ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES NGUYEN THI LAN PHUONG A CONTRAST OF CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS IN VIETNAMESE AND ENGLISH ADVERTISEMENTS Major: Contrastive Linguistics Code: 9.22.20.24 SUMMARY OF LINGUISTICS PHD THESIS HÀ NỘI - 2020 The thesis is accomplished at: VIETNAM ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES VIỆN NGÔN NGỮ HỘC VIỆN KHOA HỌC XÁC HỘI VIỆT NAM Supervisor: Prof.Dr Nguyễn Văn Hiệp Judge 1: Prof.Dr Nguyen Quang Judge 2: Prof.Dr Nguyen Van Khang Judge 3: Assoc Prof Dr Tran Kim Phuong The thesis is to be defended at Academy-level Assessment Council, organized at Graduate Academy of Social Sciences, Academy of Social Sciences in 477 Nguyễn Trãi, Thanh Xuân, Hà Nội At (time) Search for the thesis available at: - Vietnam National Library - The library of Graduate Academy of Social Sciences INTRODUCTION RATIONALE Advertising is an indispensable promotion tool in the current competitive market To create a sustainable position in the mind of target customers, enterprises not only need to create good products but also have to communicate the benefits of products to customers (Kotler P and Amstrong G., 2012) How to create impressive advertisements (ads) is an important question that all enterprises need to seek the answers to Capable of orienting thoughts, urging impacts and creating impressions, conceptual metaphors are an useful tool for advertisers as “An appropriately selected metaphor may work wonders in promoting the sale of an item” (Kövecses, 2002) Therefore, metaphors are widely used in ads By the time of this research, there have been quite a few foreign studies on metaphors in ads with many conclusions of good theoretical and practical values However, the number of studies in Vietnam remain limited, particularly, there has yet been any study on conceptual metaphors in ads Therefore, the PhD thesis on “A Contrast of Conceptual Metaphors in Vietnamese and English Advertisements” has both theoretical and practical significance RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND TASKS 2.1 Research objectives The thesis aims to study conceptual metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads so as to identify similarities and differences between them and reason these similarities and differences on the bases of linguistics, culture and national thought 2.2 Research tasks (1) Generalizing theories of conceptual metaphors and related concepts; (2) Researching conceptual metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads: what metaphors are used, how often they are used, on what bases they are built; (3) Compare metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads to identify similarities and differences and explain for similarities and differences on the bases of culture, linguistics and national thoughts RESEARCH SUBJECT AND SCOPE 3.1 Research subject Conceptual metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads 3.2 Research scope The thesis adopts the classification of conceptual metaphors introduced by Lakoff and Johnson Accordingly, metaphors are classified into kinds: structural, ontological and orientational Due to time limitation, the thesis chooses to focus on linguistic metaphors as linguistics is “the main element in advertising discourses” (Kotler P and Amstrong G., 2012) The thesis also limits its research scope to ads presented in Vietnam and Britain RESEARCH METHODS 4.1 Research methods The thesis employed the methods of discourse analysis, description, compare and contrast and the techniques of concept analysis and statistics It also used interpretation and inductive approaches to get research findings 4.2 Research data Research data included 400 ads (200 Vietnamese and 200 English) collected from various sources by quota sampling method to guarantee equal quantities of ads in each product group between the two languages Collection time lasted from October 2016 to April 2017 with ads shown since 2000 to ensure their novelty CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE THESIS 5.1 Theoretical contributions By generalizing fundamental concepts of Cognitive Linguistics and conceptual metaphors, accumulating previous theoretical grounds, via intensive research of metaphors identified in the research material and seeking grounds for similarities and differences in conceptual metaphors between the two languages, the thesis supplements and clarifies the distinctive features of Vietnamese and British cultures in the research area of advertising, thereby contributing to theoretical grounds of conceptual metaphors in general and conceptual metaphors in advertising in particular 5.2 Practical contributions The thesis has built up hierarchical diagrams of structural metaphors, ontological metaphors and orientational metaphors; contrasted their frequencies, mappings and cultural features; discussed and explained the similarities as well as differences in the metaphorical al systems between the two languages based on cultural and national identities This provides language learners, teachers and translators with a new look on the thinking modes of the world of Vietnamese and British people and the reflections of these thinking modes in the research area of advertising The thesis has identified kinds of metaphors and their frequencies in ads and discussed the roles of metaphors in advertising discourses This is a basis of references for advertising designers to create impressive, memorable ads to their target customers so as to realize production promotion goals SIGNIFICANCE OF THE THESIS 6.1 Theoretical significance The research findings help to clarify concepts, features of conceptual metaphors, the relationships between metaphors and thoughts, culture, which contributes to affirming and promoting the development of this advanced linguistic theory Via comparing Vietnamese and English ads to identify the impacts of culture and society on the thinking modes of conceptual metaphors, the thesis helps to deepen universal views, at the same time enrich cultural and national characteristics in the research on cognitive linguistics 6.2 Practical significance With figures on the frequencies of metaphors and discussions on their mappings and roles in ads, the research findings serve as a foundation for advertisers to write creative, impressive and effective ads to influence customers’ buying decisions Likewise, via analyzing and comparing the mappings of metaphors found in the ads of the two languages, the thesis can be used in different aspects of linguistics, including translation and language teaching ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS In addition to Introduction, Conclusion, Appendix and Reference, the thesis is structured into chapters: Chapter 1: Research history and Literature review Chapter 2: A Contrast of Structural Metaphors in Vietnamese and English advertisements Chapter 3: A Contrast of Ontological Metaphors in Vietnamese and English advertisements Chapter 4: A Contrast of Orientational Metaphors in Vietnamese and English advertisements CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH HISTORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 Research history 1.1.1 Research on conceptual metaphors 1.1.1.1 International research on conceptual metaphors Cognitive linguistics started to be researched in 1950s but did not become popular until 1908s with the historical work by Lakoff and Johnson titled Metaphor We Live by (1980) and their remarkable claim “metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action” This has expanded the scope of research on metaphors beyond those in linguistics to minds, opening the gate to discovering the process of human’s thinking and recognizing of the world Research on metaphors has since then spread to other fields of philosophy, logics, psychology and neurology Over the time, researchers have developed and completed views on metaphors in connection with thought (Schon, 1979); based on body experience (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980); in the establishment of human conceptual system and structure of language (Lakoff, Johnson and Kövecses, 1980) By late 1980s, in fundamental works of conceptual metaphor theories, Lakoff, Johnson and Langacker presented conceptual structures on linguistic explanation and application, including image schema, metaphorical structures and their foundations Later, metaphor theories have expanded and affirmed the links between conceptual metaphors and neuro theories (Joe Grady, 1997); imaginary mind space and neuro linguistics (Fauconnier G and Turner M., 2002) and the roles of metaphors as a tool of thoughts and cognition of humans about the external world (Evans V and Green M., 2006) Research on metaphors in the world recognize the names of G Lakoff, M Johnson, Z Kövecses, G Fauconnier, M Turner, C Fillmore, J.E Grady, M Green, R.W.Langacker, etc who, by creating core theories of conceptual metaphors, have laid firm foundations for later studies In addition to developing metaphor theories, later researchers have investigated the application of conceptual metaphors in various aspects including politics, economics, environment, education, emotions, space, time, sex, etc., creating novelties that traditional research of metaphors did not cover 1.1.1.2 Vietnamese research on conceptual metaphors The first cognitive research in Vietnam was conducted by Nguyễn Lai in 1990 although the author did not term “cognitive linguistics” Officially, cognitive linguistics was first covered in Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận - Từ lý thuyết đại cương đến thực tiễn tiếng Việt by Lý Toàn Thắng (2005) and Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận – Ghi chép suy nghĩ by Trần Văn Cơ (2007) These can be considered the two works which lay foundation for research on cognitive linguistics in Vietnam Later research has identified the nature of metaphors with different views from traditional belief, which consider metaphors as the transformation of meanings based on the accounts of features and characteristics of things (Nguyễn Đức Tồn, 2007) or metaphors are created by classification (Phan Thế Hưng, 2007) Metaphors are then researched from the different angles of space (Nguyễn Đức Dân, 2009; Nguyễn Văn Hiệp, 2012) or time (Nguyễn Hòa, 2007; Nguyễn Đức Dân, 2012) Researchers also study the application of metaphors in various aspects such as human emotions and sentiment, art works, human organs or conceptual metaphors used in discourses of economics, culture, plants, food, marriage, life, love, etc., helping to enrich the theoretical and practical foundations for conceptual metaphors 1.1.2 Research on conceptual metaphors in advertisements 1.1.2.1 International research on conceptual metaphors in advertisements There has been lots of research in the world on conceptual metaphors in ads, focusing on the main contents as follows: Firstly, regarding the effectiveness of metaphors in ads, research examines the effects of metaphors on different product groups such as consumption goods, food (Baek Y., 2008; Yu C., 2009; Ruiz J.H., 2006; Svaziene L., 2010) of different kinds of metaphors such as visual and verbal metaphors (Janos M., 2014; Zhang X and Gao X., 2009; Li D & Guo Q., 2016) and affirms the positive impacts of metaphors on communication power of ads by making them attractive, impressive and memorable Secondly, regarding metaphors used in ads, researchers have identified a great variety of metaphors based on different sources (Ágnes A., 2009; Yu C., 2009; Ruiz J.H., 2006; Svaziene L., 2010) Thirdly, regarding the frequencies of metaphors, researchers take different approach, but using the classifications of Lakoff and Johnson that the thesis also applies, Morris P.K and Waldman J.A (2011) concludes that ontological, structural and container metaphors are used more commonly in visual and textual ads, orientational metaphors are used less commonly in textual ads and not used in visual ads Fourthly, regarding the impacts of culture on metaphors, researchers hold opposite views Some believe that cultural differences have led to differences in the ways metaphors are founded (Morris P.K & Waldman J.A., 2011; Li J & Rodriguez L., 2015) while others claim that in essence, conceptual metaphors stem from people’s thoughts of things, so there are hardly differences in accordance with culture (Li D & Guo Q., 2006) 1.1.2.2 Vietnamese research on conceptual metaphors in advertisements Research on this subject remains quite limited in Vietnam About advertising language, there are studies by Mai Xuân Huy (2001) examining the features of advertising discourses from communication perspective; Phạm Thị Cẩm Vân (2003) researching linguistic styles of ads and Trần Thị Thu Hiền (2013) investigating linguistic styles, pragmatics, functions and vocabulary used in ads Regarding the use of metaphors in ads, a study by Nguyễn Thị Chi Mai (2010) compares conceptual, mixed and new metaphors in English advertising slogans from pragmatic aspect and concludes that metaphors are the most common tools and among kinds, ontological is the most popular, structural and orientational metaphors have the same frequencies As to conceptual metaphors in ads, there are two studies by Huỳnh Trung Ngữ (2010) and Phạm Thị Hằng (2012) Ngữ compares conceptual metaphors in English and Vietnamese advertising slogans He identifies 17 sources and examines the frequencies of kinds of metaphors: ontological metaphors are used most commonly in English ads while structural metaphors are most popular in Vietnamese Meanwhile, Hằng studies conceptual metaphors in advertising discourses and concludes that metaphors are a common tool in slogans; among kinds, ontological are the most common, followed by structural and orientational metaphors It can be said that research on conceptual metaphors in Vietnamese has created quite diverse theoretical and practical grounds, but the number of studies is limited Particularly, there has not been a comprehensive contrast of conceptual metaphors in ads between the two languages This poses ‘research gaps’ that the thesis is expected to fill in 1.2 Theoretical grounds 1.2.1 Theoretical grounds on conceptual metaphors 1.2.1.1 Different views of metaphors Metaphors under traditional view: Metaphors are the transformation of meanings based on the similarities between subjects Metaphors are distinctive characteristics of linguistics, the property of words Metaphors under cognitive view: Metaphors are the process of human thought and reasoning Metaphors are closely linked with spiritual and cultural characteristics of humans 1.2.1.2 Definition, grounds and features of cognitive metaphors Definition: “Conceptual metaphor is understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain via systematic mappings between the two domains to create a cognitive model to understand the target domain more effectively” (Lakoff Johnson, 1980) Grounds for metaphors: Cognitive linguistics believes that in addition to objective pre-existing similarities, metaphors are founded on the basis of (1) correlations in experience: the occurrence of one event is correlated with the occurrence of another and (2) perceived structural similarities: non-objective similarity as perceived by speakers of the two subjects Features: Conceptual metaphor has distinctive features: (1) universitydirectional; (2) hiding and highlighting; (3) systematic; (4) hierarchical; (5) universal; (6) cultural variations and (7) cultural coherence 1.2.1.3 Related concepts to metaphors Concept: is a unit of human’s consciousness, a spiritual symbol reflecting the way human interacts with the surrounding environment and perceives objective world in their subjective manners (Trần Văn Cơ, 2007) Conceptualization: is the process of establishing concepts That is the process of transforming consciousness from emotional to physical, from observation to abstraction It structures aspects in human’s experience and transfer them to linguistic aspects (Nguyễn Thiện Giáp, 2014) Category: is the generalization of experience to classify subjects in the surrounding world based on similarities from what humans perceive and experience about these subjects rather than the subjects themselves (Evans and Greens, 2006) Categorization: is the process of classifying subjects, the advanced activity of humans based on their own experience to understand and interact with the surrounding world (Evans and Greens, 2006) Prototype: is the central member of a category which is more typical than other members (Evans and Greens, 2006) Domain: is the collection of concepts related to a spiritual content such as conceptual entities, characteristics and relations (Langacker, 1987) Source and target domain: Source domain (SD) is a domain from which metaphorical expressions can be drawn to understand another domain; target domain (TD) is a domain which can be understood via the use of SD (Kövecses, 2002) SD is usually specific, apparent and conceptualized in people’s mind while TD is often abstract, diffuse and lack clear delineation, therefore mapping it to SD makes it easier to understand TD Mapping: is the system of correspondences between the constituent elements to the source and the target, therefore understanding conceptual metaphors is enabled by analyzing the mappings between SD and TD (Kövecses, 2002) Embodiment: is the process of humans using body parts and experiences to establish their conceptual system and thought (Lakoff and Johnson, 1987) Image schema: is the simple structures that continuously occur in daily body experience, repeated on the ground of natural essence of the body and their functions in the environment (Lakoff, 1987) 1.2.1.4 Classifications of conceptual metaphors The thesis follows the classifications proposed by Lakoff and Johnson: Structural metaphor: is the metaphor where the meaning of a word/expression (TD) is understood via the structure of another word/expression (SD) SD provides a relatively rich knowledge structure for TD via the mappings between elements of the two domains Ontological metaphor: Ontological metaphors perceive intangible, abstract experiences as tangible, material entities to facilitate our understanding of these abstract concepts Orientational metaphor: Orientational metaphors not structure one concept via another but organize the whole system of concepts in correlation with each other Orientational metaphors are established on the basis of human’s physical and cultural experiences Notably, even Lakoff and Johnson also affirm that these classifications are artificial All metaphors are structural (as shown in the mapping of one structure onto another); all metaphors are ontological (as shown in the way they create source-target entities) Therefore, in this thesis, the classifications of identified metaphors into three kinds only aim to make thesis organization clearer rather than to compare three kinds statistically 1.2.1.5 Metaphors Identification Procedures (MIP) The thesis employs MIP proposed by Pragglejaz with the following steps: 1) read the ads to establish the general meanings; 2) determine lexical units likely to be metaphors and related words; 3) determine expressions containing metaphorical words, mapping onto domains to identify SD and TD, establish whether the expressions are metaphorical expressions; 4) mark the lexical unit as metaphorical 1.2.2 Theoretical grounds on contrastive linguistics 1.2.2.1 Definitions of contrastive linguistics Contrastive linguistics is a branch of linguistics aimed to “compare two or more languages to establish the similarities and differences, regardless of their origins and types” (Bùi Mạnh Hùng, 2008) Contrastive linguistics plays an important role in researching national and cultural characteristics and explains matters in cognitive linguistics 1.2.2.2 Aspects and degrees of contrast Basically, there are aspects of contrast: (1) contrast phonetics; (2) contrast vocabulary; (3) contrast grammar; (4) contrast pragmatics and two degrees of contrast: (1) micro and (2) macro (Bùi Mạnh Hùng, 2008) This thesis chooses to contrast in vocabulary (in metaphorical entailments) at macro degree (contrast conceptual metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads based on the two cultural – national foundations) 1.2.2.3 Approaches and steps of contrast Generally, there are two approaches to a linguistic contrast study: (1) two-way contrast and (2) one-way contrast (Bùi Mạnh Hùng, 2008) This thesis applies two-way contrast The subject of contrast is conceptual metaphors in ads Contrasted languages are Vietnamese and English Contrast criteria include frequencies, mappings and cultural and national characteristics which affect these metaphors Steps of contrast include describing conceptual metaphors in ads in each language, then contrast to identify the similarities and differences 1.2.3 Theoretical grounds of Vietnam and English culture Culture is a broad concept with many aspects including traditions, custom, lifestyle, behavior, etc It is also a moving concept as cultural values keep changing over time, especially in the context of globalization This thesis uses 4-cultural dimension model by Hofstede and the views of other scholars (Trần Ngọc Thêm, Lê Văn Toan, Trần Quốc Vượng and O’Driscoll) as the foundation to explain the differences between the two cultures 1.2.4 Theoretical grounds of Advertising 1.2.4.1 Definition of advertising According to Kotler P and Amstrong G (2012): “Advertising is the nonpersonal presentation and promotion of products via mass media with clearlyidentified advertising costs” 1.2.4.2 Features of advertising from linguistic perspectives Language of advertising is chosen to draw the attention of audience, encouraging them to remember the delivered messages (Cook, 2006) Language of advertising has the following features: In terms of vocabulary, words used in ads are short, lively, flexible, informal; about sentence types, ads use all types of sentences, to create impressions, they are usually short, have rhythms and make use of idioms; about figurative language, ads often use comparison, metaphors, repeated words, hyperbole, contrast, word play 11 stems from the Vietnam’s collectivism where close interactions among people in the community create Vietnamese people the habits of detailed observations (Trần Ngọc Thêm) while individualism culture of Britain highly appreciate independence, so each member only cares about his own business Secondly, there is a difference in the typical image of people With cổ cong ba ngấn (long slim neck) [V85], the Vietnamese advert illustrates the fragile beauty of oriental women while sexy in [A87] reflects the open views of Westerners Or the images of oai phong, mạnh mẽ (strong and courageous gentlemen) in Vietnamese ads show the attitudes of a society which highly appreciate men while similar entailments are not found in English Thirdly, the use of body organs in metaphors is different To express emotions, Vietnamese people use lòng (intestine) while British use tim (heart) as in the following ads “Trao lòng, gửi vị ngon” [V14] - “Track life right down to your heartbeat” [A48] Likewise, to talk about the central position, Vietnamese people use lòng (intestine) while British use tim (heart) as in “Biệt thự xanh lòng thành phố” [V97] - “Luxury in the heart of the city” [A110] Perhaps the objective and logical ways of thinking as affected by masculism culture of British people have created the habits of emphasizing accuracy and specificity (heart is a specific organ) while feminism causes Vietnamese people to look for neutral expressions (for Vietnamese, lòng refers to different body organs such as heart, liver, lungs, etc.) PRODUCTS ARE HUMAN has low-level metaphors as follows: 2.3.1.1 Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE FRIENDS PRODUCTS ARE Table 2.4: Mappings of PRODUCTS ARE FRIENDS is used in 94 ads  Target: Source: (23.50%) to describe the close FRIENDS PRODUCTS ties between products and  Friends’ Products’ customers The quantity of this activities activities metaphor is presented in Table  Friends’ Relations between 2.3 of the thesis and mappings relations products & friends in Table 2.4  Friends’ Emotions created emotions by products FRIENDS Each mapping of the metaphor PRODUCTS ARE FRIENDS is described in terms of frequencies and cognitive model in the thesis report A comparison of frequencies between the two languages shows the similarities in the quantity of ads metaphorical expressions The number of metaphorical entailments is quite similar although a little bit higher in Vietnamese In terms of mappings, there are similarities in each group of metaphors The uniformity in the concepts of activities, relations and emotions between friends can be attributed to these similarities 12 About cultural and national features, there are no clear differences between the two languages The similarities in entailments demonstrate that regardless of geographical, linguistic and cultural differences, friendship remains a universal concept From any angle, emotions, sharing, supports and assistance between friends are typical characteristics of friendship 2.3.1.2 Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE GLADIATORS This metaphor is Table 2.6: Mappings of PRODUCTS ARE quite popular with 77 ads GLADIATORS (19.25%) and 95  Target: PRODUCTS Source: expressions as it creates a GLADIATORS strong image for products  Products’ activities Fighting and urges customers to  Products’ functions Strengths link it with product  Products Weapon functions Table 2.5 of the  Products’ activities Tactics thesis presents its quantity  Products’ superiority Victory while Table 2.6 shows its  Market Battle mappings Each mapping of the metaphor PRODUCTS ARE FRIENDS is described in the thesis report A comparison between the two languages shows the higher frequencies in Vietnamese, partly resulting from the long-lasting wars in our history A comparison of mappings illustrates the similarities in thought but different in quantity: there are similarities in mappings (FIGHTING, STRENGTHS, WEAPONS and VICTORY) while TACTICS only appears in Vietnamese ads and BATTLE is merely found in English ads This shows that the ways Vietnamese and British people choose to highlight the aspects of a metaphor are quite different About cultural characteristics, some entailments show differences: in metaphor VICTORY, Vietnamese people tend to use indirect words (tiêu diệt, hạ gục, khử defeat) while British people employ more direct words (victor / win / victory) Similarly, in metaphor STRENTH, English entailments are more direct and stronger (unbeatable / can’t be beat) while Vietnamese ones are more indirect (uy lực, uy phong – force) These differences partly stem from masculism/feminism of the two cultures (Hosftede) 2.3.1.3 Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE SPORTMEN PRODUCTS ARE Table 2.8: Mappings of PRODUCTS ARE SPORTMEN is found in 53 ads SPORTMEN (13.25%) with 66 metaphorical  Target: Source: expressions The motivation for this SPORTMEN PRODUCT source domain lies in the importance  Products’ Practicing and familiarity of this concept in our activities modern life Table 2.7 of the thesis  Competition Competition 13 presents the quantity while Table 2.8 illustrates mappings of this metaphor between products  Overtaking Victory competitors Detailed mappings of the metaphor PRODUCTS ARE FRIENDS are described in the thesis A comparison between the two languages shows a higher number in English, partly because of the habits of British people in playing sports while some researchers believe that Vietnamese people, especially the young, tend to be lazier in physical activities About mappings, there are absolute similarities between the two languages in both mappings and metaphorical entailments About cultural characteristics, there appear no remarkable differences in metaphorical thought between the two languages, perhaps because of the uniformity of sports – sportsmen are supposed to follow the same principles when practicing and competing in one sport Besides, sport is a quite new concept rather than part of traditional culture, so cultural characteristics are not obvious in the metaphors of this source domain 2.3.2 Metaphors PRODUCTS ARE VEHICLES SẢN PHẨM PRODUCTS ARE Table 2.10: Mappings of PRODUCTS ARE VEHICLES is used in 114 ads VEHICLES (28.5%) to drive customers’  Target: Source: thought to the movements of VEHICLE PRODUCTS products and innovation of  Benefits for Departure producers Table 2.9 of the thesis customers presents the quantity while Table Destination  Benefits for 2.10 describes mappings of this customers metaphor  Products’ activities Movement  Product environment Journey Detailed mappings of the metaphor PRODUCTS ARE VEHICLES are described in the thesis A comparison between the two languages shows the nearly absolute similarities in the number of ads, metaphorical expressions, entailments and frequencies of entailments About mappings, there are similarities in the set of mappings, each mapping used to correspond between SD and TD in Vietnamese is found in English ads This gain demonstrates the universal features of metaphors About cultural characteristics, entailments in both languages are similar in their meanings, perhaps because vehicles are technical products, the ways people think about this concept is highly similar; besides, as movements are the basic action of humans, the ways people in different cultures think about them are not considerably different 14 2.3.3 Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE GIFTS PRODUCTS ARE GIFTS Table 2.12: Mappings of PRODUCTS ARE appears in 74 ads (18.5%) to GIFTS connect customers’ perception Source: GIFTS  Target: with the values and emotions PRODUCTS that gifts bring to receivers Valuable objects  Products Table 2.11 of the thesis presents  Buying products Receiving gifts the quantity while Table 2.12  Emotions when Emotions when describes the mappings of this receiving gifts buying products metaphor Detailed mappings of this metaphor are described in the thesis A comparison between the two languages shows the quite similarities in the number of ads, metaphorical expressions although metaphor of VALUABLE OBJECTS has the higher number of ads and expressions in Vietnamese while metaphor of RECEIVING GIFTS has higher number in English About mappings, there are similarities in the thoughts and entailments in two metaphors RECEIVING GIFTS and EMOTIONS WHEN RECEIVING GIFTS but there are differences in the metaphor of VALUABLE OBJECTS: Vietnamese advertisers tend to use subjective entailments (tuyệt tác, kiệt tác (masterpiece) while British advertisers use objective and measurable entailments such as gold and treasure These differences can be attributed to cultural elements Firstly, that metaphor VALUABLE OBJECTS has far higher number in Vietnamese partly roots from the characteristics of Vietnamese society: in a developing country, material values play an important role and are considered a measurement of success; additionally, in a collectivism society, that a person receives appreciation from the community for his success is of great significance (Trần Ngọc Thêm), therefore describing products’ values is more persuasive Meanwhile, the metaphor RECEIVING GIFTS has higher number in English, partly because in British culture, gift giving is considered a social ritual (O’Driscoll) Secondly, cultural differences create the differences in the use of metaphorical entailments: Vietnamese people seem to have subjective thinking affected by emotion, thereby using more images than precise concepts in their speeches (Trần Ngọc Thêm) while British people tend to express their ideas more specifically and apparently (Smith J.) 2.3.4 Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE FOOD Eating is the basic activity of Table 2.14: Mappings of PRODUCTS humans Advertisers use this source to ARE FOOD urge customers to link product features  Target: Source: with eating, thus creating a close tie FOOD PRODUCTS between desire for food and desire for  Product features Flavor products This metaphor appears in  Using products Eating 15 39 ads: its quantity is presented in Ingredients  Product Table 2.13 of the thesis and mappings materials in Table 2.14 Detailed mappings of this metaphor are described in the thesis A comparison between the two languages shows a higher number of ads, metaphorical expressions and entailments in English than in Vietnamese Notably, among the lower-level metaphors, only are found in Vietnamese: Vietnamese ads not use metaphor INGREDIENTS About mappings, except for metaphor INGREDIENTS which does not appear in Vietnamese, the remaining ones show considerable similarities in the mappings of FLAVORS and EATING with similar entailments, although the number seems to be higher in English than in Vietnamese About cultural characteristics, we assume that the higher frequencies and diversities of this metaphor in English than in Vietnamese partly come from the traditional concepts of Vietnamese people that cooking is a household chore and is not discussed widely in formal circumstances, so Vietnamese ads only mention FLAVOR and EATING rather than the cooking process 2.3.5 Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE ENERGY ENERGY brings the feelings Table 2.16: Mappings of PRODUCTS of vitality, activeness, youth and ARE ENGERGY power, thus is often used in ads to  Source: Source: help customers perceive product ENERGY PRODUCTS benefits This metaphor appears in  Products Light 34 ads (8.5%) with quantity shown  Products Vitality in Table 2.15 of the thesis and  Products Fuel mappings in Table 2.16 Detailed mappings of this metaphor are described in the thesis A comparison between the two languages shows a far higher number of ads, expressions, entailments and their uses in English than in Vietnamese About mappings, there are similarities in the ways the concept is built, perhaps because LIGHT, VITALITY and FUEL are somewhat ‘technical’ sources, they have high level of accuracy, therefore the ways people in different cultures think about the concept are not really different About cultural characteristics, with diversity in the number and frequencies of entailments, ENERGY, especially FUEL, seems to be a more popular source to British people, perhaps because the industrial revolution and mining industry have longer history of development in Western countries, which affects the thought of people in these societies more profoundly 2.3.6 Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE MEDICINE HEALTH is a quite popular source Table 2.18: Mappings of in conceptual metaphors owing to its PRODUCTS ARE MEDICINE 16 importance in life PRODUCTS ARE MEDICINE stems from this source, it is used in 32 ads Its quantity is presented in Table 2.17 of the thesis and mappings in Table 2.18  Target: Source: MEDICIN PRODUCTS E Functions of  Functions of medicine products Detailed mappings of this metaphor are described in the thesis A comparison between the two languages shows the similarities in the number of ads, expressions and entailments, although there are low-level metaphors in English while there are only in Vietnamese (Vietnamese ads not activate metaphor DISEASE TREATMENT) About mappings, a comparison of metaphors DISEASE PREVENTION and HEALTH CARE shows similarities in the conceptualization, but entailments describing the functions of preventing and treating diseases are more specific in Vietnamese (for example, tăng sức đề kháng (increase anti-biotic system) and hỗ trợ miễn dịch (support your immune system) About mappings, metaphors DISEASE PREVENTION and HEALTH CARE show similarities in the conceptualization between the two languages, although Vietnamese entailments describing these functions are more specific (for example, tăng sức đề kháng (increase anti-bio system) and hỗ trợ miễn dịch (support immune system)) while English entailments only describe the general treatment functions of the products (treat) About cultural characteristics, that Vietnamese entailments seem more specific partly stems from the fact that Vietnamese people are more attentive to details as impacted by the feminism culture as stated by Trần Ngọc Thêm 2.3.7 Metaphor PRODUCTS ARE WONDERS PRODUCTS ARE WONDRES Table 2.20: Mappings of PRODUCTS appears in 24 ads (6%) with 33 ARE WONDERS expressions Advertisers use this  Target: Source: source to associate customers with WONDER PRODUC hidden values of the products, which S TS stimulates them to get to know about  Products Mystery products The quantity is presented in Table 2.19 of the thesis while  Using Exploring mappings in Table 2.20 mystery products Detailed mappings of this metaphor are described in the thesis A comparison between the two languages shows the similarities in criteria: number of ads, metaphorical expressions, entailments and frequencies, although a little higher in English About mappings, there exist nearly absolute similarities in mappings as well as the content of metaphorical expressions and entailments 17 About cultural characteristics, the cultural features and national thought not have visible impacts on the mappings of this metaphor Chapter summary Structural metaphors are used commonly in advertisements with sources (HUMANS, VEHICLES, GIFTS, FOOD, ENERGY, MEDICINE, WONDERS) with different hierarchy These sources are familiar concepts in humans’ mind, so they encourage customers to associate distinctive features of these sources with values that products bring to them A comparison of frequency between the two languages indicates a higher number of ads, metaphorical expressions and entailments in Vietnamese than in English Only a few metaphors have higher quantity in English, including GLADIATORS, SPORTMEN, FOOD and ENERGY About mappings, there are similarities when each source used to correspond to targets has equal mappings in high-level metaphors, which demonstrates the universality of metaphors as a tool of humans’ thought About cultural characteristics, there remain differences in the conceptualization and entailments between the two languages, which illustrates the variations of metaphors in accordance with culture and nationality of those creating the metaphors CHAPTER 3: A CONTRAST OF ONTOLOGICAL METAPHORS IN VIETNAMESE AND ENGLISH ADVERTISEMENTS 3.1 Overview of ontological metaphors in advertisements With the functions of creating ontological status for abstract concepts to enable elaborate structures for discourses, ontological metaphors are used extremely commonly in almost all ads, some ads even contain several metaphors Ontological metaphors (excluding personification) appear in 310 ads (77.5%) with 410 metaphorical expressions There are 30 sub-categories built up in a common thought: abstract, delineated or vague concepts are given an artificial linear to act as physical entities to facilitate deeper structures for the concepts Table 3.1 of the thesis presents ontological metaphors identified in the research sample 3.2 Contrasting ontological metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads In terms of frequencies, there is a slightly higher number of ontological metaphors in Vietnamese ads The differences in language are attributed to this inequality: while Vietnamese is an isolation language while English is an inflection one As a result, in some metaphors such as emotion, success, value, etc., when entailments must be nouns/verbs, the number of ontological metaphors in English is dramatically less than in Vietnamese In terms of mappings, there are similarities in the ontologicalization when abstract and vague concepts are given physical entities to enable deeper structures This illustrates that metaphors are the ways of expressing human thought rather than 18 a linguistic tool, so language differences not have obvious impacts on the conceptualization of people in different cultures About cultural characteristics, among 30 sub-categories of ontological metaphors, there are 28 in Vietnamese and 28 in English A quantitative contrast shows the similarities in the popularities of metaphors with highest frequencies including EMOTION, TIME, LIFE, DIFFICULTY and TECHNOLOGY These are familiar concepts in human life, so cultural and national impacts are not considerable in these categories However, cultural differences are shown clearly in the discrepancies between the two languages Specifically, metaphors POSITION, SUCCESS and VALUE have higher number in Vietnamese advertisements We assume that these discrepancies stem from the differences in the two societies Vietnam’s culture is characterized by collectivism where members of the community wish to show off themselves (Trần Ngọc Thêm), Vietnam’s high PDI index means people in higher positions are entitled to superior power to others; therefore, using the concepts of position, success and value are more persuasive, thereby their popularities in Vietnamese advertisements By contrast, British society highly appreciates individualism with low PDI, so these elements are of personal significance (Hofstede) However, sources of ENERGY, EXPERIENCE and MIND are used more frequently in English advertisements These sources are somewhat technical and logical, partly stemming from nomadic culture (which is later turned into industrial culture) of Western countries, creating the logical, objective and scientific way of thinking among Western people (Trần Ngọc Thêm) Chapter summary Ontological metaphors are the most common in advertisements In terms of frequencies, apart from a small difference in the quantity of advertisements and metaphorical expressions between the two languages, the popularities of most ontological concepts are virtually similar In terms of mappings, all ontological metaphors are built up under the same principle: abstract, invisible, non-physical concepts are given ontological status to enable deeper structures The similarities in the thought of the two nations once again demonstrate the universality of metaphors About cultural characteristics, the discrepancies in choosing concepts for ontological metaphors illustrate that the distinctive features of a collectivism society with high PDI of Vietnam and the individualism society of Britain have clear impacts on the way metaphors are created by the two peoples 19 CHAPTER 4: A CONTRAST OF ORIENTATIONAL METAPHORS IN VIETNAMESE AND ENGLISH ADVERTISEMENTS 4.1 Overview of orientational metaphors in advertisements Orientational metaphors are the least popular in the research sample Only 119 ads (29.75%) use this kind UP DOWN with 192 expressions (Table 4.1 of the thesis) spatial pairs are used, HIGH among which UP – DOWN and LOW HIGH – LOW are the most common, SHALLOW – DEEP is the least popular, CENTRE – PERIPHERY not appear in both IN OUT languages (Figure 4.1 of the thesis) FRONT orientational metaphors are - BACK identified with hierarchy described in Figure 4.2 The frequencies of HAPPY IS UP POWER IS UP GOOD IS UP NOT GOOD IS UP HEALTH IS UP LIFE IS UP SICKNESS IS DOWN CONSCIOUS IS UP ORIENTATIONAL METAPHORS UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN MORE IS UP SMALLER IS BETTER LESS IS UP DEVELOP IS OUT FUTURE IS IN FRONT PAST IS BACK SHALLOW - DEEP CENTRE PERIPHERY FORCE MOVES DEEP INSIDE Figure 4.2: Hierarchy of None orientational metaphors ả ế ệ ế these metaphors are presented in Figure 4.3 of the thesis Among various metaphors, POWER and CONSCIOUS are the most popular while MORE has modest frequency in the sample 4.2 Contrasting orientational metaphors in Vietnamese and English ads 4.2.1 Metaphors POWER IS UP, NON-POWER IS DOWN Used in 29 ads (7.25%) and 35 metaphorical expressions, POWER IS UP is the most popular metaphor, perhaps because in the modern society, power and status are the goals of many people Table 4.2 of the thesis presents the quantity of this metaphor Only POWER is activated, NON-POWER does not appear in the ads The mappings of this metaphor are described in the full report of the thesis A comparison shows a far higher number of ads in Vietnamese About mappings, the two languages are similar when both POWER and STRENGTH are up, demonstrating the uniformity of conceptual metaphors About cultural characteristics, the discrepancies in quantity reflect that cultural and social differences can affect people’s thought Vietnamese people have high demand to show their status as in an emerging market, power is measured mainly via material gains and social status and a person’s success brings pride for his entire family By contrast, British capitalism society has experienced a long development period, material possessions are no longer crucial values to people; in addition, an individualism society highly appreciating the independence of people means that it is not the top priority of people to show off their status in the community 20 4.2.2 Metaphors CONSCIOUS IS UP, UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN This pair of metaphors appear in 26 ads (6.5%) with 36 metaphorical expressions (Table 4.3 – full report), among which CONSCIOUS makes up for the majority, only English ads activate metaphor UNCONSCIOUS via entailment “fall in love” in [168] The mappings of these metaphors are described in the full report of the thesis A comparison of their frequencies shows that the number of Vietnamese ads conceptualizing CONSCIOUS doubles that in English but UNCONSCIOUS only appear in English ads However, as the number is only 2, we not conclude that this discrepancy has statistical significance About mappings, there are similarities in the thought of two peoples when both languages use up direction to describe conscious actions and state while down direction is used to describe unconscious state About cultural characteristics, are these metaphors are established on the biophysical basis of humans, they are not affected by cultural and national thought The different frequencies may be attributed to communication habits 4.2.3 Metaphors GOOD IS UP, BAD IS DOWN These metaphors are used in 22 ads (5.5%) with 33 metaphorical expressions Table 4.4 of the thesis presents their quantity, which shows that all ads activate GOOD IS UP Noticeably, there is an ad which goes against the uniform thought when using up direction for the concept NOT GOOD in the Vietnamese ad “Có thể bạn khơng cao người khác phải ngước nhìn” (You may not be tall but others have to look up) [V12] The mappings of these metaphors are described in the full report of the thesis A comparison of their frequencies between the two languages shows a far higher number of Vietnamese ads than English ones About spatial concepts, both languages conceptualize GOOD as up The above metaphor NOT GOOD IS UP appears in only one ad but is particularly used to emphasize the typical features of a specific product rather than represent the common thought of Vietnamese people About cultural characteristics, Vietnamese entailments seem more diverse and picturesque (đỉnh cao, nâng tầm) rather than factual as in English (nâng cao, phát triển) A culture of high collectivism may contribute to Vietnamese expressions towards images rather than concepts (Lê Văn Toan) 4.2.4 Metaphors HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN These metaphors appear in 13 ads (3.25%) with 24 expressions, in which advertisers highlight the concept HAPPY but hide SAD Table 4.5 of the thesis shows the quantity of these metaphors The mappings of these metaphors are described in the full report A comparison of their frequencies shows a higher number of ads in Vietnamese 21 About mappings, there are similarities between the two languages when HAPPY is conceptualized in the up direction About cultural characteristics, Vietnamese entailments seem more picturesque with thăng hoa, nâng cánh while English ones tend more factual with elevate and uplift These differences stem partly from languages as Vietnamese are more expressional, words are diverse and nuanced; partly from culture as in communication, Vietnamese people tend to beat around the bush while the British usually go straight to the points (Trần Ngọc Thêm) 4.2.5 Metaphors HEALH AND LIFE ARE UP, SICKNESS AND DEATH ARE DOWN These metaphors are found in 12 ads (3.0%) with 14 expressions (Table 4.6 – thesis) Most ads activate the concepts HEALTH and LIFE, SICKNESS appears in a few ads while DEATH is not used The mappings of these metaphors are described in the full report A comparison of their frequencies shows a higher number in Vietnamese About mappings, there are similarities in conceptualization when HEALTH and LIFE are up while SICKNESS is down in both languages As these concepts are established on the physiologic structures of human body, the ways people in different cultures conceptualize them are not different About cultural characteristics, apart from similar entailments, Vietnamese ads show more diversity, colors and image in their words These discrepancies partly come from cultural differences: feminine culture oriented towards emotional communication contributes to highly emotional expressions in Vietnamese (Trần Ngọc Thêm) 4.2.6 Metaphors MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN Only ads activate metaphor MORE IS UP while none shows LESS IS DOWN (Table 4.7 – full report) Notably, a derivative expression activating metaphor SMALLER IS BETTER is identified with “Think small” in [A66] The mappings of these metaphors are presented in the thesis A comparison of their frequencies shows similarities between the two languages About mappings, the identified entailments are totally similar, showing that MORE IS UP is the same in the two cultures About cultural characteristics, we find no differences in thought that stem from socio-cultural differences between the two countries 4.2.7 Metaphors FUTURE IS IN FRONT, PAST IS IN THE BACK These metaphors account for a modest proportion with 11 ads (2.75%) and 19 expressions Table 4.8 of the thesis shows the quantity of these ads Their mappings are presented in the thesis A comparison shows similarities in both frequency and mappings of time concepts As stated by Lakoff and Johnson, most cultures share the concepts that future is in front, past is in the back Metaphors found in the research sample demonstrate the similarities between 22 Vietnamese and British cultures in this aspect despite the differences in national and social conditions 4.2.8 Metaphor DEVELOPMENT IS OUTWARD This metaphor uses horizontal direction It is found in 14 ads (3.5%) The outward direction is used to talk about a bigger, brighter and more positive space Table 4.9 of the thesis presents the quantity of this metaphor A comparison of frequency shows small differences in the quantity of ads and expressions but big discrepancies in the number of entailments About mappings, the conceptualizations of development are similar between two languages Metaphorical entailments are also similar though Vietnamese ones seem more diverse With similar frequency and mappings, we assume that there are no differences in cultural and national thoughts in this aspect 4.2.9 Metaphor FORCE IS DEEP INSIDE This metaphor is found in ads, or 1.25%, with expressions Table 4.10 of the thesis shows the quantity of its ads and expressions Besides the differences in frequency, the mappings are definitely similar between the two languages, illustrating the universality of conceptual metaphors Cultural characteristics are not shown clearly in this metaphor Chapter summary Orientational metaphors are the least common in ads Most spatial directions appear in the research sample, except for CENTRE – PERIPHERY Most ads highlight positive and hide negative aspects to maximize the impacts of ads on customers A comparison of frequency shows a slightly higher number of ads, expressions, entailments and their uses in Vietnamese than in English About mappings, there are high similarities in conceptualization: positive values (happiness, power, more, good, health, life, consciousness) are up while negative values (sickness, less) are down under two spatial directions of UP – DOWN and HIGH – LOW The remaining spatial directions (FRONT – BACK, IN – OUT and DEEP – SHALLOW) also show similarities between the two languages, illustrating the universality of conceptual metaphors About cultural characteristics, there still exist some differences in conceptualization of metaphors, as shown in some cultural conflicts that happen in one culture but not exist in the other, illustrating the variations of metaphors under the impacts of national thought 23 CONCLUSION With the aims of comparing metaphors in ads and conceptualizations between the two languages, the thesis has gained some outcomes Summary of the main findings of the thesis The thesis has reviewed domestic and foreign studies on metaphors in ads to identify research gaps; generalized fundamental knowledge of metaphors and selected the concepts, features, mappings and classifications introduced by Lakoff & Johnson and Kövecses as grounds for research tasks With structural metaphors, the thesis has found high-level metaphors established on sources and various layers of low-level advertisements The thesis has compared metaphors and discovered that at high level, Vietnamese and British people share the same ways of seeing the world, but at low-level metaphors, there remain some discrepancies that are attributed to cultural, historical and social differences between the two countries With ontological metaphors, the thesis has identified 30 kinds with different frequencies Some have dramatically high number and similar popularity in both languages, illustrating metaphor universality Others show remarkable discrepancies which have been explained by cultural, social and linguistic differences With orientational metaphors, the thesis has established spatial pairs used to create groups of advertisements A comparison shows that basically, Vietnamese and British people have the same thought when positive values are up while negative ones are down Only – cultural conflicts have been found due to intentional choices of ads designers to impress target customers The detailed findings of kinds of metaphors are modelized to visualize the hierarchy and systematics of metaphors in advertisements Some conclusions remarks Conceptual metaphors are very popular in ads By comparison, the number of ads and expressions is slightly higher in Vietnamese Among three kinds, ontological metaphors are the most common, followed by structural and orientational These findings support the findings of previous studies There are great similarities in the metaphor thoughts between the two languages At high level, mappings, spatial directions and ontologicalization are almost identical, illustrating the universality of metaphors as a tool to reflect human thought Cultural and national values are still clearly reflected by the differences in entailments, highlighted/hidden aspects or popularity of some concepts, illustrating the variations of metaphors under the impacts of the culture where they are formed The use of metaphors makes ads more impressive and differentiated thanks to the novelty in language With advantages in driving and orienting thought, metaphors 24 are an effective tool to fulfill promotion goals of advertisements This remark supports the views of previous studies about roles of metaphors in ads Research implications Metaphor variations suggest that meanings should be understood within cultural contexts as different cultures may create different metaphors in particular and discourse expressions in general This is of significance to language researchers, teachers and translators Metaphor popularities in ads illustrate the importance of metaphors in these discourses This is what advertisers should care of when designing ads Although metaphors are established naturally in human thought, the awareness of its conceptualization mode and effects help advertisers to maximize linguistic effects to raise persuasiveness of advertisements Research limits and further research orientations Firstly, this thesis does not investigate image metaphors while they are popular in ads Secondly, this thesis does not test if the differences in metaphors are due to kinds of products or ads Thirdly, this thesis does not measure linguistic impacts of metaphors on ads Therefore, the thesis opens these topics for further research, including image metaphors, conceptual metaphors in different products and ads and impacts of metaphors on ads 25 PUBLISHED RESEARCH WORKS OF THE AUTHOR RELATED TO THE THESIS TOPIC Nguyễn Thị Lan Phương (2018), An Investigation of Mappings of Metaphors PRODUCTS ARE HUMAN in advertising discourses, Lexicography and Encyclopedia Journal vol (52) March 2018, p 91 – 97 Nguyễn Thị Lan Phương (2018), A Study on Conceptual Metaphors in Advertising Discourses and Suggestions to Design Advertising Slogans from Linguistic Perspectives, Scientific Project at university level, Thuongmai University Nguyễn Thị Lan Phương (2019), Contrasting Some Orientational Metaphors in Vietnamese and English Advertisements, Lexicography and Encyclopedia Journal vol (59), May 2019, p 91 – 97 Nguyễn Thị Lan Phương (2019), Contrasting Structural Metaphors in Vietnamese and English Advertisements, Journal of Science – Open University vol 58, August 2019, p 43 – 51 ... cognitive linguistics was first covered in Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận - Từ lý thuyết đại cương đến thực tiễn tiếng Việt by Lý Toàn Thắng (2005) and Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận – Ghi chép suy nghĩ by Trần... the open views of Westerners Or the images of oai phong, mạnh mẽ (strong and courageous gentlemen) in Vietnamese ads show the attitudes of a society which highly appreciate men while similar entailments... good products but also have to communicate the benefits of products to customers (Kotler P and Amstrong G., 2012) How to create impressive advertisements (ads) is an important question that all