T h e Ox f o r d H a n d b o o k o f  M U SIC P SYC HOL O G Y the Oxford Handbook of MUSIC PSYCHOLOGY Second Edition Edited by SU S A N HA L L A M , IA N C R O S S , and M IC HA E L  T HAU T Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries © Oxford University Press 2016 The moral rights of the authors‌have been asserted First Edition published in 2009 Second Edition published in 2016 Impression: 1 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2015957148 ISBN 978–0–19–872294–6 Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY Oxford University Press makes no representation, express or implied, that the drug dosages in this book are correct Readers must therefore always check the product information and clinical procedures with the most up-to-date published product information and data sheets provided by the manufacturers and the most recent codes of conduct and safety regulations The authors and the publishers not accept responsibility or legal liability for any errors in the text or for the misuse or misapplication of material in this work Except where otherwise stated, drug dosages and recommendations are for the non-pregnant adult who is not breast-feeding Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and for information only Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials contained in any third party website referenced in this work Contents List of Contributors xi PA RT  1  T H E OR IG I N S A N D F U N C T ION S  OF  M U SIC Edited by Ian Cross The nature of music and its evolution  Ian Cross Universals in music processing: Entrainment, acquiring expectations, and learning  Catherine J Stevens and Tim Byron Music and meaning  Ian Cross and Elizabeth Tolbert The social and personal functions of music in cross-cultural perspective  Martin Clayton 19 33 47 PA RT  2  M U SIC P E RC E P T ION Edited by Ian Cross The perception of pitch  Thomas Stainsby and Ian Cross 63 Absolute pitch  Psyche Loui 81 Tonal cognition  Emmanuel Bigand and Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat 95 The perception of musical timbre  Stephen McAdams and Bruno L. Giordano 113 vi   Contents Musical time  Mari Riess Jones 125 10 Tonality and contour in melodic processing  Mark A. Schmuckler 143 11 Memory for music  Bob Snyder 167 PA RT  3  R E SP ON SE S TO  M U SIC Edited by Donald A. Hodges  12 Bodily responses to music  Donald A. Hodges 183  13 Emotional reactions to music  Patrik N. Juslin 197  14 The relationship between musical structure and perceived expression  Alf Gabrielsson 215  15 Aesthetics  David Huron 233  16 The neuroaesthetics of music  Donald A. Hodges 247  17 Musical preferences  Alinka Greasley and Alexandra Lamont 263 PA RT  4  M U SIC A N D T H E  B R A I N Edited by Jessica A. Grahn  18 The neurobiology of musical expectations from perception to emotion  Laurel J. Trainor and Robert J. Zatorre 285  19 Disorders of music cognition  Psyche Loui 307  20 Music and brain plasticity  Simone Dalla Bella 325 Contents   vii  21 The relationship between music and language  Sebastian Jentschke 343  22 The neuroscience of rhythm  Daniel J. Cameron and Jessica A. Grahn 357 PA RT  5  M U SIC A L DE V E L OP M E N T Edited by Alexandra Lamont  23 Prenatal development and the phylogeny and ontogeny of musical behavior  Richard Parncutt 371  24 Infant musicality  Sandra E. Trehub 387 25 Musical development from the early years onwards Alexandra Lamont 399  26 Music training and nonmusical abilities  E Glenn Schellenberg 415 PA RT  6  L E A R N I N G M U SIC A L  SK I L L S Edited by Susan Hallam  27 Musical potential  Gary E McPherson and Susan Hallam 433  28 Practicing  Harald Jørgensen and Susan Hallam 449  29 Individuality in the learning of musical skills  Helena Gaunt and Susan Hallam 463  30 Motivation to learn  Susan Hallam 479  31 The role of the family in supporting learning  Andrea Creech 493  32 The role of the institution and teachers in supporting learning  Graham Welch and Adam Ockelford 509 viii   Contents PA RT  7  M U SIC A L P E R F OR M A N C E Edited by Richard Parncutt  33 Planning and performance  Eckart Altenmüller and Shinichi Furuya 529  34 Sight-reading  Andreas C Lehmann and Reinhardt Kopiez 547  35 Performing from memory  Roger Chaffin, Alexander P. Demos, and Topher Logan 559  36 Bodily mediated coordination, collaboration, and communication in music performance  Jane W. Davidson and Mary C. Broughton  37 Emotion in music performance  Patrik N Juslin and Erik Lindström 573 597  38 Expression and communication of structure in music performance: Measurements and models  Erica Bisesi and W Luke Windsor 615  39 Optimizing physical and psychological health in performing musicians  Dianna T Kenny and Bronwen J Ackermann 633 PA RT  8  C OM P O SI T ION A N D I M P ROV I S AT ION Edited by Peter R. Webster  40 Making a mark: The psychology of composition  Jonathan Impett 651 41 Musical improvisation Richard Ashley 667  42 Pathways to the study of music composition by preschool to precollege students  Peter R. Webster 681 Contents   ix PA RT  9  T H E ROL E OF M U SIC I N OU R E V E RY DAY  L I V E S Edited by Raymond MacDonald  43 Choosing to hear music: Motivation, process, and effect  Alexandra Lamont, Alinka Greasley, and John Sloboda 711 44 Music in performance arts: Film, theater, and dance Annabel J. Cohen 725 45 Peak experiences in music Alf Gabrielsson, John Whaley, and John Sloboda 745  46 Musical identities  David J. Hargreaves, Raymond MacDonald, and Dorothy Miell 759  47 The effects of music in community and educational settings  Susan Hallam and Raymond MacDonald 775  48 Music and consumer behavior  Adrian C. North, David J. Hargreaves, and Amanda E. Krause 789 PA RT  10  M U SIC T H E R A P Y Edited by Michael Thaut  49 Processes of music therapy: Clinical and scientific rationales and models  Shannon K de l’etoile 805  50 Clinical practice in music therapy  Corene Hurt-Thaut 819  51 Research in music therapy  Barbara L. Wheeler 837  52 Music therapy in medical and neurological rehabilitation settings  Stefan Mainka, Ralph Spintge, and Michael Thaut 857 936   Index motor primitives  535 motor programming  576–7, 618–19 motor rehabilitation, music therapy  825, 828–9, 858–9 motor skills, fine  530 acquisition 535–7 brain plasticity  329, 538–9 motor systems auditory interactions  see auditory-motor interactions body movements in performance  576–7 planning and performance  530–3 plasticity  327, 329, 538–9 rhythm perception  358–9, 360 movement, music and, therapeutic  822 moving images, role of music  726–32 moving in time to music function of music  51, 53, 55 infants 392 role of expectations  294 universals 22–3 Mozart, W.A.  493, 547, 560, 658 Symphony no. 40, K. 550:  882, 883 Mozart effect  332 MP3 format  711–12 MRI  see magnetic resonance imaging multimedia experience, music in  726–37 multiple sclerosis  811, 828, 844 Münsterberg, H. 726 MUSACT model  102–4 MUSCI (Musical Self-Concept Inquiry) 768, 769 muscle injuries, musicians  634–5 music, definition  50–1, 763 Musicae Scientiae (journal)  878 musical attention control learning (MACT) 830 Musical Creativities in Practice (Burnard) 685–6 musical disorders, cognitive  see disorders of musical cognition musical executive function training (MEFT) 831 musical mnemonics training (MMT)  831 musical neglect training (MNT)  831 musical sensory orientation training (MSOT) 830 musical speech stimulation (MUSTIM)  829 music analysis  880–90 Music-COMP project  691–2 Music Genres-Clips-Test (MG-CT)  266 musicians amateur 472, 482 brain plasticity  325, 326–9, 538–9 defining 763–4 family influences  493–504 gender differences  473 health optimization  633–42 individual differences  463–73 language and music processing  346–8 mid-life crisis of young  495, 498 motivation 479–88 musical expectations  289, 290, 291 musical identities  470, 482, 483 peak experiences  751 perception of emotional expression  223 personality 472 productive vs receptive  763–4 professional 471–2 psychophysiological responses  191 rhythm perception  360–2 roles of institutions and teachers  509–23 speech perception  416 views on expression  600 see also performance, musical; training, music music information retrieval (MIR) systems 149–50 music in identities (MII)  760 MUSIC model  264, 267, 770 musicogenic meaning  42 Music Perception (journal)  878 music performance anxiety (MPA)  639–42 music theory  880–90 music therapy bodily responses and  183–4 children  824–6, 862, 866 clinical practice  819–32 community music vs.  776 components 819–20 definitions 819, 839–40 geriatric population  826–7 history 820–1 medical settings  846–7, 857, 862–6 neurological disorders  see neurologic music therapy Index   937 overlap with music psychology  879–80 pain therapy  715–16, 862–6 psychiatric disorders  821–4 rationales and models  805–14 treatment process  820 music therapy research  837–49 discipline 839–40, 841–7 foundational 840, 848–9 meta-analyses 790, 841 profession 840, 847–8 publications 838–9 quantitative and qualitative  839 reviews 840–1 Musikpsychologie (Kurth)  894–5 Näätänen, R. 289 Nadal, M.  254–5, 255 Nagel, J.J.  481 naloxone 240 National Association for Music Therapy (NAMT) 837 National Curriculum (NC), UK  520, 696 nativist fallacy  202 Nattiez, J.-J.  52 natural musical abilities (gifts)  439–40 see also gifted children, musically natural selection  4, 8, 240 natural signs, Peirce’s  34–5 nature–nurture debate  909–10 absolute pitch  81–2, 90, 440–1 infant musicality  378, 387 musical potential  433–4 see also innateness neo-hedonism 237–8 neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), music therapy 846 nerve compression disorders, musicians  635 Nettl, Bruno  6, 48, 49, 55, 659 neural excitation pattern  65 neuroaesthetics 247–56 defined 249 frameworks for research  249–52 historical development  247–8 philosophers vs.  248–9 review of research  252–6 neurobiology  see neuroscience neurochemistry music 190, 254 pleasure 238 neurocinematics 725 neuroeconomics 298 neuroimaging absolute pitch  85–6 aesthetic appraisal  253, 254, 255–6 amusia 310–11 history 898–900 musicians vs nonmusicians  326–8 planning and performance  534–5 see also functional neuroimaging neurological disorders musicians 635 music therapy  see neurologic music therapy neurologic music therapy (NMT)  806, 857–62, 899–900, 906 clinical applications  827–31, 858 cognitive rehabilitation  830–1, 860 outcome studies  844, 858–60 scientific models  806–14, 860–1 sensorimotor rehabilitation  828–9, 858–9 speech rehabilitation  829–30, 859–60 neurophysiological studies absolute pitch  84–5 children 400, 401 language and music overlap  350–1 meter perception  132–3 musical expectations  132–3, 286–93 planning and performance  533–4 neuroplasticity  see brain plasticity neuropsychological studies, absolute pitch 89–90 neuroscience absolute pitch  84–9 approaches to music therapy  806–14 disorders of musical cognition  310–13 future directions  908 history of research  898–901 improvisation 672–3 meaning in music  42 musical expectations  285–99 planning and performance  530–42 rhythm 358–64 see also cognitive neuroscience newborn infants language and music perception  344–5 musicality 378, 401 938   Index Nichols, J. 700 Nietzsche, Friedrich  226, 894 noise, vs music  51 nondiatonic tones  97, 101 non-diegetic music  727 North, A.C.  791–2, 793–5, 797–8 Northern Ewe culture, Ghana  509 nostalgia  200, 201, 204, 205, 208, 717 notation, music, perception  550 note density, emotional expression  218 nucleus accumbens  297 nursery rhymes  151 occupational settings, listening to music 714 Ockelford, A.  776, 881–3, 885–6 octave scrambling  171 odd-ball paradigm  84 Odena, O.  698–9 Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) 519 Ohgushi, K. 348 older adults  see elderly Olds, James  238 olivocochlear system  65 omega sign  329 Omigie, D. 317 O’Neill, S.  41, 499, 711 ontogeny, musical behavior  371, 373–7 open-earedness, age-related changes  268, 404, 766 openness-to-experience 267, 424 open skills  547 opera 732–3 OPERA hypothesis (Patel)  346 operant conditioning, prenatal  380 opiates, endogenous  238, 240 oral motor and respiratory exercises (OMREX) 830 oral traditions  561 orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), aesthetic appraisal 255–6 orchestration 119–21 Origin of Species (Darwin)  ornamentation 96, 604–5 oscillations, neural meter/rhythm perception  128–31, 134, 358, 362–3 musical expectations  287, 294–5, 296 Oura, Y. 402 outer hair cells (OHCs)  64, 65 overuse injuries  634–5 prevention 636–8 treatment 635–6 Overy, K. 348 Owen, K.  790–1 oxytocin 238, 379 Paananen, P.  403, 675 Paavilainen, P. 289 pain management, music for 715–16, 862–6 acute pain and stress  862–5 chronic pain  865–6 Palmer, C. 316 Pantev, C. 289 Panzarella, R.  746, 750–1, 753 Papageorgi, I.  516–18 paralimbic system  256 parallel 5ths and 8ves, avoiding  73 Paraskeva, S.  120–1 Paravicini, Derek  511–14, 515 parentese  see infant-directed speech parent–infant interactions  see mother–infant interactions parent–pupil–teacher interaction  499–503 categories 500, 501 control and responsiveness  499–500 differences among clusters of types  500–3 parents 493–504 behavioral support  495–6 cognitive/intellectual support  496–7 personal support  497–8 potential for conflict  498–9 prevention of performance anxiety  642 role in child’s motivation  485–6 supportive involvement  494–8, 503 parietal lobe  86, 327, 328, 531–2 Parker, Charlie  670 Parker, Evan  659 Parkinson’s disease (PD)  359, 828, 858, 859–60 Parncutt, R. 622 Partch, Harry  74 partials 64 Partti, H. 697 Index   939 part–whole transfer of training  454 Pasiali, V.  806–7, 811–12 Patel, A.D.  346, 348, 349, 350, 362, 364 patterned sensory enhancement (PSE) 812, 828–9 pattern-matching model, pitch perception 68–9 pauses, emotional expression  221 peacefulness 208 peak/strong experiences  745–55, 906 everyday listening vs.  754–5 factors influencing  750–3 in literature  745–7 nature 747–50 neurobiology 238, 295–7 study methodology  753–4 Pearce, M.  250, 254–5 peer group influences  485 Peirce, C.S.  34–5 pelog scale  74, 391 perception, music grouping and segmentation  21–2 history of research  894–5, 897–8, 899, 901–2 influences of tonal hierarchies  104–7 melody 143–7 neuroaesthetics research  253 pitch 63–76 research needs  907–8 timbre 113–21 time 125–38 perceptual models, musical expression  623 perceptual span, sight-readers  550 Peretz, I.  13, 317 perfect pitch  see absolute pitch performance, musical bodily behaviors  573–88 communication through  see communication in performance computational model  542 development in childhood  404–5 emotional expression  597–610 measuring 616–21 from memory  see memorized performance modeling 598, 621–5 musicological studies  625–6 music therapy  822 planning and  529–42 preparation strategies  455 performance anxiety, music (MPA)  639–42 performance arts, music in  725–38 performance cues  562, 566–8 performance plan  453 Performance Worm  624 periodicity pitch  70 Perry, M. 670 Persian music  74 personality expression in music  224 impact of background music and  780–1 musical identity and  769–70 musical preferences and  266–7 musicians 472 music training and  423–4 peak experiences and  751–2 personal support, parental  497–8 personhood 761 Peruvian highland music  47, 49 PET  see positron emission tomography Pfordresher, P.Q.  309, 316 phase locking  67 Phillips-Silver, J. 310 phonological awareness, music training and  416, 417 phrasing 622 phylogeny, musical behavior  371–2, 377–80 physical activity  see exercise physical force schemas  42 physical responses to music  183, 748–9 physiological measurements, performance 616–17 physiological responses to music  183, 896 dissonance 235 film scores  729 musical preferences and  269 music-evoked emotions  199 research findings  185, 186–7 physiological state, regulation  54 pianists acquisition of motor skills  535–6, 537 bodily behaviors  577, 579–80 brain plasticity  329, 538 focal dystonia  534, 539, 540 measurement of performance  616, 617–18 parental support  495 practicing 450, 451 sight-reading  551, 552, 553 synchronized duets  580–1 940   Index Piano Camera  616 Pinker, Steven  9, 657 pioneering axon theory  88 pitch absolute  see absolute pitch awareness, in amusia  314–15, 318–19 children’s understanding  399–401 defined 63–4 emotional expression  219–20 expectations 288–92 features encoded in memory  171 frequency and  63–8 in improvisation  670–1 instrument identification and  117 intra-key hierarchies  97–9 patterns 71–2 proximity  25, 72–3, 150–1 relative 82 residue (periodicity, virtual, low)  70 scale-step context  171 in speech  75 structuring into scales  73–5 timbre relations and  115–16 pitch chroma  95 pitch classes  95, 101 pitch-class set analysis  880, 884–5, 888 pitch contour emotional expression  220 expectations 289, 290 maternal–infant communications  345 melody perception  150–1 speech 75 see also melodic contour pitch height  95 emotional expression and  219–20, 222 understanding in childhood  400 pitch intervals chords 98 expectations 289, 290 in musical memory  171, 172 musical scales  97 pitch perception  63–76 amusia 314 auditory system physiology  64–6 childhood development  399–400 cochlear implant (CI) users  70–1 complex tones  68–71 higher-order processing and organization 71–5 pure tones  67–8 pitch reversal  25 Pitts, S.  482, 485, 486 place coding, frequency  65–6, 67–8 placental hormones  379–80 planning and performance  529–42 acquiring fine motor skills  535–7 brain plasticity  538–9 disrupted  see focal dystonia neuroanatomy and neurophysiology  530–5 Plantinga, J. 402 planum temporale (PT)  85–6, 326 plasticity, brain  see brain plasticity play  380, 653, 762 pleasure 238 aesthetic 233 from making music  486 musically evoked  239–40 pluralism 238–40 see also peak/strong experiences Plomp, Reinier  71, 235 Poehlmann, K. 188 polyphonic music, expectations  289, 290 polytonality, perception of  151 poor pitch singing  309 pop music, consumer behavior and  795–6 Porter, S.Y.  468 positive psychology  767 positron emission tomography (PET) 295–7, 898 absolute pitch  86 improvisation 672 planning and performance  534 posture, musicians  637 potential, musical  433–43 actualization 441–3 children with exceptional  434–5 differentiated model  438–9 measuring 438 natural musical abilities  439–41 nature–nurture debate  433–4 role of learning  436–7 Potter, J.  516–18 Pournaseh, M. 421 Povel, D.J.  126–8, 357–8 Index   941 power 208 powerful impact of music  905–6 practice, musical  449–58, 529–30 acquisition of fine motor skills  535–6 age of starting  450, 529–30 deliberate  436, 451, 452, 529 effective, defined  449 individual differences  470 learning environment effects  457 metastrategies 456 monitoring effectiveness  455–6 motivation to 452 organization 452–3 parental support  495 planning strategies  452–3 quality 452–6 quantity  see time spent practicing rehearsals in small groups  456–7 role in expertise  436–7 sight-reading 553 strategies for conduct of  454–5 variable 454 see also training, music prägnanz, gestalt law of  151 praxis 761 precentral gyrus  531 predictive timing  294–5, 296 preference for prototypes theory  272 preferences, musical  198, 263–77 childhood/adolescence  267–8, 388–9, 404 degree 266 interrelations of factors shaping  271–6 listener-related factors influencing 266–70 musical identity and  268, 769 musical styles influencing  263–6 situations and contexts influencing  270–1 premotor area (PMA)  531, 532, 535 prenatal development  371–81 auditory and vestibular function  373 emotional responses  376–7 influences on postnatal behavior  380 research needs  910–11 see also fetus; newborn infants Prespa Albanian song  49 Pressing, J.  26, 674 Price, H.E.  583 pride 200, 204 priming background music-induced  792 memory 171 music perception  106–7 timbre perception in children  402 Prince, V.  441–3 private study, listening to music during  714 probe tone method  97, 99, 145–8 procedural knowledge  669 procedural memory  169–70 processing fluency theory of aesthetic pleasure 235 prodigies, musical  251, 434–5, 439, 440 production, music development 401, 404–5 disorders of  308, 315 see also performance, musical program music, emotional expression  223–4 prolactin 717 proof-reader’s errors  552 proprioception, prenatal development  374 prosody 36–7, 348 emotional 349 protomusical behavior  11, 372 prototypes musical memory  175 theory of preferences for  272 proxemics 587–8 Pruett, K.  493, 498–9 pseudo-polyphony 72 psychiatric disorders diathesis stress model  90 music therapy  821–4, 843–4 psychoacoustics 63, 654 psychobiological theory, Berlyne’s  40, 235, 272 psychocinematics 725 psychological health, performing musicians 638–42 psychology of music history and research  893–902 interfaces with other disciplines 877–90, 912–13 meaning in music  40–2, 43 Psychology of Music (journal)  877–8, 879 Psychomusicology (journal)  878 942   Index psychophysiological responses to music 183–93, 896 during chills  191 to emotions  186–8 inconsistency of findings  185–6 multivariate approaches  188–9 musical excerpt length and complexity 192 in musical performers  191 naturalistic settings  192 pain management  863–5 role of musical structures  189–90 see also physiological responses psychotherapy music 822 for performance anxiety  641–2 public transport, listening to music  713 pulse rate  see heart rate purchasing behavior, effects of music  795–6 pure data Director Musices (pDM)  624 pure tones  64, 67–8 qualitative music therapy research  839 quantitative music therapy research  839 Quinn, I.  149 ragas, North Indian  74 Raglio, A. 845 Ramachandran, V. 249 Randles, C. 702 random fluctuations, GERMS model  598 Rathunde, K. 496 rational-scientific mediating model (R-SMM) 806–11, 828 neurological foundations of music  808–9 physiological foundations of music  809–10 psychological foundations of music 810–11 Rauscher, F.H.  419 reality orientation therapy  827 recall melody 172 rhythm 172–3 reciprocal feedback model of musical response (RFM)  263, 273, 275 recognition heuristic  797 recognition memory  170 reference, and meaning  33, 34 referentialism, vs absolutism  215–16 refractory period, auditory neurones  67 rehabilitation amusia 319 neurological disorders  829–31, 857–62 soft tissue injuries  636 rehearsal evolution of bodily gestures  582 small group strategies  456–7 Reid, A. 471 relative pitch (RP)  82 relative timing  363 relaxation listening to music during  715 musical, role of timbre  120–1 music therapy programs  823 religious faith  226 reminiscence 717, 827 Renkewitz, F. 790 Rentfrow, P.J.  264–7, 269, 271, 769–70 repetition, musical  235, 883 Repp, B.H.  362, 615, 617, 620 representative design  605–6 research collaboration 912–13 historical development  893–902 methodological limitations  912 music therapy  837–49 residue pitch  70 resonance, neural  129, 131, 358 respiration during chill responses  191 entrainment to tempo  186, 187 respiratory disorders, music therapy  809–10 rest, for overuse injuries  636 restaurants, background music in  795–6, 798 retail settings, background music in  789–99 Réti, R.  885, 888–9 retraining, for physical injuries  636 reward system  295–8 rhetoric, science of  36 rhythm accelerating 23 children’s understanding  401–2 defined  363 emotional expression  221 expectations 294–5 in expert performance  620 Index   943 ‘free’ 23 in improvisation  671 memory for  172–3 music therapy and  808–9, 860 rhythmic auditory stimulation (RAS)  825, 828, 844, 859 rhythmic entrainment  see entrainment rhythmic groupings  125, 126 rhythmic speech cuing (RSC)  829, 859 rhythm perception  133–5, 357–64 infants 391 meter perception vs.  131, 133–4 models 357–8 neuroscientific studies  358–64 RICH (retrograde inversional chain) 882, 889 Rickard, N.S.  763–4 Riley, P. 692 ritardando 623 ritual  6, 49, 380 rondo form  235 Roseman, M.  50, 54 Rosenberg, J.C.  348, 350 Ross, B.  289, 291 Ross, D.A.  83 Ross, S.L.  455 Rothschild, I. 225 roughness, auditory  120, 121 Rousseau, J.-J.  51, 344 Royal College of Music, London  890 Rubinstein, Anton  568 rule-based models expressive performance  623–4, 625 rhythm perception  357–8 Rumelhard, D.E.  102 Rytkönen, M.  289 Saarinen, J. 289 sad music bodily responses  185, 186, 187–8, 189 pleasure from listening to  206–7, 717 sadness 208 expression in music  601, 603, 604 induced by music  200, 201, 204 Saffran, J.R.  343, 345 Sagan, O. 421 Sahasrabuddhe, Veena  54 Saldanha, E.L.  116 Savage, J. 696 savants, musical  251, 434, 435 case example  511–14, 515 Sawyer, R. Keith  675, 683–4 scale illusion  151 scales, musical  74–5, 95 infant sensitivity  391 memory for music and  172 scary music  see fearful music Schäfer, T.  264, 265, 266, 271 Schellenberg, E.G.  332, 402, 403, 420–1, 765, 769 schemas, memory  169, 170, 171, 560–1 Schenck, D.L.  735 Schenker, H.  884–5 Scherer, K. 733 schizophrenia 843 Schlaug, G.  85, 317 Schmuckler, M.A.  145–8, 149, 152, 153–5, 156, 157 Schoenberg, A.  74, 117, 652, 653, 884 Schön, Daniele  349 schools background music  779–82 benefits of music-making  778–9 composition by students  682–3, 689–99, 700–2 learning music skills  468–70 motivating students to learn  485 supporting music learning  519–22 Schopenhauer, Arthur  226, 893–4 Schouten, J.F.  70 Schröger, E. 289 Schubert, E.  207, 273–5, 603 Schwarzer, G. 417 Scruton, Roger  38 Seashore, Carl  256, 438, 616, 894 sedative music  184, 185 Seddon, F.  456–7, 675 Sedlmeier, P.  264, 265, 266, 790 segmentation, perceptual  21–2, 174 self, incremental theory of  494 self-concept (self-image)  50, 761 development 765 dimensionality of musical  768–9 role in motivation  482, 483 self-determination model  794 self-determination theory  494, 766–7 944   Index self-efficacy beliefs  482 self-esteem 761 self-identity 761 self-system 761 semantic memory  169 semantics, language and music  350–1, 901 semantic theories, meaning  34, 35, 38 semiotics 35, 52 sense, and meaning  33, 34 sensitive (critical) periods absolute pitch development  82 music training  330, 530 sensorimotor rehabilitation, music therapy 828–9, 858–9 sensory homunculus  532 sensory motor systems, plasticity  538–9 sequential auditory streaming  72 serial changes  135 serial time spans  125, 126 serotonin 190, 254 sexually differentiated roles  9–10 sexual selection  4, 8, 240 Shaffer, L.H.  577, 616, 618–19 shared syntactic integration resource hypothesis (SSIRH)  349 Shavinina, L.V.  435 Shibazaki, K. 698 shivers  189, 190, 239 short-term memory (STM)  168 Short Test of Musical Preferences (STOMP) 264, 267 revised (STOMP-R)  264–6, 268 Siebel, W.A.  345 sight-reading 547–55 eye movements  548–50 inner hearing  551 learning 552–4 memory processes  550–1 problem-solving processes  551–2 signature tunes, maternal  387 significance, of music  33 Silverman, M. 761 Simmel, M. 726 Simonton, D.K.  727, 732 simultaneous auditory streaming  72 sine tone  64 singers bodily behaviors  575–6, 577–8, 586 communication with audience  583–4 see also choral singers/choristers singing benefits of community-based  777 communication via 54 development in childhood  392–3, 404–5, 466–8 distinction from speech  51–2 gender differences  518–19 gender stereotyping  469 infant-directed  see infant-directed singing poor pitch  309 therapeutic (TS)  830 therapeutic value  809–10 Sistema-type programs  523 sketches, composer’s  660 skills, musical development 404–5, 437 individuality in learning  463–73 innate, in infancy  378, 407 role of memory  169–70 skin conductance  187, 188, 191, 199, 583, 896 Skov, M. 249 slendro scale  74 Slevc, L.R.  345, 350 Slobin, M. 39 Sloboda, J.A chills/strong experiences  189, 751, 752, 753 composition  653, 654, 658, 660, 883 experience sampling method  41, 711 features of a research program  249, 256 memory for music  172 music education vs music psychology  879 parental support  495 practicing 451, 453 sight-reading  548, 550, 552 small-world networks, absolute pitch subjects 88–9 Smith, B.K.  115 Smith, J.  681, 689, 701–2 Snowball (the cockatoo)  364, 737 Snyder, J.S.  358, 362 Soares, J. 694 social behavior, evolution of human  12–13 social bonding/cohesion functions of music  52–3, 55, 56 human evolution  10 musical preferences  268 Index   945 music-making in schools  779 music training and  423 social context emotional responses to music  200–1 musical form reflecting  225–6 musical meaning  39–40 musical preferences  270 strong experiences with music  752–3 social dance  736–7 social development, music therapy interventions 826 social ecology theory  510 social-emotional skills, music training and 423–4 social functions of music  906 cross-cultural perspective  47–56 evolutionary aspects  6, 10–11 social learning  606 social psychology of music  791 social science model, music therapy  805 sociocentric self  50 socio-cultural approaches composition by children  687, 688 creativity 683, 684–6 solfège instruction  82 solo performers, bodily behaviors  575, 577–8, 580, 581–2, 585 somatization/somatoform disorders  636 somatosensory area, primary (S1)  531–2 somatosensory feedback  531 somatotopic representation  532 song  see singing Sosniak, L.A.  495 sound music as 6 nonmusical vs musical  51 perception  see hearing source identification  116–17 source identity, recognition  116–17 Spackman, M.P.  727 spatial abilities amusia 315 music training effects  418–19 special musicians  251 see also savants, musical specific language impairment (SLI) 348, 349–50 spectral centroid  115 spectral flux  115 spectral irregularity  115 spectrum, emotional expression  219 speech distinction from song  51–2 function of pitch  75 infant-directed  see infant-directed speech production, in amusia  318–19 rehabilitation 829–30, 859–60 see also language speech perception in amusia  317–18 music training and  416–17 speed of customer activity, effects of music 798 Spencer, Herbert  4, 606 Spencer’s law  606 spiral-array model of tonality  148–9 sportspeople, listening to music  715 spreading activation  273–5 Spychiger, M.B.  768–9 stability, musical, tonal hierarchy and  106 staccato 221 Stalinski, S.M.  403 standard paradigm, emotional expression 600–1 statistical-ideographic approach  209 statistical learning amusia 316–17 language and music  345, 349 musical structures  25–6 prenatal 375 steady-state evoked potentials (SSEPs), rhythm perception  362–3 Steedman, M. 674 Steinbeis, N. 350 stereotyping gender-appropriateness of instruments 468–9 music fans  268–9 Stewart, L. 317 stimulative music  183–4, 185 psychophysiological responses  189–90 Stoeckig, K. 106 STOMP  see Short Test of Musical Preferences Stravinsky, Igor  216, 657, 660, 662, 669 Petroushka 151 streaming, auditory  72–3, 119 946   Index stream segregation, auditory melody perception  150–1 pitch perception  72, 73 role of timbre  119 strength training  637–8 stress maternal–fetal communication  379 music for alleviating  862–5 performing musicians  191, 638–9 stretching 638 striatum 295–8 Stringham, D.  701, 702 string players  329, 472, 538–9, 577 see also violinists stroke  808–9, 812–13, 859 strong experiences  see peak/strong experiences Strong Experiences with Music Descriptive System (SEM-DS)  747, 748–50, 754 Strong Experiences with Music (SEM) project  747, 751, 752, 753–4 structural-functional models, key-finding 144–5 structure, musical aesthetic value  235 children’s understanding  402–3 defined 215 emotional expression and  218–23 expression and communication in performance 615–26 hierarchical, in Western music  95–7 memory for  562–3 music theory/music psychology interface 885–90 other referential meanings  223–6 performance modeling and  622 psychophysiological responses and 189–90 statistical learning  25–6 Stumpf, Carl  235, 894 styles, musical children’s understanding  404 consumer behavior and  795–7 liberalization of attitudes  762–3 preferences for  264–6 stylistic unexpectedness, GERMS model  598 subcortical processing, language and music 346–7 Sugarman, J.C.  49 Sundberg, J.  623–4 superior longitudinal fasciculus  87–8 superior temporal gyrus (STG) absolute pitch  85–7, 88 amusia 311 pitch perception  66 superior temporal sulcus (STS), absolute pitch 86–7 supplementary motor area (SMA)  531, 532, 535 surface, musical, in memory formation  173, 174, 175 surprise 204–5, 208 Suzuki method  332, 494 Swain, D. 419 Swami, V. 267 Swiss army knife metaphor  237–8 symbolic communication training through music (SYCOM)  830 symbolic domain  35 symbolic representation  55 synchronization childhood development  401 emotional responses to music  199 ensemble performances  580–1 see also entrainment; moving in time to music syncopations 751 synesthesia 89–90, 657 syntax, language and music  349–50, 908 systematic design  606 systematic reviews  840–1 systems theory  499, 510 tachistoscopic presentation  550 taksim, Turkish  23 tal 22 Tan, S.-L.  727 tapping  22, 128, 363 taste, musical  263 Taylor, Cecil  659 teachers, music attitudes to composition  698–9 career pathways  471–2 influence on practice  457 motivating students  485, 486 parent and pupil interactions  499–503 Index   947 supporting learning  509–23 teaching, composition in schools 689–91, 701–2 technique, maladaptive  637 technology impact on availability of music  711–12, 762, 907 use in composition by children  693–5 teleosemantic theory  43 television, music in  725, 730 Temiar, Malaysia  47, 50 Temperley, D. 881 tempo bodily responses and  186–7 children’s understanding  401–2 defined  363 emotional expression  218, 222, 604 practicing to increase  454–5 sight-reading studies  549 speed of consumer activity and  798 temporal accents  136–7 temporal coding, frequency  67–8 temporal coherence boundary  73 temporal lobe  673 temporal model, pitch perception  68–9 temporal structures children’s understanding  401–2 nonperiodic 23 universals 22–3 see also meter; rhythm tenderness  200, 208, 601, 603 tendon injuries, musicians  634–5 tension evoked by music  200, 208 musical 120–1, 221–2 Tenzer, M. 26 Tervaniemi, M.  247, 250, 255, 289 Tesch-Römer, C.  436, 529 Thaut, M.H clinical use of music therapy  823, 831, 859 models of music therapy  806–7, 811–13, 828, 860–1 theater 725–6, 732–4 therapeutic instrumental music performance (TIMP) 829 therapeutic singing (TS)  830 therapy, music  see music therapy theremin 625 ‘they’re playing our song’ phenomenon 204, 376 Thibeault, M.D.  697 Thomas, D.A.  36 Thorpe, V.  696–7 thrills  see chills Tibetan monastic music  23 timbre 113–21 acoustic correlates  114–15 blending 120 children’s understanding  402 emotional expression  219 intervals 117–18 multidimensional attributes  113–16 musical grouping and  118–19 pitch changes and  115–16 role in musical tension  120–1 source identification using  116–17 space models  114, 115 structuring music perception  119–21 time, musical  125–38 children’s understanding  401–2 in improvisation  671 marking, accent salience and  135–7 moving in  see moving in time to music music therapy and  860–1 see also meter; rhythm; temporal structures time perception, effects of music  798–9 time-shrinking phenomenon  134–5 time spent practicing  449–52 accumulated 436, 450 assessment and  451–2 different instruments  450–1 musical expertise and  436, 451 a single composition  451 timing absolute  363 in expert performance  620 expressive  173, 620, 623 predictive 294–5, 296 relative  363 Titon, J.T.  39 Tobias, E.S.  692 Tobudic, A. 624 Todd, N.P.M  624 Toiviainen, P.  670–1 Tolbert, E.  7, 880 Tomasello, M. 401 948   Index Tomovski, R.  145–8 tonal cognition  95–108 tonal consonance  71 tonal hierarchies  95–108 defined 96–7 event hierarchies and  107–8 inter-key distances  99–100 intra-key hierarchies  97–9 two models  100–4 Western music perception and  104–7 tonality children’s understanding  399–401 emotional expression  220 in improvisation  670–1 in melody perception  143–4, 150–6 models 144–9 in musical memory  105–6, 156, 172 in perceptual organization  150–2, 153, 154, 155 tonal languages  75, 82 processing, in amusia  318 tonal music  95 tonal pitch space theory (TPST)  100–2 tone-deafness (congenital amusia) 307, 308–9 childhood 309 neuroscientific studies  310–13 rehabilitation 319 speech and language effects  317–19 theories of  313–17 tones anchoring  96, 97, 99, 108 complex, perception of pitch  68–71 diatonic 97, 101 mistuned, perception  104 nondiatonic 97, 101 pure 64, 67–8 tonic-finding task  145–8 tonic note  97 tonic tone  97, 101 tonotopic coding, frequency  65–6 training, music absolute pitch and  82, 83 brain plasticity  325, 326–8 early childhood, brain changes  331–3 enculturation vs.  405 general cognitive abilities and  420–3 linguistic processing effects  346, 347 musical development in childhood and 400 nonmusical abilities and  415–25 short-term brain changes in adults 329–31 sight-reading 553–4 social-emotional skills, personality and 423–4 specific cognitive abilities and  416–20 transfer  see transfer of training/learning see also learning; musicians; practice, musical Trainor, L.J.  289, 291, 292, 293, 400–1, 402 trajectory, musical preferences  267–8 trance 750, 754 transcendence  208, 226, 749 transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) 330 transfer of training/learning  454, 778–9 linguistic processing  346, 349, 416–18 nonmusical abilities  331–2, 415–25, 778–9 part–whole 454 transformational design model (TDM) 811–13 transmission models  52 transnatal memory  375–6 transposition 117–18, 156 traumatic brain injury  825, 828, 858 travel, listening to music  712–13 Trevarthen, C.  379, 437, 761–2, 765 triads 98–9 trill 604–5 trill threshold  73 Truitt, F.E.  550 trumpet players  329 truth values  34 Tumbuka, Malawi  52–3 Turino, T.  47, 49, 53 Turner, M.  655–6 ugliness 233 universals, music processing  5–6, 19–27 aesthetic appreciation  251 emotional responding  23–4, 208 grouping and segmentation  21–2 infants 26, 391–2 Index   949 logical problem  20–1 long-term memory processes  24–6 moving together in time  22–3 research issues  19–20 uses of music  48 valence  184, 198, 253 Valentine, E. 451 validation therapy  827 valproate 82 VanHandel, L.  42, 225 van Noorden, L.P.A.S.  73 variation form  235 Västfjäll, D.  24, 205 Velso, A. 693 Venda, southern Africa  6, 39, 40 ventriloquism effect  574 Vermont MIDI project  691–2 vestibular system, prenatal development 373 vibrato, instrument identification  116 vicarious functioning  608 Viladot, L.  692–3 violinists  329, 450–1, 495, 538–9 Virtual Philarmony  625 virtual pitch  70 visiting behavior, consumer, effects of music 794–5 visual imagery  204 visual memory  563 visuospatial abilities  see spatial abilities vocal intonation therapy (VIT)  829–30 vocal utterance  51, 53–4 Vom Musikalisch-Schönen (Hanslick)  234 voxel-based morphometry (VBM) congenital amusia  310, 311 musicians 534–5 Vuvan, D.T.  152, 153, 153, 154, 155, 156 Vygotsky, L.  509–10 Wagner, M.J.  450, 451 Wagner, Richard  192, 203–4 Wakefield, E.M.  727 Wallas, G. 684 Wallerstedt, C. 693 warming up 638 Webster, P.  689, 691 WEIRD research participants  20 Welch, G.  516–18, 519, 520, 698–9 Wessel, D.L.  117–18 Westerlund, H. 697 Western intellectual tradition, meaning in music 36–7 Western music hierarchical organization  95–7 perception, tonal hierarchies  104–7 perceptual grouping and segmentation 21 scales 74, 95 wes Visualizer 618 Whalen, S. 496 Wheeler, B. 880 Whyton, T.  516–18 Widmer, G. 624 Wiggins, J. 682 Wiik, M.  602–3, 604 Williamon, A.  438–9, 451, 890 Williams, Robbie  47, 52, 55, 586 Williamson, V.J.  316 Williams syndrome  89, 251, 434, 435 Wilson, G. 675 wind bands  583 Windsor, W.L.  624 wine purchasing, effects of music 796–7 Winner, E.  419, 440 Winsberg, S. 115 Wise, S. 694 Wittgenstein, L. 248 Wöllner, C. 584 Wolpert, R.  881, 886–8 womb music  372 wonder 200, 208 woodwind players  495 work, listening to music during  714, 715 working memory  170–1 absolute pitch  84–5, 87 amusia 316 melody 171 music training and  421–2 sight-reading 551 working narrative  727–8, 730, 731 writing, music and  823 Wundt, Wilhelm  234, 235, 893 950   Index Yannon, K.A.  701 Yeh, Y. 694 Yerkes–Dodson law  780 yoga, listening to music  715 yoik, North Sami  25 Zajonc, R.B.  204, 234, 271–2 Zbikowski, L.M.  42, 656 Zdzinski, S. 495 Zeki, S.  247, 255–6 Ziegler, E. 361 Zuckerkandl, V.  51–2 zygomatic activity (smiling)  187, 188, 199 ... edited by ian cross Chapter 1 T he Natu re of Mu si c and Its Evolu t i on Ian Cross The Theory of Evolution in Musicological Context The idea that the theory of evolution has anything to offer to... summarized in the theory of evolution? With these teleological trappings the theory of evolution came to serve as one of the key features of much writing about music at the beginning of the twentieth... decades of the nineteenth century and the first few of the twentieth, the theory of evolution was of huge significance for music theorists, historians, and anthropologists as a means of exploring