Hammer & Silicon: The Soviet Diaspora in the US Innovation Economy Immigration, Innovation, Institutions, Imprinting, and Identity This deeply personal book tells the untold story of the significant contributions of technical professionals from the former Soviet Union to the US innovation economy, particularly in the sectors of software, social media, biotechnology, and medicine Drawing upon in-depth interviews, it channels the voices and stories of more than 150 professionals who emigrated from 11 of the 15 former Soviet republics between the 1970s and 2015, and who currently work in the innovation hubs of Silicon Valley and Boston-Cambridge Using the social science theories of institutions, imprinting, and identity, the authors analyze the political, social, economic, and educational forces that have characterized Soviet immigration over the past 40 years, showing how the particularities of the Soviet context may have benefited or challenged interviewees’ work and social lives The resulting mosaic of perspectives provides valuable insight into the impact of immigration on US economic development, specifically in high technology and innovation Sheila M Puffer is University Distinguished Professor and Professor of International Business and Strategy at the D’Amore-McKim School of Business, Northeastern University, Boston, USA She served as Program Director of the Gorbachev Foundation of North America, and is an Associate at the Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies at Harvard University Business and management in the former USSR are a major focus of her 160 publications, including Behind the Factory Walls: Decision Making in Soviet and US Enterprises Daniel J McCarthy is University Distinguished Professor and the Alan S McKim and Richard A D’Amore Distinguished Professor of Global Management and Innovation at the D’Amore-McKim School of Business, Northeastern University, Boston, USA He is also an Associate at the Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies at Harvard University He has over 110 publications, including four editions of Business Policy and Strategy, as well as Business and Management in Russia, The Russian Capitalist Experiment, and Corporate Governance in Russia Daniel M Satinsky is an attorney, business consultant, and independent scholar, and an Associate at the Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies at Harvard University He served as Board President of the USRussia Chamber of Commerce of New England, Inc., from 2001 to 2016 He is editor of the Buyer’s Guide to the Russian IT Outsourcing Industry and author of Industrial Giants, Entrepreneurs, and Regional Government: The Changing Business Environment in Yaroslavl’ Oblast, 1990–1999, amongst other publications Hammer & Silicon: The Soviet Diaspora in the US Innovation Economy Immigration, Innovation, Institutions, Imprinting, and Identity sheila m puffer D’Amore-McKim School of Business, Northeastern University daniel j mccarthy D’Amore-McKim School of Business, Northeastern University daniel m satinsky Business Consultant and Independent Scholar University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107190856 DOI: 10.1017/9781108120302 © Sheila M Puffer, Daniel J McCarthy, and Daniel M Satinsky 2018 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published 2018 Printed in the United States of America by Sheridan Books, Inc A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Puffer, Sheila M., author | McCarthy, Daniel J., author | Satinsky, Daniel M., author Title: Hammer and silicon : the Soviet diaspora in the US innovation, economy : immigration, innovation, institutions, imprinting, and identity / Sheila M Puffer, Northeastern University, Boston, Daniel J McCarthy, Northeastern University, Boston, Daniel M Satinsky, Foresight Science & Technology, Inc Description: New York : Cambridge University Press, 2018 Identifiers: LCCN 2017055513| ISBN 9781107190856 (hardback) | ISBN 9781316641262 (paperback) Subjects: LCSH: Technological innovations – United States | Former Soviet republics – Emigration and immigration | United States – Emigration and immigration | BISAC: BUSINESS & ECONOMICS / Entrepreneurship Classification: LCC HC110.T4 P84 2018 | DDC 338/.0640973–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017055513 ISBN 978-1-107-19085-6 Hardback ISBN 978-1-316-64126-2 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate To the 157 interviewees and their families who made the bold journey to the United States, and to the legions of others like them from all corners of the world – With admiration from the authors To my family – Douglas and Annika, Carol and Dorian, all of whose parents include immigrants – SMP To my family for their enduring love and support – DJM To my wife, Dinah, for her patience, encouragement, and support through the years – DMS Contents Foreword page ix Acknowledgments xii About the Authors xv Introduction Part I 19 Analytical Framework Theoretical Foundations: Institutions, Imprinting, and Identity 21 Soviet Political, Economic, and Social Institutions: Catalysts for Migration 35 Soviet Educational Institutions: Capability for Contribution 65 Migration from the Former Soviet Union to the United States: Three Waves 1972–2015 105 Part II The Immigrants’ Experiences, Integration, and Contributions 149 Entrepreneurial Spirit, Creativity, and Innovativeness: Startups in the United States 151 Research, Development, and Applications in Academic and Industry Settings 199 Cultural Adaptation: Challenges and Sources of Support 238 Workplace Adaptation: Developing Soft Skills 277 Identity: A Constellation of Influences 323 vii viii Contents Part III Conclusion 371 10 The Impact of Institutions, Imprinting, and Identity on the Immigration and Innovation Process 373 Index 396 Foreword Hammer & Silicon is a model of social science research, but its subject matter would also make for a great novel The book juxtaposes two places that are literally “worlds apart:” the Soviet communist regime during its decline, collapse, and subsequent disintegration (the Hammer) and the dynamic regions of entrepreneurship and innovation that emerged at roughly the same time in the US (the Silicon) The protagonists of this unlikely collision – and the focus of this fascinating book – are the highly educated scientists and engineers who left the Soviet Union and settled in Silicon Valley and the BostonCambridge areas in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries The book’s authors, all established scholars of Russian studies, interviewed 157 members of the Soviet diaspora The interview results provide a rich tapestry of individual trajectories that differ due to ethnic, cultural, and family circumstances, but nevertheless accumulate to illuminate strong cross-cutting themes at the core of the book We learn that the earliest Soviet immigrants to the US beginning in the 1970s were refugees escaping virulent anti-Semitism, or, in later years, the economic dislocations following the collapse of the Soviet Union Only more recently have Russian-speaking immigrants come to the US seeking additional education and/or economic opportunity This latter wave has more in common with the Asian immigrants who typically come to the US for higher education, and then stay on to work in fast-growing technology regions Some of the most engaging parts of the book are the first-hand accounts, mostly in the words of immigrants themselves, of the experience of being raised in the former Soviet Union (with its authoritarian and bureaucratic institutions, pervasive dissembling and cynicism, distrust of business, and highly personalized trust) and adapting to the US and to technology centers (where entrepreneurship is a social good and work is organized around teams, collaboration, ix 398 Center for Integration of Medicine and Innovative Technologies, 158 Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Nanomedicine, 200 Center for Redox Medicine, 380 Central Tuberculosis Research Institute, 206 centralized command economy, 41–44 Charles River Software, 153 Charron, David, 185 Chekholko, Alexander, 269 Chekhov Number 55 language school, 79 Children’s Hospital in Boston, 382–383 Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 110, 375 Chinese laborers in the West, 109 ChooChee, 164 Cipolla, John, 257 Cisco, 145, 188, 229, 268, 303, 360 Citibank, 133, 293 Citrix, 164 Clark University, 91 ClearChannel, 219 Cleveland Clinic, 208, 383 Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 208 Clickdealer, 197 CoachUp, 40, 282 Cohen, Daniel, 316 Coingyft, 87, 325 Cold War, 33, 105, 106, 107, 115, 152 Collective Learning, 312, 331 Columbia University, 257 commercialization, 101 communication industry startups, 152–155, 162–178, 183–194, 216–221 introduction to, 298 nonverbal communication, 306–309 Second Wave, 216–221 telecommunications, 167 verbal communication, 298–306 communism capitalism, 43 entrepreneurship and, 46, 49 formal institutions, 48–54 impact of, 43 informal institutions, 54–64 youth organizations, 48 Communist Party, 22, 86 Index CompleteCase.com, 170 complexity and identity influences, 351–358 Computervision, 153 Connecticut College, 238 Cornell University, 162 Council of People’s Commissars, 68 Coursmos, 96, 311, 364 Craigslist, 186 creative freedom, 281 Crooke, Graham, 182 cross-cultural competency, 277–278 crowdfunding campaigns, 194 cryptocurrency, 166 Cuban Adjustment Act (1966), 112, 376 cultural adaptation introduction to, 238 to language, 245–246 living conditions and circumstances, 242–245 mentors and role models, 247–262 networking, 262–271 professional networking organizations, 272–276 social support, 246–247 US educational system/workplace, 238–242 cultural-cognitive institutions, 22 Cupid, plc, 196 Custom Learning Designs, 55, 345 Cybiko, 183–184 Cyphort, 48, 234, 236, 355 Czarist Boy Scouts, 69 Czarist educational system, 66–67 D’Amore, Rich, 154 Dana Farber Cancer Institute, 209 Databrain, 197 deinstitutionalization, 35, 45, 50 del Nido, Pedro, 222, 223 Delta Star, 84, 331 Dental Photonics, 156 Design by Light, 131, 362, 392 Deutsche Bank, 143, 231, 232 Dezhina, Irina, 89, 100 DFJ VTB Aurora, 130, 361 Dharmacon Products, 206 Discover magazine, 205 Disney, 166 Index Dnepropetrovsk National University, 188, 195 Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 202 Doronichev, Andrey, 42, 145, 242, 300 dual citizenship, 334–335 Dukach, Semyon, 194 Dulance, 163 Dunayev, Alexei, 94, 261–262, 288–289, 350 Dvornikova, Anna, 164, 273–274, 328 E-2 visa, 145 Earth Observing System (EOS), 197 EB-1 visa, 145 Ecamb, 359 economic growth, educational institutions in the Soviet Union anti-Semitism, 85, 86–88 brain drain, 88–91, 100–104 Czarist educational system, 66–67 emigration and anti-Semitism, 88 goals of, 70 government role in, 92–93 intellectual recruitment, 93–97 introduction to, 52–54, 65–66 mathematics role in, 84–86 new youth organizations, 68–69 objectives of, 67–68 ongoing reform, 99–100 overview of, 70–71 Russian outreach to diaspora, 98–99 special schools, 71–79 stratification and hierarchy of, 79–84 educational system (US) adaptation, 238–242 effective leadership, 279 Eliseev, Alexey, 213–215, 255, 286–287, 336 Eliseeva, Maria, 213, 380–381, 390–391 EMC, 137 emigration and anti-Semitism, 88, 379 emigration and institutions, 378–383 Emory University, 213, 255 Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, 223 Engle, Jerry, 185 Enspire-Medica, 159 Entangled Solutions, 75, 94, 350 399 entrepreneurship See also US innovation economy communism and, 46, 49 first experiences of, 213 general measure of progress, immigrant experiences of, 31–32, 176, 214, 247, 279–280, 387–388 in Soviet successor states, 272 study of, 171, 185, 236, 275, 288, 361 of teachers and professors, 253 transition to, 387–388 in Ukraine, 155 Entrepreneurship Intensity Program, 156 EPAM Systems, 137, 143, 231, 304, 337, 378 Epiphan Systems, 53, 81, 167 E.piphany, 154 Epix Medical, 158 Epstein, Slava, 39–40, 118–120, 204–205 Esenin-Volpin, Alexander, 86 ethnic identity, 389–391 European Union, 107 Evernote, 217, 378 Everon Biosciences, 58, 72, 160, 161 Everson, Iryna, 47, 253, 262, 291, 302–303, 340 F-1 visa, 256 Facebook, 10, 128, 172, 186, 192–193, 219, 220, 235–236, 267, 296, 300, 326, 340, 378 Fairchild Semiconductor, family and culture, 54–56 family reunification, 111 Fayngersh, Irina, 211–212, 343–344 Fayngersh, Michael, 84, 331 Feldchtein, Felix, 130–131, 332 Finance Alpha LLC, 94, 356 first-language maintenance, 32 First Wave immigration emigration and, 379 emigration and anti-Semitism, 88 interviews, 58, 118–122 other industry startups, 155–156 overview, 10–11, 38, 107 political refugees, 112–114 research scientist in engineering, 200 400 First Wave immigration (cont.) Soviet Jewish exit, 114–122 Soviet legal framework, 114–115 Soviet Union and, 39–41 summary of, 376–378 technology related startups, 152–155 tracking of, 108–109, 116–118, 117t US legal framework, 115–116 Fisher Scientific, 155 Fit-Any, 319 500 Startups, 166 Flint Capital, 301 Fonarev, Dmitry, 285–286 Foreign Policy magazine, 205 formal institutions, 48–54 former Soviet Union, 141, 265–267, 373, 376–378 Fortinet, 234 Fowler, Gary, 185 Fram, Isaac, 39, 240, 361 Freed, Alex, 162 French Academy of Sciences, 91 Future Work Skills 2020 report, 277 Gamarnik, David, 77–78, 258, 283–284, 299, 346, 393 Gamota, George, 36–38, 155–156, 331 Gapontsev, Igor, 290 Gayshan, Stas, 55, 252, 331–332 GE Healthcare, 83, 215 Geisberg, Sam, 153 Gen5 Group, 61, 329 Georgia, 47, 103, 137 Georgia Institute of Technology, 219 Georgian identity, 337–338 Gitelman, Zvi, 33 Gladilin, Kirill, 74 Gladyshev, Vadim, 81, 202–204, 254, 380, 384 global citizens/internationalists, 358–368 Global Technology Symposium, 263, 272 Gold, Larry, 256 Golden Gate University, 186 Goldman Sachs, 63, 133, 293 Goncharova, Natalia, 94, 356, 377–378 Gonebnyy, Igor, 96, 265 Index Google, 9, 10, 42, 51, 76, 145, 163, 164, 190, 192–193, 218, 219, 220, 226, 232, 233, 242, 268, 269, 284, 299, 300, 316, 317, 339, 343, 355, 356, 378 Google Cloud, 284 Google Hangouts, 297 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 23, 107, 123, 125, 163 Gorbatcheva, Bella, 208–209, 340 Gordeski, Valerie, 55–56, 344 Gore, Al, 134 Gorlov, Alexander, 56–57, 200, 256–257 Graham, Loren, 89 grandparents as mentors/role models, 248–253 Great Patriotic War, 80, 390 Green Cards, lottery system, 126 Greyhound, 177 Gribov, Sergey, 301 Growth Analytics, 46 Gubkin Institute, 86, 87 Gukasian, David, 78, 129, 246, 382, 393 Gurevich, Alex, 261, 344–345 H-1 visa, 141, 144, 146 Haas School of Business, 185 habits of mind, 29 Halo, 189 Hamilton, Alexander, Happier, Inc., 62, 346 Hart-Celler Act (1965), 111–112 See also Immigration Act (1965) Hartl, Dan, 202 Harvard Business School, 4, 136, 159, 254, 259 Harvard Medical School, 81, 82, 146, 158, 200, 202, 210, 221, 222, 225, 291, 352, 368, 384 Hax Accelerator, 193–194 Hearst Corporation, 155 Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society (HIAS), 120, 344 Helix Ventures, 181, 366 Hermiona Education, 266 Hewlett-Packard, 130 high tech sector (US), 71, 374 Index Hill, Natalie, 243–244, 270–271, 326–327 HitDynamics, 195 Hitegrity, 226 Hitler, Adolf, 36 Hive 7, 165 Hodgson Russ LLP, 213 Home Depot, Homo sovieticus, 67, 377 See also Soviet Man How to Win Friends and Influence People (Carnegie), 282, 308 Hungarian Refugee Act (1958), 112, 376 Hunter College, 316 Hunter-Panzica, Margarita, 83–84, 215–216 I Style Myself, 360 Iannucci, Bob, 259 IB Consulter, 83, 96, 339 IBM, 145, 216, 283 iBuildApp, 186, 187, 341 iChip (Epstein chip), 205 Idemix Project, 216 identity influences/theory American-Jewish identity, 331–332 American or American-homeland identity, 325–334, 338–339 American-Russian identity, 327, 332–333 complexity and, 351–358 as constellation of influences, 368–369 ethnic identity, 389–391 global citizens/internationalists, 358–368 homeland-American identity, 334–339 homeland-only identity, 339–342 impact of, 373–374 introduction to, 6, 14–15, 323–325 Jewish identity, 325–326, 329, 331–332, 333–334, 343–349 national identity, 389–391 professions, passions, or interests, 349–351 Russian-American identity, 327–328, 336–337, 362–363 401 Russian identity, 325–326, 328, 334–335, 336, 339–342 Soviet identity, 389–391 Soviet Union, 28–34 transition and change in US, 391–393 Ukrainian identity, 340 Illuminate Ventures, 155 immigrants/immigration See also First Wave immigration; migration to United States; Second Wave immigration; Third Wave immigration Asian immigration, 106 entrepreneurship experiences, 31–32, 176, 214, 247, 279–280, 387–388 innovation, 12, 373–375, 393–395 introduction to, 1–2, 10–11, 373–374 labor market pull and political regulation, 375–376 migration catalysts, 38–39 overview, 15–18 three waves of, 38–39 US immigration law, 109–110, 111–114 Immigration Act (1921), 110 Immigration Act (1924), 110, 375 Immigration Act (1965), 106, 111–112, 393 Immigration Act (1990), 126 immigration law (US), 109–110, 111–114 Immigration Reform Act (1965), 1, 4, 120 Import 2, 189, 190–191, 364 imprinting theory identity relationship with, 29 institutions and, 384–385 introduction to, 6, 13–14 Soviet influences, 385–387 Soviet Union, 25–28 US innovation economy, 387–388 Indochinese Refugee Act (1977), 112, 376 industrial era, 393–395 industry startups See also software product companies; startups in the US academic and industry settings, 199, 200–208 402 industry startups (cont.) communication, 152–155, 162–178, 183–194, 216–221 First Wave immigration, 155–156 Internet startups, 152–155, 162–178, 183–194, 216–221, 226–236, 295 IT industry startups, 152–155, 216–221, 226–236 Second Wave immigration, 178–180 Third Wave immigration, 194–198 informal institutions, 54–64 Infort, 169 innovation, 12, 373–375, 393–395 See also US innovation economy Inotek Pharmaceuticals, 158 InSegment, 170 Institute of Chemical Physics, 173 Institute of International Education, 134 Institute of Medico-Ecological Problems, 181 institutions/institutional theory capability to add value, 383–384 emigration and, 378–383 formal institutions, 48–54 framework for understanding, 35–36 imprinting theory, 384–385 informal institutions, 54–64 introduction to, 6, 12–13 research institutions, 52–54 Soviet Union and, 22–25 Intel, 95, 137, 164, 188 intellectual recruitment, 93–97 Intelligent Bio-Systems, 207 IntelliSense, 175 interdisciplinary teams, 278 interests and identity influences, 349–351 International Entrepreneur Rule, 139 International Labor Organization (ILO), 103 International Olympiads, 75, 77, 83, 87, 258 International Science Foundation, 135 internationalists, 358–368 internationalization of Russian universities, 101 Internet startups, 152–155, 162–178, 183–194, 216–221, 226–236, 295 interpersonal skills, 277 Index interviewee commonality, 6–9 INTSPEI, 189 IoT (Internet of Things), 87 IPG Photonics, 10, 52, 128, 157, 260, 290, 357, 388, 392 iPhone apps, 187, 295 IPMeeting.com, 167 Isakov, Leah, 86–87, 212–213, 243, 332 Israel, 116, 119 Israeli Airforce Industries, 163 Isurin, Ludmilla, 32 IT industry startups, 152–155, 216–221, 226–236 ITA Software, 54 Ivanov, Sergei, 90–91, 318, 332–333 Izvestiia, 39 Jackson, Henry, 115 Jackson-Vanik amendment (1974), 121 Japanese Exclusion Act (1924), 375 Javelin Venture Partners, 344 Jewish Autonomous Region, 56, 389 Jewish identity, 325–326, 329, 331–332, 333–334, 343–349 Jobs, Steve, 217, 294 Johnson, Alexandra, 130, 249–250, 272–273, 308–309, 361–362 Johnson, Pitch, 182 Joint Distribution Committee (JDC), 120 JPMorgan, 63 Jungreis, Irwin, 153 Kabanov, Ilya, 292–293, 314–316, 366–367 Kadeykina, Yelena, 266–267, 347 Kaliningrad State Technical University, 83, 215 Kashmadze, Shalva, 47, 78, 233–234, 245, 320–321, 337–338, 388 Kauffman Foundation, Kayak, 177 Kazakhstan, 101, 136 Kerov, Dmitry, 251, 306, 342 Kesler, Alexander, 170–172 KGB, 22, 46, 50, 57, 58, 118, 311, 392 Kharkov National University, 231 Khazan, Eugene, 252, 329–330 102 Soviet Educational Institutions: Capability for Contribution government of Kazakhstan has focused on developing a new intellectual elite The existing school system continues to reflect some of the strengths of the Soviet system, particularly in mathematics, where, for instance, the country scored as high as fifth in international mathematics competitions in 2010.52 At the university level, Kazakhstan has established an extensive program to send students to foreign universities through the Bolashak program, but requires them to return home to engage in government work for five years after completing their studies.53 The picture in Kazakhstan is more reflective of a model of brain circulation than of a continuing brain drain Ukraine has stagnated economically and politically as it has struggled to define its political identity and basis of economic modernization in the post-Soviet period The number of researchers in post-Soviet Ukraine declined dramatically from 1991 to 2013 This was reflective of a dramatic decline in spending for research and development, from constituting 2.44 percent of GDP in 1991 to only 0.76 percent in 2013.54 Increasing numbers of scientists and technical people are leaving the field of science due to lack of funding, creating ongoing pressure to emigrate for those who can take their training to new positions abroad According to the Ukrainian State Statistics Committee, there were significant losses of Doctors of Science and PhDs in the fields of biology, physics, mathematics, and medical sciences.55 These losses continue to be substantial, with the number of researchers in the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences having decreased by 13 percent from 2014 to 2015, and only 20 percent of the PhD researchers in the Academy are younger than thirtyfive years.56 The bright spot for Ukraine is in IT outsourcing, with 4,000 companies – more than any other country in Eastern or Central Europe – whose combined revenues are more than $2 billion per year.57 52 53 54 55 56 57 Naila Mukhtarova, “Brain Drain of Kazakhstan in 1999–2008” (Master’s Thesis, Charles University, Prague, 2010), 72 Ibid., 61 Halnyna Mokrushyna, “The War on Ukrainian Scientists,” CounterPunch, www.counterpunch.org (April 29, 2016) N Parkhomenko, “Problems of Intellectual Migration of Ukraine,” Ukrainian Studies Volume 17 (2014): 38 http://ukrbulletin.univ.kiev.ua/Visnyk-17-en/ Parkhomenko.pdf Alya Shandra,“Reversing Ukraine’s Brain Drain: Mission Impossible?” EuroMaidan Press (July 18, 2016) http://euromaidanpress.com/euromaidan/ Ilya Greenburg, “A Ukrainian Brain Drain,” The New Yorker (June 4, 2014) http://www.newyorker.com/business/currency/a-ukrainian-brain-drain 404 MathWorks, 41, 227, 300, 353 Matuzov, Maxim, 42, 232–233, 245, 294–295, 306, 354 Maxima Group, 195 Maxwell Biotech Venture Fund, 213, 286, 336 Maxymiser, 196 McCarron-Walter Act (1952), 111 McMaster University, 162 MechMat (Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics), 85–86 MediationMate, 170 medical products startups, 156–162, 180–183, 200–216 Mediphan, 168 Medtronic, 211 Medvedev, Dmitry, 136, 138 Medvednikov, Evgeny, 140–142, 266, 307–308 mentors, 247–262 Metamark Genetics, 83, 209, 289, 336 Metamorphic Ventures, 177 Microsoft, 10, 137, 145, 164, 178, 188, 217, 264, 289, 367, 378 migration catalysts anti-Semitism, 56–64 centralized command economy, 41–44 educational/research institutions, 52–54 experiences in youth, 48–52 family and culture, 54–56 formal institutions, 48–54 immigration waves, 38–39 informal institutions, 54–64 introduction to, 35–38 national republics, 44–48 Soviet government and ideology, 39–41 migration to United States globalization, immigration, and innovation, 106 Hart-Celler Act, 111–112 immigration law as regulator, 109–110 introduction to, 105–106 Soviet Jewish exit, 114–122 three waves of, 106–108 tracking each wave, 108–109 military-industrial complex, 89 Index Millennium Pharmaceuticals, 208 Miller, Merton, 78 Miroshnichenko, Alex, 168–169 MMP Medical Associates, 57, 120, 312, 361 Moderna Therapeutics, 52, 72, 341 Moldova, 137 Monte Vista High School, 134 Moore, Gordon, 95 Moscow Craft School, 80 Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (PhysTech), 52, 53, 80, 81, 82, 146, 167, 168, 175, 178, 183, 201–202, 220, 221 Moscow Institute of Transport Engineers, 56, 200 Moscow Olympics (1980), 11 Moscow Road Automatics Institute, 88 Moscow State Institute of Electronics and Mathematics, 292 Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO), 80 Moscow State Institute of Radio Engineering, Electronics, and Automation, 217 Moscow State University, 40, 53, 56, 59, 66, 73, 80, 85, 87, 90, 132, 159, 160, 164, 169, 171, 185, 200, 202, 204, 210, 213, 223, 251, 254, 255, 257, 259, 281 Moscow State University of Food Production, 208 Moscow Steel and Alloys Institute, 90 multicultural teams, 280 multinational corporations (MNCs), 137 MURKA, 196 Murmansk State University, 232 Nacera, 343 Narus, 164 Natera, 211, 326 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Cancer Institute, 134, 203 National Institutes of Health (NIH), 202, 204, 223 national republics, 44–48 National Science Foundation, 156 Index National Strategy for Trusted Identities in Cyberspace, 216 National Technology Initiative (NTI), 98–99, 138 National University of Science and Technology, 213 Nationality Act (1965), 113 NATO Science Program, 135 Nazis, 36–37 NebuAd, 154 Neo-Advent Technologies, 158 networking Boston-Cambridge Networking Organizations, 274–276 cultural adaptation and, 262–271 introduction to, 262–265 non-Russian speakers, 268–271 people from former USSR, 265–267 professional networking organizations, 272–276 Russian speakers, nonpredominantly, 267–268 Silicon Valley Networking Organizations, 272–274 The New Argonauts: Regional Advantage in a Global Economy (Saxenian), 3, 112 New Concept Group, 129, 327 New England Biolabs, 54, 122, 312, 327 New England Russian-speaking Entrepreneurs (NERSE), 263, 272, 274 New York Stock Exchange, 137 New York Times, 169 NextWeb, 186 Nivorozhkin, Alex, 157–159 Noction, 142, 352 Nok Nok Labs, 226, 227 Nokia, 259 nonverbal communication, 306–309 Noosphere, 194, 197 Nortel, 167 North Bridge Venture Partners, 154 Northeastern University, 39, 49, 56, 75, 118, 136, 170, 200, 204, 209, 215, 257, 342 Northern Light, 230, 306, 319, 336, 342 405 Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, 208, 340 NovaSeek Research, 159, 160, 343 NovoBiotics Pharmaceuticals, 205 Novobrantseva, Tatiana, 252, 358 Novosibirsk State University, 81, 83, 209 Nuance, 173 O-1 visa, 142, 144, 145 Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 96 Occidental Petroleum, Octane Software, 154 Office of Refugee Resettlement, 113 Ohanyan, Nerses, 46, 78–79, 274, 301–302, 314, 338–339, 387 Olympiads All Soviet Union Olympiads, 75, 76, 87 International Olympiads, 75, 77, 83, 87, 258 Omnicom Group, OncoTartis, 58, 72, 160, 161 Optromix, 90, 318, 332 Oracle, 9, 196 Ostrovsky, Michael, 241 Pachikov, Stepan, 217 Palace of Pioneers, 49 Palomar Medical Technologies, 260 PandaDoc, 142 Pankratov, Michail, 57–58, 120–121, 269, 312, 361 ParaGraph International, 131, 217 Parallels, 138 Parametric Technology (PTC), 133 Parasoft, 220 parents as mentors/role models, 248–253 Partners Healthcare, 214 Partnership for a New Economy, ParWinr, 42, 191, 365 Pashintsev, Alexander, 217–218 Pashintsev, Nikita, 217–218, 337 passions and identity influences, 349–351 Patentbar International LLC, 213 PatientKeeper, 51, 77, 332 Pattern Energy Group, 47, 291, 340 406 Pavlov, Vlad, 145–146, 188–189, 258–259, 367–368 PayPal, 187 Pen&Internet, Parascript, LLC, 217 people skills, 277 People.ai, 173 Petcube, 145, 193, 194, 305 Peter the Great, 66 Petetsky, Alex, 51–52, 77, 260–261, 332 Petrov, Dmitri, 52–53, 201–202 Pfizer Corporation, 86, 159, 161, 212, 332 pharma startups, 156–162, 180–183, 200–216 Philips Healthcare, 219 PhysTech See Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology Plekhanov Institute of the National Economy, Pocket Gems, 47, 78, 233, 320, 337 Polina Fashion, 176 Polinsky, Alex, 58–61, 72, 160–162 political refugees, 112–114 political regulation, 375–376 Polo Ralph Lauren, Polyakov, Max, 76, 194–198, 255 Poniatoff, Alexander, 10 Popov, Dimitri, 75, 146, 214, 314, 367 Popper, Karl, 97 post-Soviet legal framework, 123–125, 138–139 PowerFile, 169 PrAgEmInt employment agency, 192 Pravda newspaper, 39 Primary Innovation Consulting, 317 private higher educational institutions, 92 private technology sector, 131–132 Prodigi, 193 professional networking organizations, 272–276 professions and identity influences, 349–351 professors as mentors/role models, 253–258 Proshina, Sasha, 224–225, 304–305, 308, 327 PTC, 10, 153 Putin, Vladimir, 11, 136, 139 Index QStar Technologies, 168 Quota Act (1921), 110 Quote Roller, 142 Qwave Capital, 179 Qwest Communications, Radio Free Europe, 39 Raileanu, Grigore, 142–143, 261, 352–353 Raiz, Leonid, 73–74, 153–154, 379, 383–384, 387 Rajewsky, Klaus, 94, 225 Raleigh, Donald, 32 Raygorodskaya, Polina, 176–178, 239, 249, 340–341 Raytheon, 55, 344 Razboff, Igor, 152–153, 329 R&D funding, 100 Reagan, Ronald, 107, 123, 125 Red Aril, 155 Redox Medicine, 81 Refugee Act (1980), 111, 113, 115, 120, 376 Refugee Conditional Entrants Act (1965), 111, 112 Refugee Parolee Act (1978), 113 Rekhter, Yakov, 10 Renatus, 197 RepEquity, 176 replacement process, 27 Republic of Donetsk, 139 Republic of Lugansk, 139 Research Institute for Vaccines and SERA, 208 research institutions, 52–54 research scientist in engineering, 200 Reykjavik Summit (1986), 123 Rice University, 200 RingCentral, 120, 154, 297, 304, 345 Rivest, Ron, 257 Rize, 73, 153, 154 RMI Partners, 181, 182 RNA Therapeutic Institute, 91, 206 Rogynskyy, Oleg, 172–173, 246, 316 ROkITT, 282, 299 role models, 247–262 rollApp, 145, 188, 367 Rolsen, 178 Rostov State University, 157 Roswell Park Cancer Institute, 161 Index Rotary Club exchange program, 134 Royal Institute of Technology, 189 Rublev, Greg, 170, 252, 254–255 Runa Capital, 179 Rusanov, Anton, 76–77, 245, 267–268, 339–340 Rusnano, 138, 139, 182 Russia/Russian Federation, 124, 136, 139, 140, 141, 141t, 147 Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, 206 Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) cofounder of, 275 emigration predictions by, 124 establishment of, 66, 68, 80 ongoing reform, 99–100, 101, 138 ongoing struggles, 92 studies at, 90 Russian-American identity, 327–328, 336–337, 362–363 Russian-American Medical Association (RAMA), 275 Russian-American Scientists Association (RASA), 270, 272, 274–275 Russian Civil War, 68–69 Russian Federation, Russian identity, 325–326, 328, 334–335, 336, 339–342 Russian language, 7, 33, 325 Russian Ministry of Public Health, 208 Russian Orthodox religion, 33 Russian outreach to diaspora, 98–99 Russian R&D funding, 100 Russian Revolution, 8, 80 Russian Technology Symposium, 136, 272 Russian Venture Company, 138 Rxi Pharmaceuticals, 207 Sakharov, Andrei, 57 Salesforce, 219 Samara State Medical University, 206 Samarina, Maria, 307 Samokhvalova, Ksenia, 41, 227–228, 300, 353–354 Samsung, 226 Sandler, Mike, 53, 81, 167–168, 255, 270 Sanofi Genzyme, 182, 224, 304, 308 407 Saratov State University, 260 Saribekian, Tatiana, 250 Sawyer, Philip, 182 Saxenian, AnnaLee, 3, 106, 112 Schaefer, Stephen, 257 Scherer, Anna, 55, 240–241, 345–346 Schneider Electric, 292, 314, 366 School number 2, 74 School number 53, 74 School number 57, 74 School of Mathematical and Naval Sciences, 66 Schwartzman, Michael, 121–122, 345, 391–392 Science and Technology Associates Management, 155 Science Applications International, 36 Science in the New Russia (Graham, Dezhina), 89 Sciton, 82, 350 Scopus Technology, 154 Scoros International, 152, 329 Seagal, Jane (Evgeniia), 94, 225, 283, 348 Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 222 Second Wave immigration biotech/pharma/medical startups, 156–162, 200–216 brain drain and, 88–91, 105–106, 122–123 emigration and, 379–383 industry professionals, 208–216 interviews, 35, 54–55, 58, 128–135 introduction, 11, 12–13 other industry startups, 178–180 overview, 38, 107 political refugees, 112–114 research scientists, 208–221 Soviet/post-Soviet legal framework, 123–125 summary of, 376–378 technology sector and, 162–178, 217–221 tracking of, 108–109, 127–128, 127t US.-Israel relations during, 116 US legal framework, 125–127 sedimentation process, 27 Selitsky, Simon, 87–88, 244, 325–326 Semantria, 172, 316 408 Shablygin, Eugene, 40–41, 131, 251, 385–386 Shape, 174 Shevchenko State University, 193 Shipitsin, Michail, 83, 209–210, 289–290, 336 Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 204 Shkolnik, Gene, 40, 282 Shtatland, Timur, 54–55, 122, 256, 312, 327 Sierra Ventures, 155 silicon chips, Silicon Graphics, 217 Silicon Valley Innovation Center, 310, 351, 381 Silicon Valley Networking Organizations, 272–274 Silicon Valley Open Doors (SVOD), 136, 164, 263, 272, 273, 311–312 Silicon Valley venture funds, 164 Simon Fraser University, 234 Six Day War (1967), 119 Skavish, Dmitry, 133–134, 265, 296–297, 335 Skibinsky, Max, 49, 74–75, 132–133, 164–167, 281–282 Skolkovo Foundation, 138 Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, 98 Skype, 45, 189, 190, 227, 259, 265, 288 Skyrider, 164 Sloan School of Management at MIT, 77, 212, 283, 292 SmartBear Software, 220, 285 Smith College, 79, 216, 257 social learning, 26 social psychological theory, 28 social support, 246–247 socialism impact, 43 socio-economic crisis, 124 soft skills See workplace adaptation of soft skills software product companies private technology sector, 131–132 Second Wave immigration, 162–178, 216–221 startups, 137–138, 152–155 Index Third Wave immigration, 183–194, 226–236 US tech sector, 101, 105, 106 Sokolov, Sergei, 220–221, 335–336 Solomon Software, 178 SolveItLabs, 187 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr, 57 SonicWALL, 235 Soros, George, 135, 156 Soultanov, Rafael, 141, 186–188, 341 Southern Methodist University, 187 Soviet Boy Scouts, 49 Soviet identity, 389–391 Soviet Jewish exit, 114–122 Soviet legal framework, 123–125 Soviet Man, 67, 68–69 See also Homo sovieticus Soviet Parliament, 124 Soviet Scientists Immigration Act (1992), 135 Soviet Union See also educational institutions in the Soviet Union break up of and brain drain, 88–91 centralized command economy, 41–44 collapse of, 97, 137, 376 formal institutions, 48–54 former Soviet Union, 141, 265–267, 373, 376–378 government as migration catalyst, 39–41 imprinting theory, 385–387 informal institutions, 54–64 innovation and, 393–395 institutional theory, 22–25 introduction to, 2–3, 21 Jewish exit to United States, 114–122 post-Soviet legal framework, 138–139 special schools in, 71–79 talent flow from, 5–6 Spirin, Alexander, 255 St Petersburg Economic Forums, 98 St Petersburg State Institute of Technology, 224 St Petersburg State University, 80, 152 Stalin, Joseph, 36, 85 Stanford Graduate School of Business, 97, 181, 182, 233, 234, 288 Index Stanford University, 52, 164, 201, 226, 241, 245, 254, 365 Staples, 303 Startup Access, 266, 347 startups in the US biotech/pharma/medical startups, 156–162 introduction to, 151–152 other industry startups, 155–156 technology related, 152–155 StartX, 173 State Commission on Education, 68 State University of New York at Buffalo, 213, 219 State University of Nizhny Novgorod, 227 Steklov Institute of Mathematics, 94, 258 Stelovska, Umida (Gaimova), 42–44, 191–193, 262, 365 Stesin, Katya, 87, 267, 319 Strebulaev, Ilya, 97, 257, 365–366 Stroustup, Bjarne, 259 Sukharev, Alexis, 85–86, 130, 169, 257, 336 Sun Microsystems, 164 Sunyaev, Shamil, 82, 146, 291–292, 351–352 Superhighway of the Future schools, 134 SWsoft/Parallels, 178, 179 T J Watson Research Center Department of Mathematical Sciences, 283 talent flow, 5–6 talent searches, 133–134 Tamkivi, Sten, 45–46, 134, 145–146, 188–189, 259, 287–288, 295 TaskPoint, 175 Tbilisi State University, 78, 233 TDC, 175, 176 teachers as mentors/role models, 253–258 teamwork, 280–288 TEC Club, 311–312 TEC Ventures, 163, 164, 301, 328, 348 Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, 225 technology sector 409 First Wave immigration, 152–155 impact of, 9–10 introduction to, Second Wave immigration, 162–178 Third Wave immigration, 183–194, 226–236 Tel Aviv University, 225 telecommunications, 167 Teleport, 45, 134, 189, 287 Temple University, 206 Teploukho, Mikita Mikado, 142, 250–251, 271, 385 Termez State University, 191 The Entrepreneurs’ Club (TEC), 274 The Indian Entrepreneurs (TiE), 275 Theory of Computation Group, 257 Therapeutic Institute at the University of Massachusetts Medical School, 334 Thermo Electron, 155, 159 Thermo Fisher Scientific, 155, 206, 215 Third Wave immigration biotech/pharma/medical startups during, 180–183, 221–225 brain drain, 106, 137 emigration and, 378–379 industry professionals, 226–236 intellectual recruitment, 93–97 interviews, 35–36, 140–147 introduction to, 11, 136–138 other industry startups, 194–198 overview, 38, 107–108 post-Soviet legal framework, 138–139 summary of, 376–378 technology sector, 183–194, 226–236 tracking of, 108–109, 140, 141, 141t US legal framework, 139–140 Thomas A Edison Patent Award, 200 3DBin, 340 Timur, Amir, 43 Tkhamadokova, Diana, 62–63, 360–361 TMT Investments, 188 Tocobox, 174, 286, 347 Together Networks, 197 Torchilin, Kate, 159–160, 259–260, 343 410 Torchilin, Vladimir, 49–50, 200–201, 269–270, 349–350 Trade Act (1972), 116 TrafficDNA, 196 TranscribeMe, 94, 288, 350 Traub, Joe, 257 Triple Helix, 186 Trosman, Eugene, 307 trust in workplace adaptation of soft skills, 309–322 Trusted Computing Group, 216 Tseytin, Gregory, 145, 346–347 Tufts Medical School, 159 Tufts University, 5, 209, 219, 259 Twilio, 142, 226, 305, 387 Ufa State University, 186 Ukraine, 47, 102, 137, 140, 141, 141t Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, 102 Ukrainian identity, 340 Ukrainian Parliament, 124 Ukrainian State Statistics Committee, 102 Unified National Exam, 83 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) See Soviet Union Unison Technologies, 176 United States (US) See also startups in the US educational system/workplace, 238–242 identity influences/theory, 391–393 immigration law, 109–110, 111–114 innovation economy, 199 legal framework, 115–116, 125–127, 139–140 overview, 2–3 software product companies, 101, 105, 106 talent flow from, 5–6 workplace system adaptation, 238–242 United Technologies, Universal Commerce Group, 197 University of California, 154, 160, 161, 211, 228, 254, 336 University of Colorado, 256 University of Illinois, 240 University of Kiev, 163 University of Manchester (U.K.), 63 Index University of Massachusetts, 94, 207, 220, 224 University of Massachusetts Medical School, 91, 206, 334 University of Michigan, 36, 240 University of Tartu, 189 University of Wisconsin, 162, 219 Upwardly Global, 262 US Bayh-Dole Act, 93 US Civilian Research and Development Foundation, 135 US Department of Citizenship and Immigration Services, 139 US Department of Homeland Security, 108, 109 US Industrial Partnering Program, 135 US innovation economy, 21, 199, 279, 321, 324, 373, 387–388 US-Israel relations, 116 US lab-to-lab activities, 135 US-Russia Business Council of New England, 272 US-Russia Chamber of Commerce of New England (USRCCNE), 263, 274 US State Department, 95, 108, 126 US tech sector, 101, 105, 106 USSR Academy of Sciences, 60 Uvarova, Anna, 185–186, 340 Vadem, 217 ValueSearch Capital Management, 121, 345 Vanik, Charles, 115 VASCO Data Security, 163 Vasilyev, Nikolay, 274–275, 368, 382–383, 386–387 VDOnet, 163 venture capital, 165, 166, 173, 196 verbal communication, 298–306 Veritas Software, 168 Verizon Communications, 48, 341, 378 Vertex Pharmaceuticals, 224 Viacom, Viki, 46, 78, 301, 314, 338, 387 VIRSTO Software, 169 virtual collaboration, 278 visa difficulties, 134–135 VISO, 175 VMware, 169 Index 411 Vodafone, 188 Voice of America, 39 Voskresenskiy, Anton, 230–231, 319–320, 336–337 Vybornov, Alexander, 52, 128–129, 156–157, 244–245, 388, 392 trust, 309–322 verbal communication, 298–306 workplace mentors, 258–262 workplace system (US) adaptation, 238–242 WWPASS Corporation, 40, 131 Wadhwa, Vivek, 259 Wakie, 144, 363 Wanderu.com, 176, 177, 340 Warelex, 174 Warner Lambert, 161 Washington Post, 169 William Jewell College, 95 Winestein, Anna, 239–240, 328 Witaschek, Yulia, 238–239, 284–285, 356–357 Wolfe, Thomas, 338 Wolfe Laboratories, 215 Wolfson, Alexey, 74, 255–256, 347–348, 392 Work and Travel Program, 96 workplace adaptation of soft skills communication style, 298 introduction to, 277–280 managerial and leadership styles, 288–298 nonverbal communication, 306–309 teamwork, 280–288 XTuit Pharmaceuticals, 209 Y Combinator, 194 Yang, David, 143–144, 183–185, 364 Yaroslavsky, Ilya, 260, 290–291, 357–358 Yearbook of Immigration Statistics (2013), 109 Yerevan State University, 226 Yosh Technology, 307 Young Chemists School, 59 Young Oktobrists, 69, 71 Young Pioneers, 48–52, 63, 69, 71 YouTube, 192 Zaporizhia State Medical University, 195 Zaytsev, Evgeny, 180–183, 366 Zennstrom, Niklas, 259 ZoolaTech, 232 zTrace, 171 .. .Hammer & Silicon: The Soviet Diaspora in the US Innovation Economy Immigration, Innovation, Institutions, Imprinting, and Identity This deeply personal book tells the untold story of the. .. Business Environment in Yaroslavl’ Oblast, 1990–1999, amongst other publications Hammer & Silicon: The Soviet Diaspora in the US Innovation Economy Immigration, Innovation, Institutions, Imprinting,... the US technology sector of the decline and collapse of the Soviet Union The distinctive foundation of this book is the 157 indepth interviews we conducted in the leading innovation hubs of Silicon