Drug War Mexico Mexico-1A.indd 08/05/2012 11:14 About the Authors Peter Watt is Lecturer in Hispanic Studies at the University of Shef­ field His research field covers Latin American politics and history, with a particular focus on issues of human rights, political repression, narco­ trafficking, freedom of expression and censorship in Mexico Roberto Zepeda holds a PhD in politics from the University of Sheffield and is currently working as a lecturer and academic researcher in Mexico His research focuses primarily on neo­ liberalism, globalisation, trade unions, Mexican economic policies since 1982 and the political economy of narcotrafficking Mexico-1A.indd 08/05/2012 11:14 12 Getting the Story Right, Telling the Story Well: Indigenous Activism, Indigenous Research Drug War Mexico Politics, Neoliberalism and Violence in the New Narcoeconomy Pe te r Watt an d R o b erto Zep eda Zed Books London & New York Mexico-1A.indd 08/05/2012 11:14 Drug War Mexico: Politics, Neoliberalism and Violence in the New Narcoeconomy was first published in 2012 by Zed Books Ltd, Cynthia Street, London N1 9JF, UK and Room 400, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA www.zedbooks.co.uk Copyright © Peter Watt and Roberto Zepeda 2012 The rights of Peter Watt and Roberto Zepeda to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988 Designed and set in Warnock Pro and Arial Black by Kate Kirkwood Index: John Barker Cover design: www.thisistransmission.com All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of Zed Books Ltd A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data available ISBN 978 84813 888 Mexico-1A.indd 06/05/2012 12:27 Contents Figures and Tablesvi Abbreviations vii Acknowledgements xi Map xii Introduction1 Drug Trafficking in Mexico – History and Background 10   Cold War Expansion of the Trade  and the Repression of Dissent 35   The Political Economy of  the ‘War on Drugs’ 62 Getting Rich Quick – and Those Who Didn’t 97 El Cambio (The Change) 141   War is Peace 179   Another Century of Drug War? 229 Bibliography Index Mexico-1A.indd 236 249 08/05/2012 11:14 Figures and Tables Figures 4.1  Number of parastatal enterprises in Mexico, 1930–1994  5.1 Governorship in Mexico by political party, 2011 5.2  Number of votes by party in the presidential elections,  1988–2006 5.3  GDP growth by decades in Mexico, 1940–2010 5.4  Maquiladora and non-Maquiladora jobs in Mexico, 1980–2006 6.1  Number of homocides related to narcotrafficking  in Mexico, 2006–2011 6.2 Territories controlled by crime organisations, 2011  103 148 152 158 159 181 218 Tables 4.1  NAFTA, European Union and China, 2006 119 4.2   Main features of NAFTA members, 2006 119 5.1 Composition of the Senate by political party in Mexico,  1982–2006 151 5.2 Composition of the Chamber of Deputies by political party  in Mexico, 1988–2006 151 5.3  GDP growth rates in selected Latin American countries,  1980–2005156 6.1 Government spending on security-related institutions  (millions of pesos) 187 6.2 List of the most wanted narcotraffickers in Mexico (released  in March 2009), with data of captures to November 2011 189 6.3 Rise in crime, 2007 and 2010 192 6.4 Seizures of arms in Mexico, 1994–2011 198 6.5 Number of deaths related to narcotrafficking in Mexico by state, 2006–2011 224 Mexico-1A.indd 08/05/2012 11:14 Abbreviations AFI ALBA AMLO ATF Banamex BBC BP CANADOR CENCOS CEPAL CIA CISEN CNDH CNN CONAPO CONASUPO CONEVAL DEA DFS Mexico-1A.indd Agencia Federal de Investigación (Federal Agency of Investigation) Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América (Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas) Andrés Manuel López Obrador Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives Banco Nacional de México (National Bank of Mexico) British Broadcasting Corporation British Petroleum Combate Contra el Narcotráfico (Operación CANADOR later became Operation Condor) El Centro Nacional de Comunicación Social AC Comisión Económica para América Latina (Economic Commission for Latin America) Central Intelligence Agency Centro de Investigación y Seguridad Nacional (National Security and Investigation Centre) Comisión Nacional de Derechos Humanos (National Human Rights Commission) Cable News Network Consejo Nacional de Población (Mexican National Population Council) La Compía Nacional de Subsistencias Populares (National Company of Popular Subsistence) Consejo Nacional de Evaluación (National Evaluation Council) Drug Enforcement Administration Dirección Federal de Seguridad (National Security Directorate) 08/05/2012 11:14 viii—drug war mexico DIA DIPS EAP ENA ENIGH EZLN FAR FARC FBI FDI FEADS FMLN FOBAPROA FSLN GAFE GATT GDP GIMSA HSBC IACoHR IDB Mexico-1A.indd Defense Intelligence Agency Dirección de Investigaciones Políticas y Sociales (Office of Political and Social Investigations) Economically Active Population Encuesta Nacional de Adicciones (Survey of drug addicts carried out by the Mexican Department of Health) Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares (National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure) Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional (Zapatista Army of National Liberation) Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias (Revolutionary Armed Forces) Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) Federal Bureau of Investigation foreign direct investment Fiscalía Especializada en Atención de Delitos contra la Salud (federal agency responsible for investigating organised crime organisations and corruption) Frente Farabundo Martí para la Liberación Nacional (Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front) Fondo Bancario de Protección al Ahorro (Banking Fund for the Protection of Savings) Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (Sandinista National Liberation Front) Grupo Aeromóvil de Fuerzas Especiales (Special Forces Airmobile Group) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade gross domestic product Grupo Industrial Maseca S.A.B Hongkong Shanghai Banking Corporation Inter-American Court of Human Rights Inter-American Development Bank 08/05/2012 11:14 Abbreviations­—ix IEPES IFE IMF INAH INEGI INS INSP ISI LIMAC LITEMPO Mercosur NAFTA NDIC NGO NIDA OAS OECD PAN PDLP PEMEX PFM PFP PGR PJF PLO PRD Mexico-1A.indd Instituto de Estudios Políticos, Económicos y Sociales (Institute of Political, Economic and Social Studies) Instituto Federal Electoral (Federal Electoral Institute) International Monetary Fund National Institute of Archaeology and History Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geograf ía (National Institute of Statistics and Geography) Immigration and Naturalisation Service Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública (National Institute for Public Health) import substitution industrialisation Libertad de Información México AC (NGO for Freedom of Information) Code-name of secret CIA spy network in Mexico Mercado Común del Sur (Common Market of the South) North American Free Trade Agreement National Drug Intelligence Center non-governmental organisation National Institute on Drug Abuse Organization of American States Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Partido Acción Nacional (National Action Party) Partido de los Pobres (Party of the Poor) Petróleos Mexicanos (Mexican state-owned petroleum company) Policía Federal Ministerial (Federal Ministerial Police) Policía Federal Preventiva (Federal Preventive Police) Procuraduría General de la República (Attorney General’s Office) Policía Federal Judicial (Federal Judicial Police) Palestine Liberation Organisation Partido de la Revolución Democrática (Party of the Democratic Revolution) 08/05/2012 11:14 bibliography—247 Stratfor (2008) ‘Mexican drug cartels: government progress and growing violence’, Stratfor Global Intelligence report, 11 December Streatfeild, D (2001) Cocaine: A definitive history London: Virgin Books STyPS (2008) 'Personal occupado en la industria manufactura por división de actividad económica' Secretaría del Trabajo y Prevision Social Available on line www.stps.gob.mx, consulted November 2008 Taibo, P I (2004) 68 New York, NY: Seven Stories Press —— (2011) ‘Narco violencia en México: ocho tesis y muchas preguntas’, La Jornada, 15 January Toledo, A (2004) ‘Echeverría o el fascismo’, Milenio, 20 June Toro, M C (1995) Mexico’s ‘War’ on Drugs: Causes and consequences Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Tremlett, G and J Tuckman (2001) ‘Mexican police exposed as killers’, The Guardian, 11 December Tuckman, J (2011) ‘Mexican President under fire after tycoon’s release’, The Guardian, 14 June UNCTAD (2009) Handbook of Statistics, 2008 New York, NY and Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) (2004) Democracy in Latin America: Towards a citizens’ democracy, Volume Madrid: Alfaguara UN ECLAC (2010) Statistical Yearbook for Latin America and the Caribbean Santiago, Chile: United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean Universal, El (2011) ‘El mapa de las fosas clandestinas’, 28 April UNODC (2010) World Drug Report 2010 Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime US Embassy in Mexico (2008) http://mexico.usembassy.gov/eng/eataglance_ trade.pdf, consulted May 2008 —— (2010) ‘The Merida Initiative’, http://mexico.usembassy.gov/eng/eataglance_ Merida_Initiative.pdf, consulted 18 August 2011 USGAO (2007) ‘US assistance has helped Mexican counternarcotics efforts, but the flow of illicit drugs into the United States remains high’, report, United States Government Accountability Office, 25 October US State Department (2009) ‘Mexico – Mérida Initiative Report’ Vanguardia (2010) ‘Genaro García Luna: Afortunado e impune’, May Villalpando, R and Castillo García (2011) ‘Registra Juárez en 2010 la cifra más alta de feminicidios en 18 años’, La Jornada, January Vulliamy, E (2010) Amexica: War along the borderline. London: Bodley Head —— (2011) ‘How a big US bank laundered billions from Mexico’s murderous drug gangs’, The Observer, April 2011 Watt, P (2010) ‘Saving history from oblivion in Guerrero’, Monthly Review, March Webb, G (1998) Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras and the crack cocaine explosion New York, NY: Seven Stories Press Weinberg, B (2000) Homage to Chiapas London: Verso Weiss, J (1996) ‘Economic policy reform in Mexico: the liberalism experiment’, in R Aitken et al (eds) Dismantling the Mexican State Basingstoke: Macmillan Mexico-2.indd 247 08/05/2012 11:11 248—drug war mexico White House (2009) Office of National Drug Control Policy, www.whitehouse drugpolicy.gov/international/mexico.html, consulted July 2009 —— (2010) ‘Fact Sheet: US-Mexico discuss new approach to bilateral relationship’, White House Website, www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Fact-SheetUS-Mexico-Discuss-New-Approach-to-Bilateral-Relationship/, consulted 21 February 2010 Woldenberg, J (2002) La Construcción de la Democracia México: Plaza y Janés Womack, J Jr (1999) Rebellion in Chiapas: An historical reader New York, NY: The New Press Wood, D (2002) ‘La conexión de EU la guerra sucia’, La Jornada, November Wood, T (2011) ‘Silver and lead’, New Left Review, 70 (July/August) World Bank (2007) ‘Migration and Development Brief 3’, report, Development Pro­spects Group, Migration and Remittances Team, World Bank, W ­ ashing­ ton, DC Yutzil González, I (2011) ‘Hogares, ingreso más bajo en 10 años’, El Universal, 16 July Zaid, G (1990) ‘Intelectuales’, Vuelta 14 (November) Zapata, F (1995) El sindicalismo mexicano frente a la restructuracion México: El Colegio de México Zermeño, J (2011a) ‘A diferencia de los tres últimos sexenios, actualmente México carece de un Programa Nacional para el Control de Drogas’, Reforma, 26 June —— (2011b) ‘Arroja guerra magros resultados’, Reforma, 26 June Zeta (2011) ‘Quinto Año de Gobierno: 60 mil 420 Ejecuciones’, Semanario Zeta, December, www.zetatijuana.com/2011/12/12/quinto-ano-de-gobierno-60-mil420-ejecuciones Mexico-2.indd 248 08/05/2012 11:11 Index Acosta, Pablo, 6, 58; military protection of, 66, 98; publicity liability, 59 Acteal massacre, 138-9, 165 aerial spraying, ‘cartelisation’ consequence, 50; ‘experiments’, 48-9; health damage, 53 Afro-American soldiers, 36 Agee, Philip, 28 Agencia Federal de Investigacion (AFI), 187, 219-20 Aguas Blancas massacre, 165 Aguayo Quezada, Sergio, 32 Aguilar Guajardo, Rafael, assassination of, 98 Aguilar, Adolfo, 174 Aguilar, Rubén, 222 Albania, cartel armaments from, 221 Aldana Ibarra, Miguel, 85 Alemán, Miguel, 28 Allende, Salvador, 42-3 Álvarez, Ernesto, 171 Alzate y Ramírez, José, 11 American Express, money laundering investigation, 210 Ameripol, 221 Amezcua brothers, 133 Amnesty International, 53, 227-8 anti-Vietnam war protests, USA, 36 Arab Spring, 234 Aravas, Israeli stealth aircraft, 138 Arellano-Félix brothers (Benjamin and Ramón), 83, 110, 131, 169-71, 176 Argentina, 123, 221; Mexico military assistance, 135; political coups, 29 army, Mexican: Article 57 Military Code, 201, 227; Chiapas bases, Mexico-2.indd 249 208; drug trafficking terror rationalization, 40-1; impunity of, 39, 201, 227-8; -homicide rate link, 223; rural areas presence, 33, 38-41; social control instrument, 32; training, 203; US equipment Chiapas terror use, 137; see also, miltarisation Astorga, Luis, 26, 78, 150, 152 Attorney General’s Office (PGR), 171, 173, 186, 217 Ávila Camacho, Manuel, 24, 86 Ávila Camacho, Rafael Moro, 86 Avilés Pérez, Pedro, 60, 169 Azcárraga family, 173; Emilio, 104, 115 Badiraguato, Sinaloa, 142 Baja California, 19-20, 33, 145-6, 193; Japanese fishing boats smuggling, 27 Bakan, Joel, 80-1 Banamex, National Bank of Mexico, 115, 171; privatised, 111 Banco Confía, 111 Banco Santander, Mexico, money laundering investigion, 210 Bancomer, 111 Bank of America, money launder­ing investigation, 87, 210 banks, money laundering, 87, 105, 210; privatised, 128 Baranquilla, Colombia, 94 Bartlett, Manuel, 85, 88, 100 Baum, Dan, 49 Bay of Pigs, Sicilia Falcón role, 55 BBC, deceptively simplistic narrative, 5-6 08/05/2012 11:11 250—drug war mexico Beezley, W., 24 Beltrán-Leyva cartel, 216, 220; arrests, 217 Benítez Manaut, Rẳl, 154 Blair, Tony, 184 Blake Mora, Francisco, Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, 205 Bolivia, 82; political coups, 29 Boltnivik, Julio, 163 Border Industrialisation Program, 158 Bowden, Charles, 9, 203 BP (British Petroleum), Branford, Sue, 199 Braullio Aguirre gang, 59 Brazil, 123; growth rates, 157; homicide rate, 226 Bremer, Juan José, 174 Brigada Blanca, DFS, 45, 55-6 Brigada de Ajusticiamiento, 38 Britain, Mexico military assistance, 135 Broholm, Sergio, 124 Brownsville, 160 Broz, J Lawrence, 121 Bruhn, K., 150 Buendía, Manuel, 84, 86; murder of, 85 Buscaglia, Edgardo, 214, 217, 230 Bush, George H.W., 105 Bush, George W., 81, 210, 233 Buxton, J., 13 Cabal Peniche, Carlos, 112, 128 Cabañas Barrientos, Lucio, 39-40, 43; assassination of, 38 Calderón Hinojosa, Felipe, government of, 1, 163, 179, 1813, 185, 188, 195, 197, 199-202, 205, 207, 216-18, 220-3, 227-8, 233-4; climate of violence, 193; killings numbers, 2, 180; legitimacy challenged, 3; militarisation, 212; security budget increase, 186; ‘war on drugs’, 226 Cali cartel, 111, 128, 169 Calles, Plutarco Elías, 15, 23 Camarena Salazar, Enrique, murder of, 64, 66, 69, 84, 86-7, 93-4; murder cover-up, 88 Mexico-2.indd 250 camarillas (clientilist relations), 75 Campbell, Howard, 148, 154, 163, 185 Campos, Isaac, 11-12 Canada, 118 Cananea copper mine, walk-out, 102 cannabis: alarmist discourse, 11; medicinal use, 13 Cantú, Esteban, 19-20 capital: controls liberalised, 105, 110 119; flight of, 123 capitalist development, military role, 33 car-stealing rings, 56 Cárdenas, Cuathémoc, 2, 100-1, 128 Cárdenas, Lázaro, 24, 70, 74, 100 Cardoso, Fernando Enrique, 231 Caribbean operations, Colombian, 82; crackdown on, 83, 97 Caro Quintero, Rafael, 6, 61, 64, 83-4, 86, 88, 93, 111, 169; CIA/ DFS training camp provided, 85; Contras training facility ranch, 94; FJP protection, 87 Carpizo McGregor, Jorge, 113, 157 Carranza, Venustiano, 19 Carrera, Adrián, 130 Carrillo, Vicente, 132 Carrillo Fuentes, Amado, 83, 98, 108, 110-1, 132, 142, 167; Boeing 727s of, 6, 99, 131; charges dropped, 130 Carrillo Olea, Jorge, 131, 168, 170-1 cartels, drug: Calderón deaths increase, 179; cheap labour use, 82, 160, 191; NAFTA beneficiary, 209; official assistance, 6; police recruitment, 203; terrorist outrages, 229; US arms use, 197; see also traffickers Casino Royal Monterrey, attack on, 229 Castañeda, Jorge, 222 Castón, Antonio, 107 Castón, Paula, 107 Castro, Fidel, 43 Castro Meza, Manuel, 170 Catholic Church, coca leaf market, 12; property nationalised, 17 Cavazos Ceballos, Silverio, execution of, 215-16 08/05/2012 11:11 index—251 CENCOS NGO, 101 Centeno, Miguel Ángel, 75 Centre for Economic and Social Studies of the Third World, 174 Centre for Political Analysis and Social and Economic Investigation, San Cristóbal de las Casas 208 Centro Prodh, NGO, 201 Chase bank, USA, 137, 140 Chiapas, 50, 170; disposession of the indigenous, 208; migrants from, 164; military presence, 137-8 Chihuahua, 146, 193, 207, 223, 225; heroin laboratories, 27 child labour, 126 Chile, 43, 154; economic growth, 155; Mexico military assistance, 135; refugees to Mexico, 42 China, 178; cannabis use, 13; growth rates, 157; Mexico immigrants, 15; sweatshop labour share, 159-61 CIA (US Central Intelligence Agency), 55-6, 204; Contras support, 88; DEA disputes, 92; DFS trafficking blind eye, 29-30; drug trafficker tolerance, 87; Mexican role, 28, 84; training, 54 CISEN (National Security Investigation Agency), 89, 170; Juarez cartel link, 98 cities, migration to, 46 Citigroup (Citibank), money launder­ ing investigation, 107, 110, 210 Ciudad Juárez, 20, 27, 146, 160, 163, 185, 196, 221, 229; -El Paso tunnels, 21; femicides, 207; ‘laboratory of the future’, 9; mass killings, 186; militarised, 233; protest caravan from Cuernavaca, 1; surveillance airfield 1923, 22 Civil Rights Movement, USA, 36 Clinton, Bill, 105, 126, 129, 134, 138 CNN, deceptively simplistic narrative, 5-6 Coahuila state, 203 coca leaf, Spanish colonialist hypocrisy, 11-12 Coca-Cola, 13, 141 cocaine, 105; Afro-American Mexico-2.indd 251 demonisation, 15; ColombiaMexico-USA, 60-3, 81; crack, 92; eye-surgery anaesthetic, 14; US consumption, 167; US smuggling route, 120; ‘wonder drug’, 13 Cockburn, Alexander, 55, 129 Cold War, 28, 39, 57; anti-drug rhetoric, 32 Colegio de México, 163 Colima cartel, 133 Collier, Ruth, 73 Colombia, 205, 231, 232; cartels, 61, 81-2, 97; displaced people, 199; FARC, 207; military, 234; see also, Plan Colombia Colosio, Luis Donaldo, 135; anticorruption stance, 108; murder of, 106, 109 Comisión Federal Electoral, 101 Commission on Human Rights in Mexico, 179 ‘communist threat’, obsession with, 32 CONASUPO (national subsistence company), 106, 124; dissolution of, 125 Consejo Mexicano de Hombres de Negocios, 124 Contras, 88, 93; Guadaljara cartel support, 94; human rights abuses, 92; US support, 90 corn flour market, 124 Corporación Latinobarómetro, 144 corporatism, 74 counterculture, USA, 35 Craddock, John, 205-6 Craig, Richard, 53 crime, financial structures untouched, 21-12 Cuba, 30; Echeverría support, 42; Revolution, 43 Culiacán: carnage government responsibility, 1; militarised, 233; prison, 59 Day Labourers and Industrial Workers Union, 102 De la Fuente, Juan Ramon, 191 De la Madrid Hurtado, Miguel, 62-3, 08/05/2012 11:11 252—drug war mexico 69-70, 73-4, 76, 84, 89, 99-100, 102, 114, 116, 131, 143 DEA (US Drug Enforcement Adminis­ tration), 44, 58, 64, 66, 69, 84-6, 105, 131, 133, 173, 225; agent frustration, 87; 1973 foundation of, 36 Dean, Matteo, killing of, 210 death squads, 29; US backing, 116 Del Monte, Mexico, 112 Delgado-Wise, Raúl, 127 ‘democratisation’, 6, 143-6, 149, 177; un-negotiated, 154 Department of Finance and Public Credit, 122 Department of Health, 25, 31 Department of National Defence (SEDENA), 40, 172, 186, 219 desertions, Mexican army scale, 202 devaluation, Mexican peso, 72; electorally motivated delay, 121 DFS (Dirreción Federal de Seguridad), 51, 55, 58, 86, 88, 170; CIA links, 31-2, 44; close-down, 89, 153; drugs trade influence, 45; Guadalajara cartel link, 85; La Charola badge, 59; repression of trade unionists, 28; tankers border crossing, 51; trafficking operations, 6, 30; US Embassy concern, 29 Díaz, Porfirio, 17-20 Díaz Ordaz, Gustavo, 28, 37-8, 44, 48, 165, 174 Díaz Serrano, Jorge, 12 Dillon, Sam, 106 DIPS (political and social investigation agency), 93 disappeared people, 45 dissent: as ‘terrorist threat’, 206; criminalised, 182, 199 Dominican Republic, 180 Doyle, Kate, 135 drugs: abuse modern notion, 14; cartels, see above; DFS trafficking protection, 93; official approved exports, 60; legalisation ideas, 231; media representation, 5; politicised control strategy, 31; smuggling, Mexico-2.indd 252 54, 164; white-collar trafficking complicity, 232 Drug Lord, 58 Duménil, D.L.G., 76 DuRand, Cliff, 80 Durango, Mexico, 33 Durazo Moreno, Arturo, prosecuted, 63 Echeverría Álvarez, Luis, 28, 38, 41, 44-8, 54, 64, 66, 71-2, 88, 165, 1737; liberal public face, 42-3, 57 Economic Cooperation in Latin American Countries, 156 economic crises 1970s, 45; 1982, 63 economic refugees, to USA, 168 Egozi Bejar, José, 55-6 Eighteenth Amendment, USA, 16 ejido land system, 16-17; Chiapas, 136; NAFTA break-up, 124 El Paso, 160 El Salvador, 90, 199; FMLN, 135; homicide rate, 226 elite, Mexico, 38, 234; -criminal alliance, 6; drugs narrative of, 14; new technocratic, 75, 78 Elliott, Amy, 110 Encuesta Nacional de Adicciones, 69 Ensenada, 20 Escobar Gaviria, Pablo, 83, 93, 141 Estad de Mexico, plaza control dispute, 216 European Union, 117-18 Excélsior, 85 ‘externalities’, corporate unpaid, 81 Fabre, Guilhem, 105 farmers: average income fall, 53; devastation of, 78; illegal drug incomes, 37, 79, 167; land abandoned, 125 Fazio, Carlos, 136 FBI (US Federal Bureau of Investigation), 28, 204 FEADS, 2003 drug trafficking scandal, 176, 213 Federal Electoral Institute, 183 Federal Judicial Police, 48, 53, 67, 87, 219 08/05/2012 11:11 index—253 femicides, 207 feminist movement, USA, 36 Fernandez Ortega, Inés, 228 Figueroa, Rubén, 43 FOBAPROA (banking fund), 112 Fonseca Carrillo, Ernesto, 6, 61, 83-8, 93-4, 98, 169 food: price controls, regulation scrapped, 124; USA dependency, 78 Forbes magazine, 141 Fort Bragg, 140 Fox, Vicente, 39, 141-3, 147, 149, 159, 161, 173-6, 178, 183, 187, 213, 21819, 231 France, heroin export, 27 free market ideology, crime syndicates, 80 ‘French Connection’, 35 Frente Democrático Nacional, 100 Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (Sandinistas), 89, 95, 135; drug trafficking accusation, 91 Freud, Sigmund, 14 Frieden, Jeffrey, 121 Friedman, Thomas, 134 Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC), 43, 207 Fukuyama, Francis, 101, 134, 140 Furango, mayors assassinated, 216 Gallardo, Miguel Ángel Félix, 61, 83-8, 93-4, 111, 169 Garay Cadena, Gerardo, 220 García Abrego, Humberto, 108 García Abrego, Juan, 108, 109, 111 García Luna, Genaro, 1, 220, 226; Sinaloa cartel link, 219 García Paniagua, Javier, 44 García Rivas, Luis de la Soto, 66 Gardoqui, Juan Arévalo, 66, 69, 88 Garza Sada, Eugenio, 43 GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), 119 Gavin, John, 87 Gavira, César, 231 General Motors, Germany, drug addiction rate, 222 Gertz Manero, Alejandro, 174-5 Gibler, John, 183 Mexico-2.indd 253 GIMSA (corn flour company), 124 Giordano, Al, 111-12, 114, 177 Global Commission on Drug Policy, 196 Global Peace Index, 229 Glores-Magón brothers, 19 Godoy Rangel, Leonel, 179, 215 Goldman Sachs, Gonzáles, Agapito 102 González, Gonzalo, 171 González, Roberto, 111 González Barrera, Roberto, 125 González Calderono, Guillermo 59 González Casanova, Pablo, 17, 32 González Diaz, Domingo, 220 Great Campaign 1948, 32 Guadalajara, Mexico, 57 Guadalajara cartel, 6, 168, 52, 59, 61, 64, 83, 85, 87, 98; competitor elimination, 51; Contras support, 92, 94; DFS protection, 93; police corruption level, 58 Guadalupe Zuno, José, kidnapped, 43 Guanajuato, 33 Guatemala, 90, 170; Mexico military assistance, 135; refugees to Mexico, 42 Guerrero, Mexico, 40, 193, 225, 228; army presence, 38, 53; army terror, 40; ‘disappeared’ people, 39; mayors assassinated, 216; media terror complicity, 41; social protest suppression, 28 Gulf cartel, 108-9, 111, 129 Gulf-Zeta cartel, 221, arrests, 217 Gutiérrez Barrios, Fernando, 44 Gutiérrez Rebollo, Jesús, 129-33, 137, 213 Guzmán Loera, Joaquín (El Chapo), 7, 170, 83, 141, 167-9, 172, 173, 182, 213, 217; Office of the Attorney General payment, 173; prison escape, 6, 142 Haiti, 180, 229 Haldeman, H.R., 36 Hank González, Carlos, 110, 113 Hank Rhon, Jorge, 113-15; release of, 215 08/05/2012 11:11 254—drug war mexico Harp Hélu, Alfredo, 111 Harrison, Lawrence, 93-4 Harrison Narcotic Law, USA, 15-16 Harvey, David, 70, 77 Hearst, William Randolph, 25 Hermengelido, army attack on, 207 Hernández, Anabel, 60, 142, 173, 176, 216-17, 220-1 Hernández, Roberto, 115, 171, 227 Hernández Galicia, Joaquín, 102 Hernández Toledo, José, 48 heroin, better farmer incomes, 79; US market for, 36 Hidalgo, police killed, 216 Holland, drug addiction rate, 222 homicide rate, post 2006 increase, 191, 223, 226 Honduras, 90; homicide rate, 206 HSBC, money laundering investigation, 210 human rights abuses, 203; impunity, 68, 129, 200; military, 201 Human Rights Watch, 192, 201, 225, 227 Hunt, Howard, 29 Hunter, Duncan, 206 Ibarra de Piedra, Rosario, 56 Ibarra Herrera, Manuel, 85 IEPES, PRI thinktank, 75 IMF (International Monetary Fund), 71, 91; conditionality, 78 import substitution industrialisation model 70-3, 120; parastatals, 103 India: cannabis use, 13; economic growth rates, 157 Indignados movement, 235 INEGI (National Institute of Statistics and Geography), 161 inequality: extreme, 145; increase 1940s-60s, 46 international banking, criminal money liquidity, 212 inflation, control prioritised, 77 informal market/sector, growth of, 72, 120, 162-3 Instituto Nacional para el Combate a las Drogas, 129 Inter-American Court of Human Mexico-2.indd 254 Rights, 201, 227 Inter-American Development Bank, 91 interest rates, 73; rise in, 71 Internal Revenue Service, USA, 210 International Criminal Court, 204 intra-firm trade, Mexico’s position in, 127 Iran arms scandal, 92; investigations, 93 Israel: Echeverría criticising, 42; Mexico military assistance, 135 Italy, 232; heroin export, 27 Jaime, Edna, 191 Jalisco, 33 journalists: danger to, 5; murder of, 101, 186 Juárez, Benito, 17 Juárez cartel (ex-CISEN), 98-9, 131-2 Karam, Tanius, 101 Kenworthy, Eldon, 91 Kerry Commission, 93 kidnapping and extortion, 165, 188, 231 Kirkpatrick, Jeanne, 90 Koller, Karl, 14 La Botz, Dan, 75, 116 La Familia cartel, 215; arrests, 217 La Garrucha, army attack on, 207 ‘La Renovación Moral’, slogan, 62-3 labour market, ‘flexibilisation’, 77-78 Laredo, 160 Larrazolo, José Luis, 171-2 Las Abejas, massacre of, 139 latifundistas, 17 Latin America, economic growth rates, 156 Latin American Commission on Drugs and Democracy, 231 Ledesma, Ernesto, 208 Lehder Rivas, Carlos, 93 Levy, D., 76, 150 Ley Federal Extinctión de Dominio, 232 Liberal Party 1850s, 17 liberalisation, elite controlled, 147 08/05/2012 11:11 index—255 Liberation Theology, 90, 95 Libertad de Información México, 31 Liga Communista 23 de Septiembre, 43 LITEMPO programme, CIA, 44 López Obrador, Andrés Manuel, 2, 183-4, 199, 205; propaganda against, 183, 200 López Portillo, José, 44-5, 49, 55, 57, 63-4, 71-2 Loaeza, Soledad, 146 Los Angeles, 92 Los Zetas, 129, 165, 202 Máscara Roja, Acteal massacre, 139 Macedo de la Concha, Rafel, 174, 177 MacLachlan, C., 24 Malkin, Victoria, 126 Malo Zozoya, Miguel, death of, 174-5 maquiladora, 125, 127, 158-9, 178, 209; 1990s growth, 160 Mariani, Angelo, 13 marijuana, 37; agricultural suitability, 7-8; better farmer incomes, 79; Colombian, 81-2; hysteria, 12; Marijuana Tax Act USA 1937, 25; Mexico 1920 prohibition, 22; Mexico decrease-Colombia increase, 51 Marseille, 35 Marshall, Jonathan, 51, 52 Martínez, Edino, 165 Martínez, Héctor González, 177 mass graves (narco-fosas), 2, 192 Massieu, Mario Ruiz, 130 Matamoros, 160 Matta Ballasteros, Juan, 88 Mazatlán, 60 McCaffrey, Barry, 129 Mérida Initiative, 180, 193-4, 196, 198, 202, 206, 209, 228, 233; petitions against, 200 México Evalúa, NGO, 191 Medellín cartel, 83, 88, 93, 169 Median Mora, Eduardo, 196, 218-19 Median, Rodrigo, 215 Mercosur treaty, 205 Mertins, Gerhard, 85 methamphetamines, 105, 133, 167, Mexico-2.indd 255 172; Mexican laboratories, 168 Mexican Intelligence, 202 Mexican Railway Workers Union, 28 Mexican Revolution, 14, 16, 18, 23, 135 Mexico: alcohol smuggling, USA prohibition era, 21; army ‘internal colonisation’, 32; average income fall, 163; bailout restructuring, 71; bank money laundering, 83; banks privatised, 110, 112; Chinese community demonised, 22; Constitution Article 27, 124; debt crisis 1982, 71-2; drugs export ban 1927, 23; economic performance, 156; ‘failed state’, 153; food importer, 53; foreign debt increase, 73; GDP per capita, 157; income inequality, 118; industrial sector shrinking, 162; low drug consumption/addiction rates, 23, 69, 222; Mexican Revolution, 135; Mexico City, 147; Ministry of the Interior, 67, 75; 1968 generation, 37; 1980s restructuring, 76; nineteenth-century ‘internal colonisation, 17-18; nineteenthcentury opium imported, 15; northern, 20; post-Revolution elite, 74; railroad workers’ strike 1958-9, 37; Supreme Court, 175; taxpayer bank debts paid, 105; US agents in, 48; US military aid/training, 129, 138; USA dependency, 76, 120; varied growth rates, 155 Michacán, 216; municipal corruption, 214 Microsoft, migrants: criminalised, 105; deaths, 126; massacres of, 165 Milenio magazine, 4, 169-70 militarisation, 134, 191, 205, 212, 218, 226; Calderón period, 180, 184; cities, 233; counter-narcotics, 8; drug trade, 135; policy of, 188; violence increase, 182; USMexican policy, 133, 137 Millan Gómez, Edgar Eusobio, killed, 216 08/05/2012 11:11 256—drug war mexico mind-altering substances, misinformation, 11 MINISA, 124 modernisation, post-Mexican Revolution, 14 money laundering, 83, 87, 105-11, 192, 232 Monterrey Group, 43 Moreira, Ruben, 184 Morelia, student protests repression, 48 Morelos state, Mexico, 33, 131 Mubarak, Hosni, 234 Muñoz Ledo, Porfirio, 109, 114, 153 Muñoz Rocha, Manuel, 109 municipalities, cartel infiltration, 202, 229-30 NAFTA (North American Free Trade Association), 99, 113, 116, 120-1, 123, 128, 133-8, 140, 158, 160, 166-7, 193; ‘armouring’, 204; cartel beneficiaries, 209; farmers land abandoned, 125; GDP, 117 mass poverty, 126; protest against arrests, 206; signing of; ‘tequila effect’, 122; SPP protection, 194; trafficking infrastructure, 161; USA dominanted, 118 narco-mantas (killer messages), 193 National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), 157; occupation, 48 National Democratic Front, National Human Rights Commission, 200, 221, 227 National Institute for Public Health, 222 National Institute of Archaeology and History, 175 National Public Radio, 217 National Security Archive, George Washington University, 44, 136 National Security Directorate, 28 Nazar Haro, Miguel, 56 neoliberalism, 63, 234; exclusionary, 120 Nuevo Léon, mayors assassinated, 216 newspapers, databases, Mexico-2.indd 256 Nicaragua, Sandanistas, 135; Sandinsta overthrow strategy, 85 Nixon, Richard M., 36-7, 42-3; Mexico focus, 41 No Más Sangre, group/slogan, 1, 226, 235 non-corrupt police, danger to, 202 North American Summit 2009, 209 North, Oliver, 91-2 Nuevo Laredo, 160 Nuevo León state, 67, 193, 203 O’Neil, Shannon, 67, 144, 153 O’Shaughnessy, Hugh, 199 O’Sullivan, Fionn, 165 O’Toole, Gavin, 73 Oaxaca state, 40; army presence, 53; mayors assassinated, 216; migrants from, 164; social protest suppression, 28 Obama, Barak, 180, 195, 201, 2045, 209, 234; Colombia military bases funding, 199; ‘human rights’ rhetoric, 200 Obrégon, Álvaro, (1923 President), 22 Occupy Wall Street, 234 Ochoa, Jorge Luis, 83 Ocosingo Valley, troops to, 135 OECD (Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development), 120 official data, limited availability, officials killed, 216 oil: boom 1970s, 71; companies nationalised, 24; US/European investment, 18; exports reliance, 72; Oil Workers Union, 102; price changes, 73, 149 Ojeda Paullada, Pedro, 48-9 Ojinaga, Chihuahua, 27, 58, 65; plaza, 98 ‘Olympics of Peace’ 1968, 38 Operation Casablanca, US State Department, 111 Operation Chihuahua, 206 Operation Condor (ex-CANADOR), 48-51, 175 Operation Gatekeeper 1994, 105, 126 Operation Intercept, 37; II, 84 08/05/2012 11:11 index—257 Operation Leyenda, 84 opium: Chinese supply cut-off, 16; Mexico 1926 prohibition, 22; profitable agriculture, 7-8; Sinaloa poppies, 26; USA Exclusion Act 1909, 16 Oppa, Terrence, 65 Oppenhiemer, Andrés, 115 Organization of American States (OAS), 42 Osorno, Diego Enrique, 217 Padilla Pacheo, Rosendo, disappearance of, 228 Palma, Hector, 83, 169,172 PAN (Partido Acción Nacional), 141-2, 144-5, 147, 149, 182-3, 185; governmental weakness, 148, 150, 180; neoliberal policies, Paraquat, US govrnment supplied, 49 parastatals, 71 Partido de los Pobres, 38 Partido Nacional Revolucianario (later PRI), 23 Pavón, Armando, 87 PEMEX, national oil company, 62, 164 Peralta, Christian, 171-2 Perry, William, 138 Peru, 82 Peso, 1994 crisis, 105, 123; -US dollar peg, 121-2 Philip, George, 150 Philippines, 16 Piedra Ibarra, Jesús, 56 Pimentel, Stanley, 66, 89 Pinochet, Augusto, 42 PJF (Federal Police), 58, 85, 94, 130, 171; contraband protecting, 60 Plan Colombia, 194, 198-9 Plan Sur, 208 plazas: control competition, 216-17, 230; political control loss, 150 PLO (Palestine Liberation Organisation), Mexico City Office, 42 police: -military shoot-outs, 214; pay, 57; training of, 203 politicians murdered, 216 Ponce Rojas, Federico, 171 Mexico-2.indd 257 Poppa, Terrence, 57-9, 66 Portugal Revolucao dos Cravos, 56 Posadas Ocampo, Cardinal Juan Jesús, assassination of, 169-72 poverty, 8; alleviation non-priority, PRD (Party of the Democratic Revolution), 147, 185, 199, 215 presidential elections: 1988 fix, 2, 101; 2006 contested, 2, 182, 199 Preston, Julia, 106 Presunto Culpable film, 227 PRI (ex Partido Nacional Revolucianario), 3, 24, 116, 133, 141, 144, 147- 205, 214; army as tool of, 33; billionaire financed, 104; clientilism, 67; co-opting policy, 25; Corriente Democrática, 100; -Cuba ties, 30; disillusionment with, 45; drug trade control, 8, 26, 57, 63, 152; elite modernization viewpoint, 33, 75; era of, 149; free market switch, 70, 74; influence continuation, 150; killings, 106; 2000 election defeat, 142-3, 174; state governorships, 154 privatisation, Mexico, 77, 102, 104, 115; banks, 110; billionairemaking, 103 Procuraduría General de la República, 31 protectionism, 70 public services: funds looted l13; provision retreat, 160 Quintana Roo state, 215 Quirarte, Eduardo González, 131 railway building, Porfirio Díaz era, 17 Ramírez Hernández, Roberto, 111 Ramirez Mandujano, Noé, 213 Reagan, Ronald, 80-2; Sandinsita demonizing, 90-1 Reclusorio Sur, Mexico City, 130 Reding, A., 114 Reforma, 4, 5, 179, 223 remittances, Mexico from USA, 162, 166, 168 Reuter, Peter, 225 Ríos, Viridiana, 164 08/05/2012 11:11 258—drug war mexico Rizzo Garcia, Socrates, 67 Rodríguez, Armando, 186 Rodríguez Gacha, Gonzalo, 83 Rosales, Carlos Humberto, 170 Rosenda Cantú, Valentina, military beating of, 228 Ross, John, 139 Rubio, Luis, 149 Ruffo Appel, Claudio, 171-2 Ruiz Massieu, José Francisco, killing of, 106-7, 109 Ruiz Massieu, Mario, 109 rural areas: martial law, 38; militarisation, 39-41 Russia, cartel armaments from, 221 Sánchez, Greg, 215 Saad Filho, A., 77 Saavedra Flores, Sergio, 87; disappearance of, 88 Sachs, Jeffrey, 99 Sada, Adrián, 111 Salazar, Guillermo, 171-2 Salcido Uzueta, Manuel, 59-60, 83, 169 Salinas, Carlos, 74, 99, 101, 103, 105, 107, 109, 111, 113, 115-16, 121, 123, 125, 128, 131, 134-6, 143, 168, 170, 212; elite support base, 113; labour union attacks, 101; privatisations, 102 Salinas, Raul, 106, 109, 111, 113 money laundering, 104, 107-8, 110, 112 Salinas Pliego, Ricardo, 107 Salinastroika, 75 San Alejandro, army attack on, 207 San Diego, 160 Santiago, César Augusto, 184 Saxe-Fernández, John, 117 scapegoat sacrificing, 133 Scherer, Julio, 41 School of the Americas, Fort Benning, 129, 203-4 Schulz, Donald E., 137 Schweizer Condor sureveillance planes, 138 Scott, Peter Dale, 29, 51-2 Secretaría de Goberbación, 85 Mexico-2.indd 258 Secretería de Seguridad Pública (SSP), 1, 174, 186, 215-16, 219; -Mexican army rivalry, 188; NAFTA protection, 209 Security and Prosperity Partnership, 193-4 ‘security’ institutions, rivalry, 188 Segoviano Berbera, Miguel Ángel, 173-4 seized narcotics, recycled, 58 SEMAR (Navy Department), 186 Serrano, Carlos, 28 Shanghai Conference 1909, 16 Shannon, Thomas, 210 sicarios, 203 Sicilia Falcón, Alberto, 51, 64; CIAtrained, 54; DFS protected, 55; political repression role, 56 Sicilia, Javier, 1-2, 182, 226 Sicilia Ortega, Juan Francisco, murder of, SIEDO (Office for Special Investigations on Organised Crime), 217; corruption allegations, 213 Sierra Madre, mining protest, 206 Sierra, Victor, protection payments, 65 Sinaloa, 33, 213, 221, 225; -DurangoChihuahua ‘golden’ triangle, 47-8; homicides, 223; police killed, 216, poppies, 26-7 Sinaloa cartel, 6, 61, 141, 176, 178, 182, 212, 216, 219; AFI agents corrupted, 220; competitor elimination, 51; imported heroin business, 221; official favoured, 217 Sistema Nacional de Seguridad Pública, 223 Slim, Carlos, 103-4, 113, 141, 145, 230 Somoza, Anastasio, overthrow of, 90 Sonora, 33; student protests repression, 48 South Florida Task Force, 81, 97 Spain, 154; Mexico military assistance, 135; refugees to Mexico, 42; Spanish-American war 1898, 16 Special Forces, US-trained, 204 St Clair, J., 55, 129 08/05/2012 11:11 index—259 structural adjustment policy, 79, 155 students, 1968 generation, 39 Tabasco, 193; migrants from, 164 Taibo, Paco Ignacio, 191 Tamaulipas: mayors and police killed, 216; migrants from, 164; migrants massacre, 165; miltarised, 233 Tancítaro, municipal resignation, 179 Tehuacanazo, torture form, 87 Televisa, 104, 115, 170, 173; deceptively simplistic narrative, Telmex, 103-4, 108 Terraza, Luis, 17 Thatcher, Margaret, 80 Third World independence, Echeverría rhetoric, 42 Tijuana, 54, 57, 160-1, 172, 196; carnage, 1; militarised, 233 Tijuana cartel, 110, 113, 131, 171-2; arrests, 217 Tlatelolco, student massacre 1968, 38, 41, 44, 47-8, 56, 174 Toro, María Celia, 16 Torre, Rodolfo, killing of, 216 torture, police and military acts, 193; Tehuacanazo form, 87; US techniques, 204 Tower Commission, 93 trade unionists, repression of, 28 traffickers/trafficking, drugs: aircraft use, 60; corporatist, 74; DFS protection, 6, 30, 59, 84; ‘elite exploitive’ model, 66; ex-anti-drugs squad, 129; impunity, 64; list of wanted, 189-90; -military mutual support, 202; taxes, 58 Triangulo Dorado, 167 Turkey: heroin export, 27; opium ban consequences, 35 TV Azteca, privatised, 107 Twin Towers, attack on, 206 UN (United Nations), Office on Drugs and Crime, Vienna, 213 unemployment, 8, 46, 123, 161-2; youth, 233 Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, 167 Mexico-2.indd 259 University of Maryland, 225 university students, Mexican increase, 37 Uruguay, 199 USA (United States of America): agricultural subsidies, 124; aircraft provision, 48; anti-cocaine health campaigns, 21; Army War College, 137; bank money laundering, 83, 106; border officials bribed, 51; Border Patrol 1924, 21; Bureau of the Budget, 37; Chinese immigrant presence, 15; cocaine addiction, 14; cocaine seizures, 81; Colombia military aid, 199; Customs Service, 105; death squads support, 95; Defense Intelligence Agency, 136; Department of State, 194, 196; Drug Enforcement Administration, see DEA; economic nationalisms threat, 205; elite Latin American military training, 203; firearms supply, 233; General Accounting Office, 107, 110; Government Accountability Office, 197; House Armed Services Committee, 206; INS budget, 126; mafia and heroin, 27; methamphetamine crackdown, 168; Mexican involvement, 20, 130; Mexican migrants denigrated, 22; Mexican military aid, 132, 138, 180, 194; Mexican oil investment, 18; -Mexican relations crisis, 84; military-industrial complex, 117; military personnel immunity, 204; narcotics climate of fear, 31; narcotics demand, 9, 26, 35-6, 232; National Institute on Drug Abuse, 49; public and official opinion, 12; racial prejudice, 15; Southern Command, 205; State Department, 29; torture techniques, 204; Vietnam soldiers marijuana use, 36 Vázquez, Genaro, 38, 40 Valdez Villareal, Edgar, 220 Valenzuela, Arcadio, 111 Valera, Blas, 12 08/05/2012 11:11 260—drug war mexico Valle, Eduardo, 109, 113 Vallejo, Demetrio, 37 Vance, Sheldon, 48 Venezuela, homicide rate, 226 Veracruz, 50; migrants from, 164; police killed, 216 Villanueva Madrid, Mario, 111 violence: media impunity for state, 5; post 2000 increase, 152, 195; public displays, 185; social control, 68; state actors, 5, 30 Volsted Act 1919, 21 Von Fleischl-Marxow, Ernst, 14 voter turnout, 47 Vulliamy, Ed, 210-11 Wachovia bank, see Wells Fargo wage cuts, 1990, 123 Walsh Commission, 93 ‘war against drugs’, 31, 35, 81; budget increase, 196; Calderón phase, 181, 226; challenge to, 227; dissent repression use, 199; military power rationalization, 128; military spending increase, 200; ‘terrorism’ linked, 206 Washington consensus, 70, 76-7, 80, 104, 115, 117, 134; smearing of opposition to, 206; support shrinking, 205; violence reliance, 95 Webb, Gary, 92 Mexico-2.indd 260 Wells Fargo, taxpayer rescue, 211; Wachovia subsidiary money laundering, 210-11 Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation, 204 Western Union, money laundering investigation, 210 Wood, Tony, 161, 176 Woods, Martin, 211 World Anti-Communist League (WACL), 29 World Bank, 78, 91, 166 WTO (World Trade Organization), 115, 120 Yalman, G.L., 77 Yucatán, 33 Zambada, Ismael, 132, 219-20 Zapata, Emiliano, 134 Zapatistas, 144; ejido land, 136; EZLN, 134-5; military attacks on, 207 Zavala Avelares, Alfredo, 86 Zedillo, Ernesto, 74, 107, 109, 122, 125, 128-30, 132-3, 137-8, 143, 145, 176, 231 Zeta magazine, killings, 114 Zócalo, AMLO rallies, 183 Zorrilla Pérez, José Antonio, 85-6, 88 Zuno Arce, José Guadalupe, 66 Zuno Arce, Rubén, 88 Zuno de Echeverría, María Esther, 55 08/05/2012 11:11 ... Televisa in Mexico, CNN in the US and the BBC in the UK tend to present the drug war in Mexico as a mysterious and inexplicable conflict in which the government (with the help of its ally, the United... repression against Chinese immigrants marginalised them further Mexico- 1A.indd 15 08/05/2012 11:14 16 Drug war Mexico in the 1920s and 1930s and inhibited their participation in and organisation... recreation, and made efforts to weigh the market of the leaf in their own favour Indeed, the time came when the Catholic Mexico- 1A.indd 11 08/05/2012 11:14 12 Drug war Mexico Church, the leading financial