This page intentionally left blank EUROPEAN LAW IN THE PAST AND THE FUTURE Unity and Diversity over Two Millennia As Europe moves towards economic and political unification, many wonder why legal unification makes so little headway In this concise but wide-ranging book, R C Van Caenegem considers the historical reasons behind this legal diversity He stresses the importance of the adoption on the Continent – but not in England – of the classical law of the Romans, and shows how the rise of the nation states led to a multitude of national codes of law The impact of politics on legal development is another key factor, and as a graphic example Van Caenegem provides a detailed account of how the German past was extolled in Nazi Germany The book concludes with a consideration of the ongoing debate on the desirability – indeed, on the possibility – of European legal unification and of a federal constitution for a united Europe R C VAN CAENEGEM is Professor Emeritus in the Faculty of Law and the Faculty of Letters, University of Ghent His many publications include The birth of the English common law ( ; second edition  ), Judges, legislators and professors ( ), An historical introduction to private law (English language edition  ) and An historical introduction to Western constitutional law ( ) EUROPEAN LAW IN THE PAST AND THE FUTURE Unity and Diversity over Two Millennia PROFESSOR R C VAN CAENEGEM University of Ghent           The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom    The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org © R C Van Caenegen 2004 First published in printed format 2001 ISBN 0-511-02955-1 eBook (Adobe Reader) ISBN 0-521-80938-X hardback ISBN 0-521-00648-1 paperback Contents Preface page vii  The national codes: A transient phase One code for every country? Anglo-Norman feudal law Germanic elements in the Code civil The German Civil Code based on Roman law Change or continuity? The ius commune, transnational by definition The English common law purely English?  Ius commune: The first unification of European law Tribes and nation states The medieval ius commune Towards a ‘new ius commune’? Doubts about a ‘new ius commune’ The chances of legal unification The past inspires optimism  Common law and civil law: Neighbours yet strangers Six contrasting areas The common law uncodified Public and private law The English Bench is paramount The continental professor is paramount Substantive law and procedure Adversarial and inquisitorial process v                        Contents vi  The holy books of the law Biblical and legal scripture The Corpus iuris a holy book The American Constitution and original intent The Code civil and the School of Exegesis  Why did the ius commune conquer Europe? The re-romanization of the West Legal causes Political causes Cultural causes Economic causes Opportunistic causes The ius commune a good thing? Graeca non leguntur  Law is politics The ‘Realist School’ German unification and the Civil Code of   Germanists and Romanists National feelings The ‘Social Question’ The ‘Forests of Germany’ The Civil Code becomes law Civil Code or the people’s lawbook? Jurists in the Third Reich Epilogue: A look into the twenty-first century Bibliography Index                                 Preface In recent years I have had the privilege of teaching a course on European legal history in the Magister Iuris Communis Programme in the University of Maastricht The classes were small and consisted of students who had already obtained degrees in Law at home They came from various countries and continents, from Sweden to Brazil and from Ireland to Iran, and were a receptive audience, whom it was a pleasure to teach Nor did they only listen, but they also asked interesting questions and engaged in lively debates The present book is the outcome of those Maastricht lectures and owes much to the suggestions and questions which were put to me by the students and also to the discussions I had with my colleagues in the Maastricht Law Faculty, who took a particular interest in the European legal past and the possibility of a common European law of the future One of these colleagues I would like especially to name here is Professor Nicholas Roos, who took the initiative of entering European legal history in the Magister Iuris Communis Programme and of inviting me to lecture on it To all of them I express my warmest thanks The present book does not attempt to give a general survey, but merely presents a number of topics which most appealed to my students and hopefully will interest the wider public which appreciates the importance of the law for the future of Europe and indeed of the world Some of the themes are essentially historical – such as the origin of the nineteenth-century German Civil Code; some are also comparative – such as the contrast vii viii Preface between common law and civil law; others address present-day concerns – such as the interpretation of the Constitution of the United States (an outstanding example of legal scripture); and finally the future of European law is studied extensively and the question asked whether a truly common legal science is conceivable in a united twenty-first-century Europe, harking back to the days when the ius commune was the common science and language of lawyers from Aberdeen to Naples and from Cracow to Coimbra For the general background to these discussions the reader may turn to my Historical introduction to private law (Cambridge,  ; repr  ) and my Historical introduction to western constitutional law (Cambridge,  ) Ghent, July  R C VAN CAENEGEM Germany, Austria, Switzerland   Caroni, P (ed.), Das Obligationenrecht Berner Ringvorlesung zum Jubilăaum des schweizerischen Obligationenrechts, Berne and Stuttgart,   Coing, H., Epochen der Rechtsgeschichte in Deutschland, nd edn, Munich, Vortrăage zum  Geburtstag von F C von Savigny, Frankfurt,  ; 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 vols Bonini, R., Disegno storico del diritto privato italiano dal Codice civile del   al Codice civile de  , rd edn, Bologna,  ; Studi e Materiali per gli Insegnamenti Storico-giuridici,  Il diritto privato dal nuovo secolo alla prima guerra mondiale Linee di storia giuridica italiana ed europea, Bologna,  ; Studi e Materiali per gli Insegnamenti Storico-giuridici,   Bougard, F., La justice dans le royaume d’Italie de la fin du VIIIe si`ecle au d´ebut du XIe si`ecle, Rome,  ; Biblioth`eque des Ecoles Fran¸caises d’Ath`enes et de Rome,  Diurni, G., Le situazioni possessorie nel medioevo Et`a longobardo-franca, Milan,  ; Quaderni di Studi Senesi,  Fried, J., Die Entstehung des Juristenstandes im   Jahrhundert Zur sozialen Stellung und politischen Bedeutung gelehrter Juristen in Bologna und Modena, Cologne and Vienna,  ; Forschungen zur Neueren Privatrechtsgeschichte,  Leicht, P S., Storia del diritto italiano Le fonti, rd edn, Milan,   Martines, L., Lawyers and statecraft in Renaissance Florence, Princeton,   Zorzoli, M C., Universit`a dottori giureconsulti L’organizzazione della ‘facolt`a legale’ di Pavia nell’et`a Spagnola, Padua,  ; Publ Univ Pavia Studi nelle Scienze Giuridiche e Soziali, n.s  SPAIN Clavero, B et al (eds.), Hispania Entre derechos proprios y derechos nacionales, Milan,  ;  vols Galto Fern´andez, E., Alejandre Garc´ıa, J A and Garc´ıa Mar´ın, J M., El derecho hist´orico de los pueblos de Espa˜na, rd edn, Madrid,   Bibliographies and dictionaries   Garc´ıa-Gallo, A., Manual de historia del derecho espa˜nol, th edn, Madrid,  ;  vols Gibert, R., Historia general del derecho espa˜nol, Granada,   Iglesia Ferreiros, A., La creaci´on del derecho Una historia de la formaci´on de un derecho estatal espa˜nol, Barcelona,  ;  vols Lalinde Abadia, J., Iniciaci´on hist´orica al derecho espa˜nol, rd edn, Barcelona,   Pel´aez, M J., Trabajos de historia del derecho privado, Barcelona,   P´erez-Prendes, J M., Curso de historia del derecho espa˜nol, Madrid,   Tom´as y Valiente, F., Manual de historia del derecho espa˜nol, rd edn, Madrid,   BI BLI OG RAPHIES AND DICTIONAR IES Deutsches Rechtswăorterbuch Wăorterbuch der aă lteren deutschen Rechtssprache, ed by R Schrăoder and E von Kăunssberg, Weimar,    ff Gilissen, J (ed.), Introduction bibliographique a` l’histoire du droit et a` l’ethnologie juridique, Brussels,  ; vols Handwăorterbuch zur deutschen Rechtsgeschichte, ed by A Erler and E Kaufmann, Berlin,  –;  vols Hattum, M van and Rooseboom, H., Glossarium van oude Nederlandse rechtstermen, Amsterdam, Kăobler, G., Etymologisches Rechtswăorterbuch, Tăubingen, ; UniTaschenbăucher, Einfache Bibliographie europăaisch-deutscher Rechtsgeschichte, Giessen, ; Arbeiten zur Rechts- und Sprachwissenschaft,  Lepointe, G and Vandenbossche, A (eds.), El´ements de bibliographie sur l’histoire des institutions et des faits sociaux (– ), Paris,   Planitz, H and Buyken, T., Bibliographie zur deutschen Rechtsgeschichte, Frankfurt,  ;  vols Ragueau, F and de Lauri`ere, E., Glossaire du droit fran¸cais, nd edn by L Favre, Niort,   Stallaert, K., Glossarium van verouderde rechtstermen, Leiden,  –( ) (to poer),  vols; vol III by F Debrabandere (P–W), Handzame,   Index administrative law See judicial review; public/private law dichotomy Anglo-Norman feudal law, – briefs (brevia),  See also Normandy Aristotle,  Australia annexation of aboriginal lands, original intent/evolving standards dilemma, – judicial law-making,  – natural justice,  Belgium judicial role, dissenting opinions,  scholarship and education, role,  briefs (brevia),  canon law as a common law of western Europe,  as a set of norms,   continuing effect post-Reformation,  –  in England,  , – Roman law basis,  –  ecclesia vivit lege Romana,  –  twelfth-century systematization,   Church (medieval) centralized structure,  , , ,   Roman Empire influences,  , ,   synodal system and,   courts See Church courts (medieval) financial organization,  –  government by Council ( th– th century),   Papal supremacy, – a quasi-European State,  –  role of State distinguished,  –  See also canon law Church courts (medieval),   competence orthodoxy/heresy questions,   ratione materiae,  ,  ratione personae (clerics),  ,  composition,  inquisitorial system,  – procedural law, – State’s enforcement role,   codification ‘code’ distinguished, – French commercial customary law,  See also England, codification; Germany, codification debate ‘common law’ defined as expression of political unity,  droit commun,   droit commun fran¸cais,  ,  English ‘common law’,  ,  Gemeines Recht,  ,  ius commune,   See also common law/civil law divergence/convergence common law/civil law divergence/convergence adversarial/inquistorial approach, – codification and, – , – conceptual bases,  English aversion to codification, , – judicial role, – dissenting opinions,  language difficulties and,  mentalit´es at odds,    Index paucity of common ground,  procedural law,  n   professorial role, – public/private law dichotomy, – substantive/procedural law relationship, – ‘The European character of English law’, – unification of European law and, – conflict of laws See international private law customary law Custom of Paris (coutume de Paris), –,  Dumoulin’s commentaries,  homologation,  German customary law displacement by the ius commune, –,  influence on French law, – German Civil Code (BGB )  / , –, – homologation, ,  ius commune and, , –,  death penalty ‘cruel and unusual punishment’, – judicial review and, – dispute settlement, in the Church,   See also Church courts (medieval) Durand, William (the ‘Speculator’),  ecclesiastical courts See Church courts (medieval) economic development, – education See scholarship and education, role England adversarial process, origin,  changes in practice appeal a minima,  legislative proceedings as aid to interpretation,  codification of the law aversion to, , – Bentham,    Brougham,  criminal law  s,  Stephen, – Hale Commission,   Leges Henrici Primi,  Quadripartitus,  n  Statutes codifying,  common law Bracton’s Treatise on the Laws and Customs of the Realm of England,  ,  customary basis,  definition,   ius commune and, – Justinian’s influence,  substantive/procedural law relationship, – Common Law Procedure Acts  / ,  Tractatus de legibus et consuetudinibus regni Angliae (Glanvill),  writs system See writs system See also common law/civil law divergence/convergence ‘Continent cut off ’,  continuity of system,  –  judicial law-making,   continuity/discontinuity of system laudatores temporis acti,   ‘limit of legal memory’,   novitates,   Puritan revolution,   Hale Commission,   Restoration reversal of changes,  stare decisis,   courts Church courts,  competence of ordinary courts in respect of administrative law,  Court of Admiralty,  Court of Chancery,  equity/common law distinction,  –  House of Lords jurisdiction in appeal,   Judicature Acts  / ,     Index England (cont.) Piepowder courts,  role under writs system,  feudal (Anglo-Norman) law basis, – See also Anglo-Norman feudal law Holdsworth,   influences canon law,  , – Court of Chancery,  continental jurisprudence,  diversity of applicable systems of law, – early Germanic practices on constitutional law, –,  – Kemble,   Pollock,  – Spelman,   Stubbs,  – ius commune, – Court of Admiralty,  Justinian on the common law,  , – role of the ‘Institutionalists’, – local variations,  Roman Church,  – judges freedom,  powers,  Supremacy,   ,  See also judicial law-making judicial freedom,  judicial law-making,   Parliamentary supremacy and,  judicial restraint,  judicial review Bentham’s views on, – competence of ordinary courts,  judicial role, – Law French,  ,   ‘national’ nature of system,  – ecclesiatical law,  theory challenged, –,  theory confirmed, – See also influences Parliamentary supremacy, incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights ( ) and,  n   Roman law, similarity of approaches, – sanctity of statutory law,  rules of construction and,  scholarship and education, role, – Inns of Court, – law faculties, establishment, – writ system Common Law Procedure Acts  /  and,  novel disseisin, – proceedings in absentia,  role of jury,  role of ordinary courts,  time limits, – European Convention on Human Rights ( ), effect of incorporation on Parliamentary supremacy,  n   European Court of Justice (ECJ ) case law as basis for unification of European law,  Roman law influence,  A European law? constitution, federalist model,  – the future’s past,   ius proprium,  – judges/jurists as ‘makers of the law’,  – national and regional traditions and,  – private law,  – universalism,  – A European State? the medieval Church,  –  See also Church (medieval) exegesis See sanctity of the written law, interpretative problems federalism in Europe,  – in the UK,  – feudal law Anglo-Norman, – Justinian’s Corpus and,  –  France ancien droit/droit interm´ediaire/droit nouveau divide,  centralized nature of system, ,   Civil Procedure Code,  incorporation of Ordonnance civile pour la r´eformation de la justice,  Code civil  , –, ,  Index as ‘holy writ’, , – as ‘old’ law, – conservative nature,  drafting absence of legislature,  Cambac´er`es’s Projects, , ,  Council of State and,  judicial involvement,  Napoleon’s role,  in Germany,  influence of scholars,  interpretation ancient customs and ordinances, – exegesis, , –, – natural law,  original intent,  preparatory texts as aid,  political nature, – popularity,  unifying influence,  codification of customary commercial law,  Custom of Paris (coutume de Paris), –,  Dumoulin’s commentaries,  customary law, relevance, – dotal system ,  n  droit commun, definition,   droit commun fran¸cais,  definition,   influence on Japan,  influences German customary law, – Roman law, – attempted abolition, –  synthesis,  Napoleonic changes a clean break?, –  divorce, – illegitimate children, status,  See also Civil Procedure Code; Code civil   natural law, ,  north/south divide, –, ,  n  pays de droit coutumier,  pays de droit ´ecrit,  r´egime de la communaut´e,  n  scholarship and education, role, , , ,  Ecole de Magistrature,    legists under Philip IV the Fair,  substantive/procedural law dichotomy,  See also Normandy fungible persons,  general principles of law, unification of European law and,  Germany   developments, – a clean break?, – Civil Code (BGB )  / ,  adoption by Japan, – customary law and, –, – influence of scholars, , , – popularity of French Code civil compared,  Roman law influence, –, –,  Volksgesetzbuch and See Nazi attitude codification debate Germanists and Romanists, , – political underpinnings, –,  Savigny/Thibaut (Professorenstreit), – von Gierke’s criticisms, –, – See also Civil Code (BGB )  /  courts in Reichskammergericht (instituted  ), – legal qualifications, membership, Schăoffengerichte (aldermens courts), gemeines Recht (common law’), ,     developments, – definition,  ,  – Genossenschaftsrecht,  influences French Napoleonic Code, ,  n  ius commune,  Roman law, –, – calls for rejection of,  – See also Nazi attitudes Kaiserrecht, , – Pandektenrecht (Pandectists), , , , , , –, ,   ,   Rezeption, –,  usus modernus, , inquisitorial system Assistenzrăate, Instrukstions/Ofzialmaxime.,    Index Germany (cont.) law as politics, – natural law, Nazi attitudes, Akademie făur Deutsches Recht (Academy for German Law),  – ,  ,  Article   (NSDAP programme),  ,   ,  – Deutscher Juristentag (German Lawyers’ Conference)  ,   Deutsche Rechtswissenschaft,    Deutschrechtliches Institut des Reichsfăuhrers SS, Eckhardt, Karl August, as Nazi,  – Lex Salica,  – Fehr, Hans,  – Feine, Hans Erich,  – Frank, Hans,  –,   – as Governor of occupied Poland,  turns his coat, Făuhrerstaat/Rechtsstaat disinction,   –  League of National Socialist Lawyers,   Ministry of Justice’s role,  – reasons for,  – Volksgesetzbuch,  – ,   von Schwerin, Claudius Freiherr,  –  Sachsenspiegel, ,  as subsidiary source of law (gemeines Sachsenrecht), n , Băurgerliches Gesetzbuch făur das Kăonigreich Sachsen, n sanctity of the written law, original intent/evolving standards dilemma,  n   scholarship and education, role, – Aktenversendung, – Althusius (Althaus),  Civil Code (BGB )  /  and, – Spruchkollegium,  See also scholars listed under Nazi attitudes Schwabenspiegel,  social concerns, – substantive/procedural law dichotomy,  Graeca non leguntur, – Greek law as an alternative source, – Habita,  Holy Roman Empire ius commune and, – proclamation of Emperor as dominus mundi,  scholarship and education, role, foundation of University of Naples ( ),  inquisitorial system bureaucratic nature,  in Church courts, – in Germany, – judicial role, – truth as objective Instrukstions/ Offizialmaxime,  international private law, Bartolus,  interpretation of the law See sanctity of the written law, interpretative problems Islamic law, sanctity of the written law, original intent/evolving standards dilemma,  Italy, judges, role of investigating magistrate,  ius commune as divisive influence, – displacement of Germanic customary law, –,  as unifying factor,  ‘bookish’ law, , , ,  elitist,  classical Roman law distinguished, – Corpus iuris civilis See Justinian (Corpus iuris civilis) definition,  ,   a good thing?, – influence in customary law,  England, – ,  Index Germany,  Holy Roman Empire, – Scotland,   South Africa,   Spain,   Latin as language of,  ,  ,  procedural law, – ordines iudiciarii,  Speculum iudiciale (Durand (the ‘Speculator’)),  scholarship and education, role, –,  ,  , – , , – practice consequent on,  – , – symbiosis of canon and Roman law,  –  tendency towards, – Japan influences French law,  German law, adoption ( ) of the  /  BGB, –,   judicial law-making Australia, – continuity of common law and,   See also judicial review judicial restraint, England,  n   judicial review competence of ordinary courts,  death penalty and, – judicial role common/civil law distinctions, –, – inquisitorial system, – law-making See judicial law-making US Supreme Court,  jurisdiction (s) fragmented system England, – medieval Europe, – sources of authority, – conflict of laws,  See also national legal systems jurists See scholarship and education, role Justinian (Corpus iuris civilis), – application to problems of customary feudal law,  –  as basis of ius commune,     as ‘holy writ’, – interpretative problems, – Basilica,   centralizing tendency, , – continued teaching in French universities,   de Blanot,  – , – early medieval usage, – glossing,  ,  ius privatum/ius publicum dichotomy,  legal authority in western Roman empire,   German Rezeption, relevance,   procedural law,  membra disiecta,  promulgation in eastern Roman empire,  ,   reasons for reception in medieval western Europe, –,  – cultural relevance, – Aristotle’s anima naturaliter christiana,  economic development, – political relevance, – structured approach, – language as a divisive/unifying force, – Latin,  ,  ,  Law French,  ,   Latin as language of ius commune,  ,  ,  effectiveness as legal language,  laudatores temporis acti,   Louisiana,  Maitland,  medieval/early modern Europe absence of national legal systems, – See also ius commune national legal systems absence in medieval/early modern Europe, – See also ius commune; jurisdiction (s) natural justice, Australia,  natural law as element in unification of European law, ,  –   natural law (cont ) France,  Germany,  Netherlands, Civil Code (New), introduction,  ,  Normandy influence on English law,  Roman law in, –,  n  See also Anglo-Norman law; France novitates,   ,  Papal States,   n   private law, of the future,  – procedural law autonomous nature, – Church courts, – England, – France,  Germany,  ius commune, – Justinian,  possibilities for harmonization,  Roman law,  Russia,  property law, harmonization proposals,  public/private law dichotomy common law, – prestige of private law, – Roman law,  socialist countries,  twentieth century, – See also judicial review Renaissance (twelfth Century), – Roman Dutch law,  English law influence,   Roman law customary basis,  ius privatum/ius publicum dichotomy,  procedural law,  res fungibilis,  Roman law influence in canon law,  –  ECJ case law,  England, – France, – Germany, –, –,  , – Japan, –,   Index Louisiana,  Normandy, –,  n  unification of European law, ,  See also ius commune; Justinian (Corpus juris civilis) Russia, procedural law,  Salic law,  Karl August Eckhardt’s  /  edition,  – sanctity of the written law American Declaration of Independence,  English statute law,  exegesis, definition, – French Code civil  , , – interpretative problems, – acceptable sources,  original intent/evolving standards dilemma, – School of Exegesis/Scientific School, , –, – whose standards?,  rules of construction and,  ius commune, – novitates,   ,  US Constitution, – scholarship and education, role Belgium,  England, – France, , , , – Germany, –, – Holy Roman Empire Constitutio Habita,  foundation of University of Naples ( ),  ius commune, –,  ,  , – , , –, – unification of European law, , – scholarship See scholarship and education, role Scotland, ius commune and,   social concerns Germany, – Russia,  Social Chapter (Treaty of Maastricht), – South Africa, ius commune and,   Spain, ius commune and,   Index unification of European law bases for consideration common doctrine (ius commune),  law of obligations in civil law,  ECJ case law,  general principles of law as reflected in EC treaties, directives and case law, ,  common law/civil law divergence/convergence and, ., See also common law/civil law divide Europarecht europăaisches Recht distinguished,  fragmented nature, – limitation to common market issues,  harmonization possibilities civil procedure,  contract law,  European civil code, –,  property law,  natural law, relevance,  prospects,  , – Roman law influence, ,  teaching authorities, role,    United States of America common law in Louisiana,  Roman law and (Roscoe Pound),   Constitution as ‘holy writ’, – interpretation, original intent/ evolving standards dilemma, – role of the Supreme Court,  death penalty ‘cruel and unusual punishment’, – judicial review and, – Declaration of Independence, as ‘holy writ’,  influence of early Germanic practices on constitution, – Restatement of the Law, origin and history,  n  scholarship and education, role, Restatement of the Law,  Uniform Commercial Code, , n  vocabularia iuris,  written law See sanctity of the written law