The political economy of iran

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The political economy of iran

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Farhad Gohardani and Zahra Tizro POLITICAL ECONOMY OF ISL AM THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF IRAN Development, Revolution and Political Violence Political Economy of Islam Series Editors Hossein Askari George Washington University Washington, DC, USA Dariush Zahedi University of California Berkeley, CA, USA All Middle Eastern countries, with the exception of Israel and Lebanon, profess Islam as their state religion Islam, whether simply in words or in fact, is woven into the fabric of these societies, affecting everything from the political system, to the social, financial and economic system Islam is a rules-based system, with the collection of rules constituting its institutions in the quest to establish societies that are just Allah commands mankind to behave in a fair and just manner to protect the rights of others, to be fair and just with people, to be just in business dealings, to honor agreements and contracts, to help and be fair with the needy and orphans, and to be just even in dealing with enemies Allah Commands humans to establish just societies, rulers to be just and people to stand up for the oppressed against their oppressors It is for these reasons that it said that justice is at the heart of Islam In the same vein, the state (policies) must step in to restore justice whenever and wherever individuals fail to comply with divine rules; government intervention must enhance justice This series brings together scholarship from around the world focusing on global implications of the intersections between Islam, government, and the economy in Islamic countries More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14544 Farhad Gohardani • Zahra Tizro The Political Economy of Iran Development, Revolution and Political Violence Farhad Gohardani Independent Economist York, UK Zahra Tizro University of East London (UEL) London, UK Political Economy of Islam ISBN 978-3-030-10637-9    ISBN 978-3-030-10638-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10638-6 Library of Congress Control Number: 2019930044 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 This work is subject to copyright All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations Cover image © JAUBERT French Collection / Alamy Stock Photo Cover design by Laura de Grasse This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland To our beloved Iran and the Iranian people all over the world Preface This study was triggered by a set of questions on the roots of the Iranian troubled history and its experiences of socio-economic underdevelopment in the last 100  years During the last century, Iran has experienced one war, two revolutions, and multiple forms of socio-political movements, many episodes of international interventions and sanctions, and numerous instances of internal violent conflicts Except for small episodes of upsurge in positive feelings in the revolutionary climates, Iranians seem to be deeply resentful and unhappy about almost every aspect of their own social order from their polity to their culture and economy The economic measures like per capita income or the rate of inflation or unemployment not tell a positive story about the Iranian economy As Amuzegar (2014: 81) attests, Iran’s economic woes include: high unemployment, virulent inflation, low factor productivity, slow growth, low levels of domestic savings and foreign direct investment, and relatively high but unprofitable public outlays Masoud Nili (2017), one of the prominent economists inside Iran and the special aid to the President Rouhani, enumerated six hyper challenges facing Iranian economy in the realms of water shortages, environmental degradation, budget deficit, pension crisis, chronic unemployment, and banking crisis Some think tanks inside Iran have extended the number of serious socio-economic and political challenges facing the Iranian society up to 100 ones These challenges have mired Iran in multiple forms of economic, cultural, social, and political crises manifesting themselves in the daily vii viii  PREFACE experiences of crises in the gender relations (on the issue of veiling, for example), in the widespread prevalence of drug abuse, in the shocking rates of driving accidents, in the brain drain, in the capital flights, in the corruption, in the economic inequality, in the water shortages, in the ethnic tensions, in the foreign policy upheaval, in the excess volatility in the foreign currency market, in the occasional violent incidents of terrorism, in the political conflicts and riots, and in the daily calls for change of government or regime change, among others Iran’s economy is heavily addicted to the oil export, and apart from the Iranian film industry’s recent success in the world market, there seems to be little or no success in establishing a niche for the Iranian economic or cultural industries in the global marketplace As a result, Iran is widely known at best by its films, its carpets, and its pistachios and at worst by exporting its revolution and by being a troubled and troubling country, captured in the (in)famous notion of ‘axis of evil’ The Iranian culture has zigzagged between various forms of cultural arrangements, for instance, from immersion into the Western cultural products to the Islamic ones or from traditional dresses to Western clothing and the Islamic veiling Furthermore, in the last century the Iranians experienced multiple forms of wildly diverse forms of political and economic organization of life, work, and language Iran, as a result, has not been classified as a developed, free, just, happy, or democratic country despite more than 100 years of struggle to achieve development, freedom, justice, happiness, and democracy The general levels of spiritual capital, natural capital, social capital, human capital, financial capital, and physical capital seem to be severely unsatisfactory to the extent that the question of “why are we backward?” is still a live and pressing issue in the public discourses in the Iranian society Iranian economy and society seem to be extremely volatile and vulnerable to the environmental, economic, cultural, or political degradation or collapse Iran has failed to become the ‘island of stability’ it has projected or sought to be Generally, Iran seems to have problems in modernizing its industries, its economy, and its socio-political and cultural institutions and its mindset Recently Iran experienced one of its serial rounds of coming into conflict with the international order on the development of nuclear capabilities, leading to the emergence of a dysfunctional nuclear deal after suffering from years of debilitating forms of sanctions supported by all members of the Security Council The expectation and the eventual act of US pulling out of the Iran nuclear deal in May 2018 plunged the Iranian economy into a drastic downward trajectory to the extent that by August 2018 “the rial had devalued by 172 percent over the past 12 months, rising above  PREFACE  ix 100,000 rials per dollar” (The World Bank 2018), driving the Iranian economy into a ‘death spiral’ (Hanke 2018) This is the latest episode in a long series of devastating confrontations between Iran and the international order in the Iran hostage crisis, in the Iran-Iraq war, in the Rushdie affair, in the Mosaddegh era of Oil Nationalization Movement, in the forced abdication of Reza Shah Pahlavi, in the Great Game in the era of Constitutional Revolution, and in the Anglo-Iranian and Russo-Iranian wars in the Qajar period In addition, in recent years the deeper forces of the Iranian turbulent history manifested themselves in three prominent movements, namely, the Reformist Movement of 1997–2005, the Green Movement of 2009, and the bread riots of 2018, alongside many episodes of small and large socio-economic and political protests, disturbances, and uprisings Furthermore, Iran in coalition with Russia and the Lebanese Hezbollah came into new waves of conflict with the ISIS and with the regional powers like Israel and Saudi Arabia alongside the West (America and Europe) due to its missile programme and its involvement in the regional conflicts especially in Syria but also in Iraq, Lebanon, Yemen, and Bahrein In the last 200 years, all these problems and troubles have driven the Iranian economy and society periodically and consistently into four types of crises: crisis of economic boom and bust, crisis in sustainable economic growth, crisis in sustainable development, and crisis of legitimacy and political stability This work embarks on delving deeply into the reasons behind such a volatile, troubling, and troubled modern history with its associated set of crises To find a set of satisfactory and comprehensive answers to the relevant questions away from the prevailing soundbites, this research has gone through a thorough review of the literature on the Iranian society and economy in the last 100 years This journey led it to delve into the deep history of Iran from its inception and evolution to the last 200 years and how it came into interactions with a wider history and culture of the Middle East and the wider world (Foltz 2016) Furthermore, this process culminated in deep theoretical investigations into the foundations of social orders and their historical evolution and involution, in what Azimi (2017: 1354) refers to as being “attentive to problems of how societies fragment or cohere” The explorations of the literature on the social order and social change alongside the literature on socio-economic development pushed the research further into the interdisciplinary literature at the intersection of politics, economics, philosophy, and psychoanalysis One of the main lines of arguments emerged organically from this deep and wide explorations into history and theory was the following x  PREFACE In pondering on the puzzle of poverty and wealth of nations, Williamson (2000) maintains that economic development should be analysed at four levels of prices, governance, institutions, and mind When we delve deeper into what shapes minds and institutions (and mind as a social institution, Arkoun 2006) and how the four levels interact, we encounter the Heideggerian literature on being-in-the-world (dasein), which through Dreyfus’ works (1972, 1991, 2001, 2014) and in a highly productive dialogue with Searle’s social ontology (2010) and experts in artificial intelligence was connected to exploring the nature of human everydayness and embeddedness in particular spatiotemporal backgrounds and what computers (machines) and humans can and cannot This in turn has involved the Kantian transcendental explorations into the condition of possibility of our ways of being, becoming, knowing, and experiencing the world and ourselves This was further linked to the Heidegger-inspired literature in neuroscience called extended mind (Clark 1997; Clark and Chalmers 1998) and to the literature on social neuroscience (Choudhury and Slaby 2012; Alos-Ferrer 2018) Dreyfus (2017: 155) also connects Foucault to Heidegger Furthermore, Foucault’s equivalent to the Heideggerian notion of dasein and being-in-the-world is the concept of “regime of truth” (Foucault 1984) Foucault applied his notion of ‘regime of truth’ to Iran and famously in the analysis of the 1979 revolution said the Iranians “don’t have the same regime of truth as ours” (Afary and Anderson 2005: 125) Foucault (1980: 93–94; 1981: 8) also calls the Iranians involved in 1979 revolution as “confused voices” and connects ‘the notion of production of truth to the production of wealth’ In 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(2006) The Elephant in the Room: Silence and Denial in Everyday Life New York: OUP Zia-Ebrahimi, R (2016) The Emergence of Iranian Nationalism: Race and the Politics of Dislocation New York: Columbia University Press Zibakalam, S (2008) An Introduction to the Islamic Revolution (in Persian) Tehran: Rozaneh Publications Zirinsky, M. P (1994) The Rise of Reza Khan In J. Foran (Ed.), A Century of Revolution Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press Zizek, S (1989/2008) The Sublime Object of Ideology London: Verso Zizek, S (1997/2007) Against the Politics of Jouissance http://www.lacan com/zizliberal.htm Zizek, S (2001) On Belief London: Routledge Zizek, S (2006) The Parallax View London: The MIT Press Zizek, S (2011) Year of Distraction Retrieved May 18, 2013, from http://www youtube.com/watch?v=ChWXYNxUFdc&list=PL72E4D1A96C77C76E Zizek, S (2012) Less than Nothing: Hegel and the Shadow of Dialectical Materialism London: Verso Index1 A Ahmadinejad, Mahmood, 154, 235, 251, 269, 270, 275 Americanization, 140 Amir Kabir, 104n7, 270, 283 Amo-oghli, 241 Aristotle, 89, 133 Ashura, 249 B Banisadr, A., 87, 132, 134, 170, 171, 212, 218, 234, 235, 237, 238, 248, 250, 251, 262 Bazargan, M., 86, 154, 167, 169, 209–211, 235, 243, 248, 277 Behbehani, Ayatollah Sayyed Mohammad, 160 Behbehani, Mohammad Baqir Vahid, 133 Behbehani, Sayyed Abdollah, 159, 160 Beheshti, Ayatollah Sayyed Hossein, 212, 238 Blind Owl, 93 Boroujerdi, Grand Ayatollah, 162, 165 Bricolage, 146, 218, 235, 238 Butterfly effects, 46, 81, 85, 147, 163, 164, 212, 218, 266 C Confused voices, x, 46, 82, 94, 233 Context of culture, 4n1, 9, 38, 61–63, 81, 90, 105, 235, 261, 264, 266 Context of situation, 4n1, 9, 10, 38, 39, 81, 90, 137, 138, 207, 235, 237, 260, 264 Contrast effect, 138, 139 Cultural psychoanalysis, 7, 14, 14n13, 32, 33, 49–50, 81, 88, 261 Cultural tribe, 87, 148, 151, 153, 168, 172, 173, 208, 230, 238, 241, 242, 270n1, 277  Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes © The Author(s) 2019 F Gohardani, Z Tizro, The Political Economy of Iran, Political Economy of Islam, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10638-6 341 342  INDEX D Dehkhoda, Ali Akbar, 160 De-territorialization, 8, 40, 42, 96, 130n1, 142, 168 Diaspora, 63, 140, 144, 173, 283 Diffusion of power, 237, 251 Discretionary nature of power, 238, 239, 250 Double marginality, 141 E Endowment effect, 139 Eunuch, 244 F Failed societies, xi Farah, Queen, 87, 169 Farrokhzad, Forough, 3, 86, 239 Farsi, Jalaladdin, 212 G Golestan, treaty, 142 Governmentality, 41, 231–240, 246, 249, 251 H Haft khan-e Rostam, 114, 191 Haft shahr-e eshgh, 114, 191 Hashemi Rafsanjani, A., 170, 235, 251 Hermeneutics of suspicion, 4, 12, 44, 48, 81, 231, 261, 274, 279 Hermeneutics of understanding, 4, 12, 44, 48, 81, 231, 261, 274, 279 Heterogeneous societies, xi, 64, 86, 233, 251, 278 Homogenous societies, xi, 64, 86, 233, 251, 278, 281 Hoveida, Amir Abbas, 142, 145, 168, 218, 219, 235, 238 I Internationalism (Islamic, modernist, Persianist), 196, 212, 213, 270 Islamic Republic Party, 170, 235 J Jamalzadeh, Mohammad-Ali, 239 K Kadivar, Mohsen, 195 Kashani, Ayatollah, 161, 162, 207, 243 Kasravi, Ahmad, 92, 114, 160, 163, 208, 275, 277 Kiarostami, Abbas, 92 L Lakkateh, 93, 94 Lexicographical, 137, 149 Liberalism, 131, 157, 195 Loss-aversion effect, 138, 139, 145, 168, 173 M Makki, 162, 164, 243 Malkam Khan, 134, 152, 159, 190, 195, 204, 230, 235, 277 Montazeri, Ayatollah, 170, 213, 235, 251 Muharram, 190, 200–202, 204, 209 Multiculturalism, 155–158, 173 Multiple realizability, 47, 114, 240 Muluk-al-tawa’ifi, 238 N Najes, 46, 247, 275, 277 Navvab Safavi, 162, 268  INDEX  P Path dependency, 28, 29, 46 Patrimony, 92, 232, 236 Personal discretion, 248 Personalism, 231 The pick-axe society (jame’eh-ye kolangi), 3, 239, 240 Plato, 133, 134 Polo-khori, 190 Populism, 157, 236 Puritanism, 93 R Rastakhiz Party, 146, 165n12, 218, 219 Rational fools, 211 S Saligheh, 231, 249, 251 Shariati, Ali, 86–88, 130, 136, 145, 235, 272, 277 Sheikh Fazlollah Nuri, 159, 204, 268, 277 Soroush, Abdolkarim, 82, 132, 134, 146, 277 T Tabatabai, Allameh, 167, 202n5 Tabatabai, Sayyed Mohammad, 159, 160 343 Timeknot, 101, 110 Transgenerational trauma, 30n6, 67n3, 72 Troubled societies, x, xi, 5, 31, 47, 64, 86, 155, 156, 190, 219, 231, 278 Truth cycle, 6, 161, 230, 278, 283, 284 U Untouchables, 46, 247, 275–277 V Vanishing mediator, 11n12, 114, 189, 191, 214n6, 215, 240, 265 Velayat-e faqih, 157, 219, 234, 251 W Womanizer, 236 Z Zombie, 91, 214, 271 Zone of occult instability, 38, 69, 72, 130, 155, 156, 158, 191, 198 ... appears to be equally shared between the Iranians and non-Iranians alike © The Author(s) 2019 F Gohardani, Z Tizro, The Political Economy of Iran, Political Economy of Islam, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10638-6_1... by the movements of the real beyond its scopes of control and intelligibility After completing the structure of theoretical model deployed for the study, the analysis of modern history of Iran. .. overcome the despotism of nature over man in the form of instrumental rationality, the despotism of man over man in the form of communicative rationality, and the terror of death in the form of emancipative

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  • Preface

  • Acknowledgement

  • About the Book

  • Contents

  • Chapter 1: Introduction

    • Background

    • Aims, Objectives and Questions

    • Conceptualizing the Problem: The Proposed Model

    • Theoretical Framework

    • Significance of the Study

      • Inevitable Generalizations Alongside Offering a Novel Conceptual Framework

      • The Examination of the Discourse of Change

    • An Overview of Chapters

    • Bibliography

  • Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework

    • Introduction

      • Social Capital, Institutions and Development

      • Wider Theoretical Resources

      • A Brief Exposition of Methodological Resources: Double-Hermeneutics Methodology

    • Two Ways of Analysing Social Phenomena

      • Sign System, Language and World of Signification

      • Emergence of Regimes of Truth

      • Regime of Truth, Culture, Civilization, and Empire

      • Difference Within and Between Regimes of Truth

      • Characterization of Regimes of Truth

      • Dasein, Cogito, Double-Hermeneutics

      • Chakrabarty and Two Types of History

      • Free Association and Cultural Psychoanalysis

      • Politics of Referencing

    • Conclusion

    • Bibliography

  • Chapter 3: The Theoretical Model of the Iranian Modern History

    • The State of Belated Inbetweenness

    • Inbetweenness and Cultural Schizophrenia

      • Inbetweenness and Hybridization

      • Belatedness and Cultural Trauma

      • Belated Inbetweenness and Tragedy of Confusion

      • Proposed Conceptual Model

    • Conclusion

    • Bibliography

  • Chapter 4: Tragedy of Confusion

    • Introduction

    • Confusion

    • Tragedy

    • Intertextuality and Intercontextuality

    • Multiple Selves (Politics of Mind: Individual as an Unstable Coalition)

    • The Composition of Dasein

    • The Composition of Iranian Dasein

    • Death and Selfhood

    • The Level of Analysis

    • The Market for Truth

    • Conclusion

    • Bibliography

  • Chapter 5: Formation of Unstable Coalitions

    • Introduction

    • The Reciprocal but Incompatible Regimes of Truth

    • Being in Exile

    • Iranians as Diasporic, Homeless and Displaced

    • State-Society Divide and Finally Cutting the King’s Head

    • Unstable Coalitions, Mistrust and Arrow’s Impossibility Theorem

    • Belated Inbetweenness, Multiculturalism, Postmodernism

    • Examples of Unstable Coalitions

      • Unstable Coalitions in the Constitutional Era

      • The Taqizadeh Coalition

      • Unstable Coalitions in the ONM Era

      • Remarks on the Instability in the Shah and His Coalition

      • Unstable Coalitions in the Islamic Republic Era

    • Conclusion

    • Bibliography

  • Chapter 6: Institutional Failure

    • Introduction: The Paradox of Institutional Design

    • Game Theory and Institutions

    • Examples of Institutional Failures

      • Institutional Failure in the Constitutional Era

      • Institutional Failure in the ONM Era

      • Institutional Failure in the Realm of Vice and Virtue

      • Institutional Failure in the Islamic Republic Era

    • The Nation-State

    • Veiling as the Flag of the Nation

    • Time and Calendar

    • Formation of Modern State

    • Conclusion

    • Bibliography

  • Chapter 7: Chaotic Order

    • Introduction: The Atomic Nature of Power

    • Iranian Governmentalities: An Army of Leviathans Alongside an Army of Defiant Actors

    • Examples of Chaotic Order

      • Chaotic Order in the Constitutional Era

      • Chaotic Order in the ONM Era

      • Chaotic Order in the Islamic Republic Era

    • Conclusion

    • Bibliography

  • Chapter 8: Conclusion

    • Problematization

      • Nature of Social Order and Modes of Analysis

    • General Characteristics of the Iranian Modern History and Society

      • The Analytic of Finitude

      • Stylized Facts of Iranian History

      • Unpredictability

      • Zigzag Movements

      • The Incessant Conflict Between Radicals and Pragmatists

      • Blaming the Resource Curse and/or the Alliance Curse

      • The Ultimate Pattern

    • Philosophical Tribalism

      • Blame Game

    • Outlines of a Non-Solution Solution

    • Bibliography

  • Appendix: Diagram 1—Approaches to Social Inquiry

  • Bibliography

  • Index

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