GOD, LOCKE, AND EQUALITY Are we humans all one another’s equals? And if we are, what is this equality based on and what are its implications? In this concise and engaging book, Jeremy Waldron explores these questions in the company of the seventeenth-century English philosopher John Locke Waldron believes that Locke provides us with “as well-worked-out a theory of basic equality as we have in the canon of political philosophy.” But for us it is a challenging theory because its foundations are unabashedly religious God has created us equal, says Locke, and a proper grasp of the implications of this equality is inseparable from an understanding of ordinary men and women as creatures of God, created in his image and “made to last during his, not one anothers Pleasure.” The religious foundations of Locke’s political thought have been noted before, but they have never been explored more sympathetically, or with greater attention to their implications for modern debates about equality Jeremy Waldron is one of the world’s leading legal and political philosophers, and this book is based on the Carlyle Lectures that he presented in Oxford in  It provides new perspectives on Locke’s egalitarianism and the tribute he paid to the status and dignity of the ordinary person; it examines the problems Locke faced in defining the human species for the purposes of his commitment to basic equality; it explores the relation between his egalitarianism and his Christian beliefs; and most important, it offers new interpretations of Locke’s views on toleration, slavery, property, aboriginal rights, the Poor Law, the distribution of the franchise, and relations between the sexes But this is not just a book about Locke God, Locke, and Equality discusses contemporary approaches to equality as well as rival interpretations of Locke, and this dual agenda gives the whole book an unusual degree of accessibility and intellectual excitement Indispensable for Locke scholars and for those who study the foundations of equality and the relation between politics and religion, it will be of interest also to philosophers, political theorists, lawyers, and theologians around the world GOD, LOCKE, AND EQUALITY Christian Foundations of John Locke’s Political Thought JEREMY WALDRON    Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , United Kingdom Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521810012 © Jeremy Waldon 2002 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2002 - isbn-13 978-0-511-06419-7 eBook (NetLibrary) - isbn-10 0-511-06419-5 eBook (NetLibrary) - isbn-13 978-0-521-81001-2 hardback - isbn-10 0-521-81001-9 hardback - isbn-13 978-0-521-89057-1 paperback - isbn-10 0-521-89057-8 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate To Gwen Taylor, teacher, friend, and muse with thanks Contents Preface Citations and abbreviations page ix xi  Introduction   Adam and Eve   Species and the Shape of Equality   “The Democratic Intellect”   Kings, Fathers, Voters, Subjects, and Crooks   “Disproportionate and Unequal Possession”    “By Our Saviour’s Interpretation”  Tolerating Atheists?  Bibliography Index   vii Preface This book is a revised version of the Carlyle Lectures which I delivered at the University of Oxford in Michaelmas Term , under the title “Christian Equality in the Political Theory of John Locke.” The opportunity to develop and deliver these lectures was most welcome and I am particularly obliged to Larry Siedentop and Mark Philp for the invitation and the arrangements I am grateful also to the Warden and Fellows of Nuffield College and the Warden and Fellows of All Souls College for office accommodation and living accommodation during my eight weeks in Oxford, and to Suzanne Byrch for administrative arrangements Thanks also to Gerry Cohen, Cecile Fabre, John Gardner, James Griffin, Bob Hargrave, Tony Honore, Brian Loughman, Dan McDermott, David Miller, Karma Nabulsi, Joseph Raz, Mike Rosen, Alan Ryan, and Andrew Williams for their interest and their comments A substantial extract from Chapters  and  of this book was delivered as the Spring  University Lecture at Columbia University I want to say “thank you” to President George Rupp and Provost Jonathan Cole for this invitation It was an honor to be able to present some of these arguments under the great cupola of Columbia’s Low Library The same material was also presented at Political Theory workshops at Johns Hopkins University and the University of Chicago Participants everywhere have been generous with their comments on this and other work that I have presented on basic equality: I am particularly grateful to Jean Cohen, Jules Coleman, Bill Connolly, Chad Cyrenne, Michael Dorf, Ronald Dworkin, David Estlund, George Fletcher, Robert GoodingWilliams, Kent Greenawalt, David Johnston, Frances Kamm, George Kateb, Ira Katznelson, Philip Kitcher, John Marshall, Alan Musgrave, Thomas Nagel, Graham Oddie, Susan Okin, Thomas Pogge, Gwen Taylor, Susan Wolf, Nicholas Woltersdorff, and Iris Young In respect of the revision phase, my greatest debt is to Richard Fisher of Cambridge University Press for his patience and encouragement ix Bibliography  “Homo ante et post Lapsum” [], in John Locke, Political Essays, ed Mark Goldie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), pp – “Law” [], in John Locke, Political Essays, ed Mark Goldie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), p  “Liberty of the Press” [–], in John Locke, Political Essays, ed Mark Goldie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), pp – “An Essay on the Poor Law” [],” in John Locke, Political Essays, ed Mark Goldie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ), pp – Political Essays, ed Mark Goldie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ) The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures (Bristol: Thoemmes Press, ) A Second Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity, in John Locke, The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures (Bristol: Thoemmes Press, ) Lovejoy, Arthur, The Great Chain of Being (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, ) Macdonald, Margaret, “Natural Rights,” in J Waldron (ed.) 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his specific works are listed under “Locke’s works.” ability, differences in as basis for inequality, –, –, , ,  –, – abortion, n Abraham, ,  absolutism, , , –, , –,  abstraction, power of, –, , , –, ,  Ackerman, Bruce, n acquisition, see appropriation action,  Adam, , –, , –, , –, n, , , , , , , , , n, , n affirmative action,  Africa, ,  agent-relativity, – aggression, , –, , – agriculture, –,  AIDS,  aliens, see foreigners altruism,  America, European colonization of, –,  Americans, see native Americans Anabaptists,  anachronism, –, – anatomy angels, n Anglicanism, –,  n,  animals, –, –, , , –, –, –,  anti-semitism,  apes, , ,  apostles, , –, , ,  appeal to heaven, , – appropriation of property, , –, –,  Aquinas, Thomas, n arbitrary power, , ,  Arendt, Hannah, n, n argument, , , , , n, –, –, n Arianism, n Arneson, Richard, n Aristippus,  aristocracy, , , – Aristotle, , , , , n,  Arkes, Hadley, n Ashcraft, Richard, , n, n, , –, , , , n, , n, n, , , n,  Astell, Mary, , n atheism, ,  –, , , , –,  Audi, Robert, n Austin, J L., n authority , –, , , , , , –, – de facto, , –,  see also legitimacy Ayers, Michael, n, n baptism, ,  basic equality, see equality, basic basic structure,  belief, religious, , ,  – Bellarmine, Robert Cardinal,    Index Benn, Stanley,  Bentham, Jeremy,  Berlin, Isaiah, ,  bestialization of criminals, , –,  Bible, , –, –, –, –, –, –,  biology, ,  Blackburn, Simon, n, n Bodin, Jean,  Book of Common Prayer,  bourgeoisie, ,  Boyd, Richard, n Bracken, H M., n Brennan, Patrick M., n, n, n, n Brown, Stuart, n Buchanan, Allen, n burdens of judgment, ,  Burke, Edmund,  Burnet, Thomas, –, n Butler, Melissa, n, n, –, n, , n Cain, n, n Cambridge, , –, –,  cannibalism,  capital punishment, , , ,  capitalism, ,  Carolinas, slavery in the, – Catholicism, Roman, n, –, – censorship,  charity, –, , , –,  Charles II, , ,  childbirth, ,  children, , , n, , n, , , , , –,  –, , , , n, ,  Chinese, n,  Christianity, –, –, , , –, , , , –, –, , , , –, ,  church,  –, –, , – Church of England, see Anglicanism Cicero,  civil society, see community, political Civil War, English,  Clark, Lorenne M G., n,  class, –,  clergy, , , n, ,  Clinton, Bill,  cloning, n coercion, –,  – Cohen, G A., ix, n,  Coleman, Jules, ix, n Collier, Rebecca,  – Colman, John, n color of skin,  common good, ,  commonwealth, see community, political communism, , –,  communitarianism, n community natural, –, –,  political, , n, n, – comprehensive doctrines, – concept and conceptions,  conflict, –,  Confucius,  conjugal rights,  conjugal society, – Connolly, William E.,  conquest, n, , –,  conscience, , , , n, n,  consent, –, –, , , , , , , , ; see also tacit consent conservatism, – Constantinople, Mufti of,  constitution, –, , , , , n contract, social, , ,  contractarianism, , , ,  contracts, , , – Convention of ,  conventions, , –, –,  Coons, John E., n, n, n, n Cooper, Anthony Ashley, ,  corporeality, n, ,  corruption, , n corruption of the blood, see treason Coste, Peter, n counter-majoritarian institutions,  –; see also legislative supremacy creation, –, –,  criminals, , ,  – Critical Race Theory, n cultivation, , –,  culture, , – custody, of children upon divorce,  customs, –, , , , , – Darwin, Charles,  Davie, George, n Index day-laborers, , –, n, , –, , –,  death,  deism, , n deliberation, – democracy, , ,  deontology, ,  dependence,  deus ex machina, ,  differential rationality, , –, – disability, n, – disagreement, – divine command, , –, , –,  divine right of kings, –, – divine sanctions, , –, ,  divorce, , , – dolphins, ,  dominion, , n, , , ,  Dred Scott v Sandford, n, n Drescher, Seymour,  – drudgery, , , ,  Dunn, John, n, n, –, –, n, –, n, , , , n, –, n, , –, –, –, , –, ,  duty, see imperfect duty; natural duty; negative and positive duties Dworkin, Ronald, ix, –, , n, , n, n, n ecology,  education, , ,  efficiency, economic,  egalitarianism, see equality egoism, – elections, , ; see also suffrage Elizabeth I,  England, , , , – entitlement, –, , , n,  Epistles, the, n, , n, –,  equality,  –,  –, , , –, –,  application of (i.e equality among whom), –,  of authority, , –, –, – based on natural characteristics, , –, , , –,  –,  basic  –, , , –, , , , , , , , ,  –, , , , , ,   before the law, – between the sexes,  –,  of capacities, , ,  –, – equal concern and respect, , , ,  equal treatment versus treatment as an equal, , , n, n, –,  of opportunity,  original, ,  political, –, , – religious foundations of, –, –,  –, , , , , –,  of resources, , – of wealth and income, , – error, , , n essences, real versus nominal, –, , ,  essentialism, – ethnic identity,  Eve, , , –, , ,  Exclusion Crisis, , ,  excommunication,  executive power of the law of nature, ,  fact, as distinguished from value, , –, – fairness,  Fall, the, , –, –, n Farr, James, n,  – fashion, , ,  fathers, , n, n, , –, , n,  feminism, , , n fetus, , , , – Filmer, Robert, , –, , –, –, , , , , , –, –, –, , –, , ,  Finnis, John, n, n, n First Things,  Fish, Stanley, n Fletcher, George P., ix, n, n force, –, , –, n, –, , , –, , n, , –; see also coercion; strength foreigners, ,  forfeiture of rights, see rights, forfeiture of foundationalism, n, –, , ,  Frankfurt, Harry G., n freedom, , , , ,  free speech, , –,  free will,   Index Freud, Sigmund,  fur trade,  genealogy, –,  Geneva,  geometry, – Glorious Revolution, n God, , , , –, –, , , –, –, , , , , , , –, , –, –, –,  –,  Adam and Eve, relation to, –,  as creator, , , ,  existence of, –, , , , , –,  as lawgiver –, ; see also divine command; divine sanctions; law of nature political authority, endorsement of, – as property-owner, –, , – purposes of, , ,  Golden Rule, , – Gooding-Williams, Robert, ix, n Good Samaritan, parable of the, n,  Gorr, Michael, n Gospels, n, , , –, –, , ,  government, origin of,  Grant, Ruth, n, n, n, n, n “Great Chain of Being,” – Greek philosophy, , , ,  Greenawalt, Kent, ix, n Grotius, Hugo, ,  Haksar, Vinit, n Hare, R M., n, n harm, – Harris, Angela P., n Harris, Ian, n, n,  –, n, n, n, n Hart, H L A., n heathens, see pagan religion Hebrew Scriptures, see Old Testament hereditary principle, , –,  heretics,  hermeneutics, –, – Herzog, Don, n Hindus,  historical context, – history of ideas, –, , , –, –, –, , – Hobbes, Thomas, , , , –, –, , , n, –, , , ,  Hobbism,  Homer, n Hooker, Richard, , n, –, n Horne, Thomas A., n House of Commons, , ,  House of Lords, , – human rights, see rights, human human species, , , , , , –, , , ,  Hume, David, n hunting and gathering, – husbands, power over wives, , , –, –, , , n, , ,  ideas,  idle poor, , , – idolatry, ,  imago dei (image of God), n, , , ,  –, n, , ,  imperfect duty, n inclinations, natural, – individualism, moral, ,  individuals,  industry, , –,  inegalitarianism, particular versus general, –,  inequality, economic,  –, , –,  infanticide,  inheritance, , n, , n, – innate ideas, , , , –,  insanity, ,  intellectuals, – interpretation,  –, , n,  –, ,  intuitions, , , – Islam, see Muslims Israel, , n, , , , n, ,  Japanese, n James II, , , , , ,  Jephtha, n Jesus Christ, , n, –, –, ,  –, , , , , –,  Jews, n, , –, , , ,  Judeo-Christian heritage, – judiciary, ,  just war, , , , –,  justice, , , –, ,  Index Kant, Immanuel, , n, –, n Kato, Takshi, n Kendall, Willmoore, n kings, –, , , –, –, n, ,  Kitcher, Philip, ix, n Kramer, Matthew, –, n labor, , , , , , –, , ,  duty to, , –, , – forced,  mixing of, , –, – theory of value, –, –,  laborers, see day-laborers; working class land, , –, , ,  landlords, n language, , , ,  Laslett, Peter, , –, , , n, n, –, ,  law of nature, , –, –, , , , , –,  –, ,  –, , –, –, , –, , , ,  law, positive, , –, , , , –, , –, , n, ,  lawyers, ,  learning, –, ,  Lee v Weisman, n legislative supremacy, ,  – legislature, –, ,  legitimacy, n, , , , –,  Leibniz, Gottfried,  leisure, , , ,  Levellers, , n, n liberalism  –, , , –, – libertarianism,  license (as opposed to liberty),  Lieberman, Joseph, n Linnaeus, Karl, , n Livy, Titus, n Lloyd Thomas, D A., ,  Lochner v New York, n Locke, John America, interests in, , , – attitude to customs of his day, , – character of,  – Christology, interest in,  consistency, –, , , , , , – date of composition of main works, n early writings, n  flight from England (),  integrity, issue of, – last will and testament of, n political views of, – politics, involvement in, – as portrayed in literature,  – poverty, personal attitude towards, – power, attraction to,  radicalism of, , ,  relation between Essay and Two Treatises, –, , – Roman Catholicism, personal view of, , n silence of, on various topics, n, , n slave trade, involvement with, , , – Socinianism, question of Locke’s, , , , n unmarried,  women’s preaching, experience of,  – Locke’s works A Letter Concerning Toleration, , n, , n, n, , –, , , , , –, –, – A Second Letter Concerning Toleration, , n, – A Third Letter for Toleration, , n, , –, –, n, ,  An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, , , , n, , –, –, , –, , , , , , , , –, –,  “An Essay on the Poor Law,” – “An Essay on Toleration,”  Essays on the Law of Nature, n, n, ,  “First Tract on Government,” n, n “Homo ante et post Lapsum,” n, n “Law,”  “Liberty of the Press,”  “Of Ethic in General,”  On the Conduct of the Understanding, , n Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of Paul, , , , ,  –, , ,  –, – “Second Tract on Government,” , n Some Thoughts Concerning Education, , , n, n “The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina,” –  Index Locke’s works (cont.) The Reasonableness of Christianity, , , –, –, –, ,  –, –,  –, –, –, , , , –, ,  – Two Treatises of Government, , n, ,  –, –, , , , –, –, , , –, ,  First Treatise, –, –, –, , –, –, , –, –, –, –, –,  Second Treatise, , , , , , , –, –,  –, , , ,  – “Verses on Queen Catherine,” n “Virtue B,” n logic, – Louis XIV, King of France,  Lovejoy, Arthur, – Lutheranism,  lying,  Macdonald, Margaret, n Macintyre, Alasdair, n, ,  Macpherson, C B., n, –, –, , , –, –, n magistrates, , –, , –, – majority decision, , , – majority, tyranny of, ; see also counter-majoritarian institutions “man,” gender of the word, , , ,  market, , ,  marriage, , , , –,  Marshall, John, ix, n, n, n, , n, , n, n Martin, Josiah, – Mary Tudor, Queen of England,  Masham, Damaris, n masters and servants, , , , ,  mathematics, – maximin, – May, Kenneth, n Mayflower Covenant, – McClure, Kirstie M.,  McConnell, Michael W., n McDowell, John, – McLean, John ( Justice), n, n meanings of words, ,  metallurgy,  mental capacity, differences in, , –, – merit, , – Mill, John Stuart, n,  Milton, John,  Milton, J R., n ministry, by women,  – miracles,  mixed government, ,  Molina, Luis de,  monarchy, n, , , , ,  money, –, –, ,  monotheism, – Moore, J T., n moral expertise, –,  moral personality, , , – moral philosophy, –,  morality, , –, –, ,  demonstrability of, –, ,  enforcement of, , ,  religious foundation of, –,  mortality,  Mosaic law, , , n mothers, , –, , ,  Muslims, , –, – Nabulsi, Karma, ix,  Nagel, Thomas, ix, n Narveson, Jan, n native Americans, , , , , –, ,  natural duty, , –,  natural kinds, ,  natural law, see law of nature natural rights, see rights, natural naturalistic fallacy, – needs, , , , –, – negative and positive duties, – negroes, n, –,  neutrality, n New Testament, , n, –, , –, –,  New York Review of Books,  New York Times, n Nietzsche, Friedrich,  Noah, , –, , ,  nobility, see aristocracy noble savage, ,  non-cognitivism, – Norton, Mary Beth, n Index Nozick, Robert, n, n, , , n, –, , n,  nurses, , n nutrition,  oaths, –, , – objectivity, ,  old age, ,  Old Testament, , , –, ,  oligarchy, ,  ontology,  ordinary intellect, –, –, –, –, –, –, , –, , –,  original sin, , , , , n overlapping consensus, , ,  Oxford, ,  pagan religions, , , , , ,  pardons, ,  parents, , , , , –,  –, , ,  parliament, , , ,  Parry, Geraint, n participation, ,  passion, ,  Pateman, Carole, n, – patriarchialism, , n, , , , ,  Paul, St., , , n, , , –, –,  Pears, Iain,  – people, the, , , – Perry, Michael J., n personal identity, n philosophy, , , –, ,  –, –, , , –, n, ,  Philosophy and Public Affairs,  plantations, –,  Plato,  ploughman, , ,  pluralism, religious, , , –, ,  political activism, –, ,  political community, see community, political political correctness, , n, – political liberalism –, –, – political pamphlets,  –,  polytheism, ,  poor, the, , , , , –, ,  Poor Law, the, – Pope, the, n,  –  population, , , ,  populism,  Posner, Richard A., n, n poverty, ,  power, political, , –, –, , ; see also authority; legitimacy pragmatism, n, ,  preaching,  – prediction versus prescription, , ,  preferences,  prerogative, , , , n, – Presbyterianism,  preservation of mankind, , –, , –,  president, , , n primitive society, , ,  primogeniture,  Proast, Jonas, , – profits,  promiscuity, ,  promises, –, ; see also oaths pronouns, ,  proof, in moral philosophy; see moral truths, demonstrability of property, , , , , , , , –,  –, –, , , ,  appropriation of, , –, –,  wide and narrow senses of,  property franchise, , , –, ,  proportionality of punishment,  prosperity, ,  Protestantism, , , , , , ,  public reason, –,  Pufendorf, Samuel, ,  punishment, –, , , –, , , , ,  Putney Debates, n, n Quakers, ,  Quebec, n queens, n,  Rabieh, Michael S., n, n race, ,  racism, , ,  radicalism, , –, , ,  Rainborough, Colonel,  range property, –, ,  – Rashdall, Hastings, n  Index rational choice, , , n rationalism, , n rationality, see differential rationality; reason Rawls, John, , , –, , –, , n, n, , n, , n, – Raz, Joseph, ix, n, n reason, , –, , , ,  –, –, , , , –,  –, , , , , –,  reasonableness, – redemption, ,  redistribution, , n relativism,  religion, –, ,  –, ,  –, ; see also pluralism, religious religious arguments, , , , , , –, –,  religious liberty,  reparations, , , n representation, n, n, , –, , , n,  reproduction, ,  republic,  resemblance, –, –,  resistance, , , ,  resources, natural, , , ,  respect for persons, ,  responsibility, moral, ,  resurrection,  retribution,  revelation, , , , ,  –, ,  revolution, , , , – rich young man, New Testament story of,  – rights, , ,  constitutional rights,  – forfeiture of, –,  human,  inalienability of,  –, –,  natural, ,  socio-economic, n, , – as trumps,  see also natural rights Ritchie, David G., n Roman Catholics, see Catholicism, Roman Romans (e.g Julius Caesar), , ,  Romans, Epistle to the, see Epistles Rorty, Richard, n, n,  Rousseau, Jean-Jacques,  Royal African Company,  rugby,  rule of law, , –,  rules, moral, , ,  Ryan, Alan, ix, n, n, n salvation, n, n, n, , , ,  –,  Satan,  Scanlon, T M., n scarcity, – Schochet, Gordon, n scholars, –,  science,  secular thought, –, ,  – self-defense, ,  self-interest, , –, –, ,  self-ownership, ,  self-preservation, , –, – Sen, Amartya, n, , n separation of powers, n sex,  –, ,  sexism, , , ,  Shaftesbury, see Cooper, Anthony Ashley Shanley, Mary Lyndon,  Sharp, Andrew, n, n sheep and goats, parable of, ,  Simmons, A John, , n sin,  Skinner, Quentin, n, n, n slavery, , n, , n, , , ,  –, –, , n, –, , n socialism,  Socinianism, , , , , n Socrates, , – soldiers, –,  Solon,  sovereignty,  species, , , –,  speciesism,  Spellman, W M., n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n Spinoza, Baruch,  spoilation proviso, , , –, , ,  Springborg, Patricia, n Squadrito, Kathy,  Sreenivasan, Gopal, n state of nature,  Index Steinbeck, John, n Stevens, Jacqueline, , n Strauss, Leo, n, , n strength, –, , –,  Suarez, Francisco, ,  subsistence, –,  modes of, –,  succession, – sufficiency proviso, , , – suffrage, , n, , –, , , ; see also property franchise suicide, , , – superstition, n supervenience, – Supreme Court of the United States,  survival, ,  tacit consent, , –, , , , – taxation, –, n, – taxonomy, –, ,  Taylor, A E., n Taylor, Charles, n, n teleology, ,  Temkin, Larry, n Ten Commandments, – tenure, academic, , – territory, ,  Test Acts, , ,  theism, –,  theology, –, , –, –, , ,  Tocqueville, Alexis de,  toleration, religious, , –, – transubstantiation, ,  treason, n,  truth-telling,  Tuck, Richard, n, n, , n Tully, James, , n, –, –, n, n, , n turfs, cut by servants, n, ; see also master and servant Tyrrell, James, , ,  understanding, ,  Unitarianism,  universalism,  universalizability, – utilitarianism, , n,  Uzgalis, W L., n  Vatican,  violence,  virtue, –, ,  Vlastos, Gregory,  voting, see elections; suffrage wage relation, – Wainwright, Arthur W.,  Waldron, Jeremy, n, n, n, n, , , , n, n, n, n, n, n, –, n, n,  –, n, n Law and Disagreement, n judicial review, views on, – liberal neutrality, views on, n, n The Right to Private Property, n, –, n, n, n, n, n The Dignity of Legislation, n, , n, n toleration, views on, n, –, n Walker, William, n war, ; see also just war Welchman, Jennifer,  West Indies, ,  Wikler, Daniel, n, n wild beasts, see animals; bestialization of criminals wilderness,  Wilkerson, T E., n will, , , ,  William and Mary (king and queen of England), , n Williams, Bernard, ,  Wilson, Robert A., n Woltersdorff, Nicholas, ix, n, n, n women,  –, –, , –, n, –, , ,  women’s franchise, , –,  women’s property, , –, – Wong, Jane, n Wood, Ellen Meiksins,  Wood, Neal, n Wootton, David, n, n, n, n, n working class, –, –, –, , , – workmanship, , –, –,  works, good,  worship, ,  Zeno,  ... difference in “conceptual structures and  Dunn, “What is Living and What is Dead,” p   God, Locke, and Equality patterns of argument employed in political understanding by all but the most intellectually... Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , United Kingdom Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New... what Locke wrote earlier in his career, and commentators have often ignored this (As Skinner puts it in “Meaning and Understanding,” p , Locke at thirty is evidently not yet Locke. ’ ”) And