole Franco-Musulmane, 86 Merroun, Khalil, 64, 76, 89 Meyer, Astrid, 11 ă us ă , 103–4, 120 Milli Gor minaret, 47, 119 minority religions, 133, 153–6 Mitterrand, Danielle, 78 Mizjaldi, Mohamed, 88 Modood, Tariq, 138, 144 Molla, Osman, 86 ă Molln, 105 Money, Jeannette, 11 Montesquieu Private School, 86 Montpellier, 79, 90, 95 MORI Poll, 132, 135, 140–3 Morris, Estelle, 58 Mosqu´ee Ada’wa, 75 Mosqu´ee de Paris, 10, 63, 85, 91 Mosqu´ee de Strasbourg, 86 mosques, 9, 12 in Britain, 18, 26–7, 31, 46–9, 154 building of, 3, 22, 46–8, 63, 87–90, 117–19, 147, 154 in France, 63, 87–90, 132 attacks on, 88–90 opposition to, 87–9 public funding for, 90, 95 in Germany, 2, 99, 110, 117–19, 122, 129 opposition to, 118–19 Mouvement contre le racisme et pour l’amiti´e entre les peuples (MRAP), 76 multiculturalism, 142, 144–5, 151 in Britain, 4, 14, 30, 40–1, 45, 48, 53 in France, 5, 53, 74 in Germany, 113, 145 multiple establishment, 107, 109, 127, 147, 155 Munich, 109, 117–18 August 5, 2004 12:0 INDEX Muslim(s), See also Islam, public attitudes toward Muslim religious practices assimilation to Western values, 3, 30, 45, 67, 87, 90, 95, 105, 114, 150–2 and church–state relations, accommodations, 1–7, 13, 15, 18–20, 23, 60, 141, 146 in Britain, 4, 10, 18, 20, 30, 32–46, 48, 54–61, 119, 147, 149, 156–7 in France, 5, 10, 14, 19–20, 63–8, 90, 94–5, 97, 119, 122, 147, 149, 155–6 in Germany, 6, 19–20, 98, 102–5, 108–11, 116, 119, 122, 124–9, 147, 149, 156–7 divisions of, 8–9, 86 education See also Islamic schools importance of, 22, 38, 42, 45, 77, 112 political demands for, 22, 43, 80 extremism, extremists, 4, 67, 104, 115, 143, 151, 156 immigration of, 2–6, 16–17 to Britain, 26–31 to France, 63–8 to Germany, 99–102 leadership of, in Britain, 10, 44, 49–50 in France, 92–3 in Germany, 121 organization of, organizations, 9, 148, 154 in Britain, 10, 31, 49–52, 59, 148 in France, 10, 85, 87, 91–2, 148 in Germany, 6, 103–4, 120–1, 124, 128 political opportunities, activities, 8, 11, 134, 148 in Britain, 9–10, 12, 18, 49–52, 55, 148–9, 154 in France, 10–11, 86, 93, 148 in Germany, 12, 104, 118, 120–4, 148 in Switzerland, 11 P1: JTR 0521828309ind CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 5, 2004 12:0 205 INDEX prayers, 77, 89, 111, 119, 156 religious identity, 3, 6, 21, 140, 150, 153 in Britain, 31, 36, 45 in France, 77 in Germany, 105, 110, 117 religious rights, needs of, 1–3, 6–7, 9, 12–13, 15, 20, 23, 132, 141, 150 in Britain, 4, 18, 27, 36–8, 43, 46, 48, 54–5, 60 in France, 5, 19, 97 in Germany, 6, 101–5, 121, 126–7, 129 schools See Islamic schools statistics on in Britain, 29, 36, 47, 49 in France, 63, 65, 77, 87 in Germany, 102, 110, 117 women, 83, 116, 139–41 Muslim Council of Britain, 49, 51 Muslim Directory, 44, 50 Muslim Educational Trust, 45, 59 Muslim Institute, 25, 58 Muslim Liaison Committee, 42 Muslim Parliament, 50 mut ah See temporary marriage Napoleon Bonaparte, 69 Narbonne, 63 National Front: in Britain, 28, 131 in France, 4, 66–7, 88–9, 131 Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Bill, 29 naturalization law of 1999, 104 Nazi regime, 99, 107 neo-Nazis, 21, 66 Newbigin, Leslie, 138 Nielsen, Jørgen, 26, 35 Noir, Michel, 88 North Africa, North African(s), 63–77, 84, 87, 92 and associations in France, 91 North Rhine–Westphalia, 6, 103, 112–14, 121, 123, 127 Nyazi v Ryman Ltd., 35 Office for the Protection of the Constitution, 104 Office National d’Immigration, 68 Office of Foreigner Affairs, 118 oil embargo of 1973, 101 O’Keefe, Bernadette, 43 Okin, Susan, 152 Oldham riots, 29, 58 Old Trafford Muslim Society, 47 Ottoman Empire, 99 Oxford, 48, 59 Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, 478 ă Ozemir, Cem, 121 Pakistan, Pakistani(s), 9, 16, 26–8, 42, 51–2, 121 Panafieu, Bernard, 62, 74, 96 Parekh, Bhiku, 40 Paris, 66–8, 82, 84, 86, 91 Paris Mosque See Mosqu´ee de Paris Party of Democratic Socialism, 121 Parwez, Ahmed, 51 Pasqua, Charles, 88 Peace of Westphalia, 105 Peach, Ceri, Pfaff, Ulrich, 112, 114 pieds-noirs, 64, 71 Pleven Law of July 1, 1972, 69 political asylum laws, policies, 2, 4, 141, 143 in Britain, 29 in Germany, 104 political opportunity structure theory, 7, 10–13, 20, 52–5, 93–4, 123–5, 149 pornography, 78 Powell, Enoch, 28 Prince of Wales, 47 Pro Heslach, 119 Protestant(s), nonconformists in Britain, 33, 54, 56 See also evangelicals in Britain in France, 71, 135 in Germany, 19, 102, 105–7, 135, 139 See also Evangelische P1: JTR 0521828309ind CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 206 Protestant Reformation, 105 public attitudes toward Muslim religious practices, 24, 131–45, 149 in Britain, 26, 29, 32, 55–6, 58, 131–2, 135, 138, 140–5 See also MORI Poll by church–state support, 142–3, 145 by education level, 140–2, 144 in France, 62, 87, 131–2, 135, 139–45 See also SOFRES by gender, 137–9, 144 in Germany, 122, 128, 131–2, 135, 139–43, 145 See also ALLBUS Survey by religious activity level, 137–9, 144–5, 149 by religious identification, 133–5, 144 after September 11, 2001, 143–5, 149 by social class, 141, 144 public corporation status, 3, 19, 107–9, 112–13, 125–9, 148–9 public opinion surveys, 23 Quinet, Edgar, 71 ¯ 82, 114, 139–40, 146 qu’ran, Qureshi, Mahmooda, 55 Q News, 32, 37, 50–1 Race Relations Act of, 1976, 30–2, 35, 50, 59 race relations policies, 14, 28–30 racial theories, 20 Raja, Akhtar, 48 ¯ 82, 85 ramadan, Ramadan, Tariq, 91, 105, 146, 150, 153 Refah Partisi See Welfare Party religious discrimination, in Britain, 4, 30–3, 36, 39, 42, 50, 55, 59, 148 in France, 68, 79, 155–6 in Germany, 107–8, 116, 128 religious education in Britain, 4, 30, 38–41, 54, 57, 59 in France, 5, 84–6 August 5, 2004 12:0 INDEX in Germany, 6, 22, 111–15, 123–4, 126–7, 129, 132 role of parents, 39–40, 84, 111–12, 116, 151 in state schools, 22, 33, 59, 111–15, 147 religious establishment, 17 in Britain, 16, 33–6, 38, 54, 58–60, 155–7 See also Church of England, established church: Britain in Germany, 17–18, 155–7 See also multiple establishment religious freedom, 16, 151, 153 in Britain, 16, 35 in France, 16, 70, 75–6, 83, 97, 156 in Germany, 16, 106, 109–10, 115 Rennes, 90 Republican ideal, 14, 19, 70, 95, 149 Republican religion, 69 Republikaner, 119 resource mobilization theory, 7–10, 20, 48–52, 91–3, 120–3, 147–8 R´eunion, 86 riots anti-immigrant, 28, 104 ethnic, 68 race, 28–9, 58, 152 Roald, Anne Sofie, 140 Rokkan, Stein, 133 Roman Catholic Church, Catholics, 134, 152 in Britain, 33, 44, 46, 54, 56–8 in France, 19, 65, 69–71, 77–8, 85, 87, 90, 95–6, 134, 139 in Germany, 19, 102, 105–8, 110, 112–13, 118, 122, 124, 128, 135, 139 Roman Catholic Relief Act, 33 Romans-sur-Is`ere, 89 Roper Europe, 24 Roper Poll, 135, 143 Rosser-Owen, Daoud, 36 Rostock, 104 Roubaix, 77 Runnymede Trust, 32, 40 Rushdie Affair, 37 P1: JTR 0521828309ind CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 INDEX Salaam portal, 44 Satanic Verses, The, 37 Saudi Arabia, 47, 88 Scarf Affair, 5, 78–9, 87 School Links Project, 40 secularism, secularization, 6, 17, 22, 137–9, 144, 150, 153, 157 in Britain, 31, 33, 35–8, 54, 59–60, 138 in France, 5, 69, 73, 77–8, 138, 155 in Germany, 105–6, 110–11, 138 Separation Law of 1905, 70, 72, 74, 90 September 11 attacks, 4, 90, 143–5, 149–51, 154 sex education, 85 Shachar, Ayelet, 151 Shadid, Wasif, Shaikh, Shuja, 27, 31 shar¯ı ah, 114 sh¯ı ah, 139, 151 Siddiqui, Ataullah, 60 Siddiqui, Iqbal, 44 Siddiqui, Kalim, 50 Sikh(s), 4, 35, 40, 46, 132, 153 social class theory, 141 Social Democrats, 119, 121 Socialists, French, 65–6, 79 SOFRES French National Election Study, 132, 140–1 SOS-Racisme, 92 Soustelle, Jacques, 67 Spencer, Ian, 28 Spuler-Stegemann, Ursula, 139 Standing Advisory Committee on Religious Education (SACRES), 39, 59 Stannard, Oona, 58 Stevens, Philip, 37 Stol´eru, Lionel, 65 Strasbourg, 70, 96 Stuttgart, 118–19, 122 suburbs, French, 68, 78, 86 ă Suleyman movement, 103 See also Verband Islamischer Kulturzentren Sunni Muslims, Swann Report, 30, 45 August 5, 2004 12:0 207 Syndicat National des Enseignements de Second degr´e (SNES), 73, 75, 80–1 tawh.¯ıd, 153 teachers’ unions: in Britain, 46 in France, 5, 73, 79–80 See also Syndicat National des Enseignements de Second degr´e TELCO See East London Communities Organization temporary marriage, 139, 151 terrorism, terrorists, 64, 66, 143, 1501, 154 Thrăanhardt, Dietrich, 104 Tibi, Bassam, 151 Totakhyl, Ghulam, 102, 108–9, 121–2, 127 Tribalat, Mich`ele, 83, 88 Turkey, Turks, 63, 65, 77, 80, 89, 101, 103–4, 119 in Germany, 16, 99–105, 113–14, 117–18, 120–1, 125 ummah, 21, 49 Union de Jeunes Musulmans (UJM), 91 Union der Islamisch Albanischen Zentren in Deutschland, 121 Union des Organisations Islamiques de France (UOIF), 91 unitary system in France, 53, 93–4, 149 United Kingdom Sharia Council, 36 van Koningsveld, Sjoerd, Vaulx-en-Velin, 68 ˆ Vendome, 80 Verba, Sidney, 153 Verband Islamischer Kulturzentren (VIZK), 103, 118, 120 See also ă Suleyman movement Vereinigung Islamischer Gemeinden der Bosniaken in Deutschland, 121 Vertovek, Steven, 9, 49, 56 P1: JTR 0521828309ind CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 5, 2004 12:0 208 Vichy, 70 violence against minorities, 58, 67, 104–5, 143–4, 154 voluntary-aided schools, 43 voluntary-controlled schools, 43 von Schroeter, Henning, 103, 109, 121, 128 Wakeman, Lord, 34 Wakeman Report, 59 See also “House for the Future, A” Warner, Carolyn, Warren, Mark, 154 Weimar Republic, 106–7 Welfare Party (Turkey), 104 Wetzel, Martin, 118, 128 INDEX Whitehouse, Mary, 37 Wihtol de Wenden, Catherine, 91 Wirtschaftswunder, 99 World War I, 63, 106 World War II, 26, 63, 65, 99, 107 Wright, Tony, 130 Yavuz Sultan Selim Mosque, 118 Young Muslims of the UK, 55 Zaki, Yaqub, 25, 58 Zentralat der Muslime in Deutschland, 1, 111 Zentrum See Catholic Center Party Zones a` Urbaniser en Priorit´e (ZUP), 68 ´ Zones d’Education Prioritaire (ZEP), 68 ... Identification in Britain, France, and Germany (in percentages) Determinants of Support for Islam in the Schools in Britain, France, and Germany Determinants of Support for Muslim Religious Practices in Britain, ... CY460/Fetzer-FM CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 6, 2004 18:3 Muslims and the State in Britain, France, and Germany Joel S Fetzer Pepperdine University J Christopher Soper Pepperdine University v ... CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 6, 2004 This page intentionally left blank ii 18:3 P1: KcS CY460/Fetzer-FM CY460/Fetzer 0521828309 August 6, 2004 18:3 MUSLIMS AND THE STATE IN BRITAIN, FRANCE, AND GERMANY