Social Psychology Ninth Edition Elliot Aronson Timothy D Wilson Robin M Akert Samuel R Sommers Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York City San Francisco Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo VP, Product Development: Dickson Musslewhite Senior Acquisitions Editor: Amber Chow Editorial Assistant: Luke Robbins Executive Development Editor: Sharon Geary Project Development: Piper Editorial Director, Project Management Services: Lisa Iarkowski Project Management Team Lead: Denise Forlow Project Manager: Shelly Kupperman Program Management Team Lead: Amber Mackey Program Manager: Diane Szulecki Director of Field Marketing: Jonathan Cottrell Senior Product Marketing Manager: Lindsey Prudhomme Gill Executive Field Marketing Manager: Kate Stewart Marketing Assistant, Field Marketing: Paige Patunas Marketing Assistant, Product Marketing: Frank Alarcon Operations Manager: Mary Fischer Operations Specialist: Diane Peirano Associate Director of Design: Blair Brown Interior Design: Kathryn Foot Cover Art Director: Maria Lange Cover Design: Pentagram Cover Art: Dan Jazzia/Shutterstock Digital Media Editor: Christopher Fegan Digital Media Project Manager: Pamela Weldin Full-Service Project Management   and Composition: Lumina Datamatics Printer/Binder: RR Donnelley/Roanoke Cover Printer: Phoenix Color/Hagerstown Text Font: PalatinoLTPro 9.5/13 Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on pages 567–572 Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc or its affiliates All Rights Reserved Printed in the United States of America This ­publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any ­prohibited ­reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, ­mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/ Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Aronson, Elliot   Social psychology / Elliot Aronson, Timothy D Wilson, Robin M Akert, Samuel R Sommers — Ninth Edition   pages cm   Revised editon of the authors’ Social psychology, 2013   ISBN 978-0-13-393654-4 (Student Edition)   1.  Social psychology.  I.  Wilson, Timothy D.  II.  Akert, Robin M.  III.  Title   HM1033.A78 2016  302—dc23 2015016513 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Student Edition ISBN-10:0-13-393654-6 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-393654-4 Books la Carte ISBN-10:0-13-401239-9 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-401239-1 To my grandchildren: Jacob, Jason, Ruth, Eliana, Natalie, Rachel, and Leo My hope is that your capacity for empathy and compassion will help make the world a better place —E.A To my family, Deirdre Smith, Christopher Wilson, and Leigh Wilson —T.D.W To my mentor, colleague, and friend, Dane Archer —R.M.A To my students—past, present, and future—for making coming to work each morning fun, educational, and unpredictable —S.R.S Brief Contents  1 Introducing Social Psychology   2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research  23  3 Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World  51  4 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People   5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context  84 119  6 The Need to Justify Our Actions: The Costs and Benefits of Dissonance Reduction   7 Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings   8 Conformity: Influencing Behavior  188 226  9 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups  269 10 Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships  11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help?  303 344 12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It?  13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, and Cures  375 413 Social Psychology in Action  sing Social Psychology to Achieve a U Sustainable and Happy Future  455 Social Psychology in Action Social Psychology and Health  476 Social Psychology in Action Social Psychology and the Law  496 iv 157 Contents Prefacexi About the Authors xvii Special Tips for Students xix Introducing Social Psychology Defining Social Psychology Try It! How Do Other People Affect Your Values? Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common Sense How Social Psychology Differs from Its Closest Cousins Try It! Social Situations and Shyness The Power of the Situation The Importance of Explanation The Importance of Interpretation 10 12 Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About Ourselves 15 16 Ethical Issues in Social Psychology Types of Automatic Thinking Automatic Goal Pursuit Automatic Decision Making Automatic Thinking and Metaphors About the Body and the Mind Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental Heuristics Try It! Reasoning Quiz Summary  20 • Test Yourself  21 Social Psychology: An Empirical Science 24 Try It! Social Psychology Quiz: What’s Your Prediction? 25 25 Inspiration from Earlier Theories and Research  • Hypotheses Based on Personal Observations Research Designs 27 30 Surveys  • Limits of the Correlational Method: Correlation Does Not Equal Causation The Experimental Method: Answering Causal Questions 33 34 70 70 71 Controlled Social Cognition: High-Effort Thinking Controlled Thinking and Free Will 73 73 Try It! Can You Predict Your (or Your Friend’s) Future?76 Try It! How Well Do You Reason? Watson Revisited 76 77 78 79 Social Perception: How We Come to Understand Other People 84 Nonverbal Communication 86 Try It! Using Your Voice as a Nonverbal Cue 87 Facial Expressions of Emotion 87 Evolution and Facial Expressions  • Why Is Decoding Sometimes Difficult? Independent and Dependent Variables  • Internal Validity in Experiments  • External Validity in Experiments  • Field Experiments  •  Replications and Meta-Analysis  •  Basic Versus Applied Research New Frontiers in Social Psychological Research Culture and Social Psychology The Evolutionary Approach Social Neuroscience 69 Summary  80 • Test Yourself  82 Ethnography  • Archival Analysis  • Limits of the Observational Method Try It! Correlation and Causation: Knowing the Difference 63 65 Cultural Differences in Social Cognition Cultural Determinants of Schemas Holistic versus Analytic Thinking Mentally Undoing the Past: Counterfactual Reasoning Improving Human Thinking The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior 28 The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior 61 62 63 Personality Tests and the Representativeness Heuristic Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research 23 Formulating Hypotheses and Theories 51 How Easily Does It Come to Mind? The Availability Heuristic  • How Similar Is A to B? The Representativeness Heuristic 17 Expectations About the Social World Social Cognition: How We Think About the ­Social World On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking 53 People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic Thinking with Schemas 54 Which Schemas Do We Use? Accessibility and Priming 56 Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy58 Suffering and Self-Justification The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate 45 Summary  48 • Test Yourself  49 42 43 43 44 Culture and the Channels of Nonverbal Communication90 First Impressions: Quick but Long-Lasting The Lingering Influence of Initial Impressions Using First Impressions and Nonverbal Communication to Our Advantage 93 94 95 v vi Contents Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question The Nature of the Attribution Process 97 97 Try It! Listen as People Make Attributions 98 The Covariation Model: Internal versus External Attributions The Fundamental Attribution Error: People as Personality Psychologists 98 101 The Role of Perceptual Salience in the Fundamental Attribution Error  •  The Two-Step Attribution Process Self-Serving Attributions The “Bias Blind Spot” Culture and Social Perception Holistic versus Analytic Thinking 106 108 109 110 The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a Social Context 111 113 Try It! A Measure of Independence and Interdependence 123 Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory Try It! Measure Your Private SelfConsciousness127 Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Can Know The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our Own Behavior Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation Mindsets and Motivation Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal 127 128 Self-Justification in Everyday Life The Justification of Effort 169 169 Try It! Justifying What You’ve Done 171 144 Impression Management: All the World’s a Stage Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping Culture, Impression Management, and Self-Enhancement 146 147 Self-Esteem: How We Feel About Ourselves 150 173 The Lasting Effects of Self-Persuasion  •  Not Just Tangible Rewards or Punishments The Hypocrisy Paradigm Justifying Good Deeds and Harmful Acts 176 177 The Ben Franklin Effect: Justifying Acts of Kindness Try It! The Internal Consequences of Doing Good 179 Dehumanizing the Enemy: Justifying Cruelty Some Final Thoughts on Dissonance: Learning from Our Mistakes 181 Politics and Self-Justification  •  Overcoming Dissonance Summary  185 • Test Yourself  186 The Nature and Origin of Attitudes Where Do Attitudes Come From? Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self 171 Counterattitudinal Advocacy Punishment and Self-Persuasion 134 137 140 167 Dissonance in the Brain  • Dissonance Across Cultures 139 165 Creating the Illusion of Irrevocability  •  The Decision to Behave Immorally 130 131 134 Using Other People to Know Ourselves Knowing Ourselves by Comparing Ourselves to Others Knowing Ourselves by Adopting Other People’s Views Knowing Our Future Feelings by Consulting Other People Summary  153 • Test Yourself  155 Try It! The Advantage of Finality 124 125 125 162 163 Distorting Our Likes and Dislikes  •  The Permanence of the Decision 119 120 122 158 158 Why We Overestimate the Pain of Disappointment External versus Internal Justification The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept Functions of the Self The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance When Cognitions Conflict Dissonance, Culture, and the Brain Summary  115 • Test Yourself  117 The Costs and Benefits of Dissonance Reduction 157 Dissonance and the Self-Concept Decisions, Decisions, Decisions Social Neuroscience Evidence Cultural Differences in the Fundamental Attribution Error Culture and Other Attributional Biases The Need to Justify Our Actions: Attitudes and Attitude Change: Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 188 190 190 Cognitively Based Attitudes  • Affectively Based Attitudes Try It! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes 192 Behaviorally Based Attitudes 141 143 149 Explicit versus Implicit Attitudes When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors Predicting Deliberative Behaviors 193 195 196 196 Specific Attitudes  •  Subjective Norms  • Perceived Behavioral Control How Do Attitudes Change? Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior: Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited Persuasive Communications and Attitude Change 199 199 200 Contents Using Norms to Change Behavior: Beware the “Boomerang Effect” Other Tactics of Social Influence The Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion  •  The Motivation to Pay Attention to the Arguments  •  The Ability to Pay Attention to the Arguments  • How to Achieve Long-Lasting Attitude Change Emotion and Attitude Change 205 Fear-Arousing Communications  • Emotions as a Heuristic  • Emotion and Different Types of Attitudes Attitude Change and the Body The Power of Advertising How Advertising Works Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control? 210 211 212 Advertising, Stereotypes, and Culture 215 215 Gender Stereotypes and Expectations  •  Culture and Advertising Resisting Persuasive Messages Attitude Inoculation Being Alert to Product Placement Resisting Peer Pressure When Persuasion Attempts Backfire: Reactance Theory 219 219 219 220 221 Summary  223 • Test Yourself  224 Conformity: Influencing Behavior Conformity: When and Why Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know What’s “Right” The Importance of Being Accurate When Informational Conformity Backfires When Will People Conform to Informational Social Influence? 226 228 230 233 234 235 When the Situation Is Ambiguous  • When the Situation Is a Crisis  • When Other People Are Experts Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch Line-Judgment Studies The Importance of Being Accurate, Revisited The Consequences of Resisting Normative Social Influence Try It! Unveiling Normative Social Influence by Breaking the Rules When Will People Conform to Normative Social Influence? 236 238 241 243 244 244 When the Group Grows Larger  • When the Group Is Important  • When One Has No Allies in the Group  •  When the Group’s Culture Is Collectivistic 252 253 256 259 260 261 Conforming to the Wrong Norm  •  Self-Justification  •  tHe loSS oF PerSonal reSPonSibility 209 Debunking the Claims About Subliminal Advertising  • Laboratory Evidence for Subliminal Influence Try It! Consumer Brand Attitudes Obedience to Authority The Role of Normative Social Influence The Role of Informational Social Influence Other Reasons Why We Obey vii The Obedience Studies, Then and Now 263 It’s Not About Aggression Summary  266 • Test Yourself  267 Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups What Is a Group? Why Do People Join Groups? The Composition and Functions of Groups 269 270 270 271 Social Norms  •  Social Roles  • Group Cohesiveness  • Group Diversity Individual Behavior in a Group Setting Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others Energizes Us 275 276 Simple Versus Difficult Tasks  • Arousal and the Dominant Response  • Why the Presence of Others Causes Arousal Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others Relaxes Us Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing: Who Slacks Off the Most? Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd 279 280 281 Deindividuation Makes People Feel Less Accountable  • Deindividuation Increases Obedience to Group Norms  • Deindividuation Online Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads Better Than One? Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit Good Problem Solving 283 284 Failure to Share Unique Information  •  Groupthink: Many Heads, One Mind Group Polarization: Going to Extremes Leadership in Groups 287 289 Leadership and Personality  • Leadership Styles  •  The Right Person in the Right Situation  • Gender and Leadership  • Culture and Leadership Conflict and Cooperation Social Dilemmas 293 293 Try It! The Prisoner’s Dilemma 295 Increasing Cooperation in the Prisoner’s Dilemma Using Threats to Resolve Conflict Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many 248 Strategies for Using Social Influence The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms 249 250 296 Effects of Communication Negotiation and Bargaining Summary  300 • Test Yourself  301 298 viii Contents 10 Interpersonal Attraction: From First Impressions to Close Relationships 303 What Predicts Attraction? The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect 305 306 Try It! Mapping the Effect of Propinquity in Your Life 306 Similarity 308 Opinions and Personality  • Interests and Experiences  • Appearance  • Genetics  •  Some Final Comments about Similarity Reciprocal Liking Physical Attractiveness 310 311 What Is Attractive?  • Cultural Standards of Beauty  •  The Power of Familiarity  •  Assumptions about Attractive People Evolution and Mate Selection 316 Evolution and Sex Differences  • Alternate Perspectives on Sex Differences Making Connections in the Age of Technology Attraction 2.0: Mate Preference in an Online Era The Promise and Pitfalls of Online Dating 320 321 323 Love and Close Relationships Defining Love: Companionship and Passion 325 325 Try It! Passionate Love Scale 327 Culture and Love Attachment Styles in Intimate Relationships This Is Your Brain  .  in Love Theories of Relationship Satisfaction: Social Exchange and Equity 327 329 331 338 338 339 Summary  341 • Test Yourself  342 11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People Help? Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes 344 345 346 Kin Selection  •  The Reciprocity Norm Try It! The Dictator Game 347 Group Selection Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping 348 349 Personal Qualities and Prosocial Behavior: Why Do Some People Help More Than Others? Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality 353 354 Try It! Empathic Concern 354 Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior 355 357 357 Effects of Positive Moods: Feel Good, Do Good  •  Feel Bad, Do Good Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior: When Will People Help? Environment: Rural versus Urban Residential Mobility The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect 359 359 360 361 Noticing an Event  • Interpreting the Event as an Emergency  • Assuming Responsibility  • Knowing How to Help  • Deciding to Implement the Help Effects of the Media: Video Games and Music Lyrics How Can Helping Be Increased? Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders Will Intervene Increasing Volunteerism Positive Psychology, Human Virtues, and Prosocial Behavior 366 368 368 370 371 Summary  372 • Test Yourself  373 12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other People? Can We Prevent It? Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Optional? The Evolutionary View 375 376 377 Aggression in Other Animals 332 Social Exchange Theory  • Equity Theory Ending Intimate Relationships The Process of Breaking Up The Experience of Breaking Up Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior Religion and Prosocial Behavior The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior 355 Culture and Aggression 378 Changes in Aggression Across Time and Cultures  • Cultures of Honor Gender and Aggression 381 Physical Aggression  •  Relational Aggression Try It! Do Women and Men Differ in Their Experiences with Aggression? 383 Learning to Behave Aggressively Some Physiological Influences 383 385 The Effects of Alcohol  •  The Effects of Pain and Heat Social Situations and Aggression Frustration and Aggression Provocation and Reciprocation 387 388 389 Try It! Insults and Aggression 390 Weapons as Aggressive Cues Putting the Elements Together: The Case of Sexual Assault 390 391 Motivations for Rape  •  Sexual Scripts and the Problem of Consent  • Putting the Elements Together Violence and the Media Studying the Effects of Media Violence 394 394 Experimental Studies  • Longitudinal Studies The Problem of Determining Cause and Effect 397 Contents ix How to Decrease Aggression Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression? 399 399 Using Punishment on Violent Adults Catharsis and Aggression 401 The Effects of Aggressive Acts on Subsequent Aggression  •  Blaming the Victim of Our Aggression What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger? 403 Venting versus Self-Awareness Try It! Controlling Your Anger404 Training in Communication and Problem-Solving Skills  • Countering Dehumanization by Building Empathy Disrupting the Rejection-Rage Cycle and Cures Defining Prejudice The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes 406 413 414 415 From Categories to Stereotypes Try It! Stereotypes and Aggression 417 What’s Wrong with Positive Stereotypes?  •  Stereotypes of Gender The Affective Component: Emotions 420 Try It! Identifying Your Prejudices421 The Behavioral Component: Discrimination 421 Racial Discrimination  • Gender Discrimination  •  The Activation of Prejudice Detecting Hidden Prejudices Ways of Identifying Suppressed Prejudices Ways of Identifying Implicit Prejudices 427 427 428 The Effects of Prejudice on the Victim The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Stereotype Threat 430 430 431 Causes of Prejudice Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules Social Identity Theory: Us versus Them 434 434 436 440 Economic and Political Competition Reducing Prejudice The Contact Hypothesis When Contact Reduces Prejudice 442 443 445 Where Desegregation Went Wrong Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw Classroom 447 Why Does Jigsaw Work? Try It! Jigsaw-Type Group Study The Gradual Spread of Cooperative and Interdependent Learning Summary  451 • Test Yourself  453 455 Applied Research in Social Psychology Capitalizing on the Experimental Method 458 459 Assessing the Effectiveness of Interventions  • Potential Risks of Social Interventions 461 Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable Future Conveying and Changing Social Norms 461 462 Try It! Reducing Littering with Descriptive Norms 463 Keeping Track of Consumption Introducing a Little Competitiveness Inducing Hypocrisy Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes Happiness and a Sustainable Lifestyle What Makes People Happy? 464 465 465 467 469 469 Satisfying Relationships  • Flow: Becoming Engaged in Something You Enjoy  • Accumulate Experiences, Not Things  • Helping Others Try It! Applying the Research to Your Own Life Do People Know What Makes Them Happy? 472 472 Summary  473 • Test Yourself  474 Social Psychology in Action 2  Social Psychology and Health 476 Stress and Human Health Resilience Effects of Negative Life Events 477 478 479 Try It! The College Life Stress Inventory 480 Limits of Stress Inventories Ethnocentrism  • In-Group Bias  • Out-Group Homogeneity  •  Blaming the Victim  •  Justifying Feelings of Entitlement and Superiority Realistic Conflict Theory Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future Social Psychology to the Rescue Summary  408 • Test Yourself  411 13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, Social Psychology in Action 1  449 Perceived Stress and Health Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived Control 481 482 Increasing Perceived Control in Nursing Homes  • Disease, Control, and Well-Being Coping with Stress Gender Differences in Coping with Stress Social Support: Getting Help from Others 486 Try It! Social Support 488 Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events Prevention: Promoting Healthier Behavior Summary  493 • Test Yourself  494 487 487 489 491 Subject Index 589 Base rate information, 68 Basic research, 41 Beamer, Todd, 345 Beauty attractive faces, 311–316 competence and, 315 cultural differences, 312–313 physical attractiveness, 311–316 stereotypes, 314–316 Behavior See also Environmentally responsible behavior; Prosocial behavior; Sepcific behavior attitude and, 190, 193 causal theories and, 128 individual, in groups, 275–282 Behavioral component, of prejudice, 421–426, 451 Behaviorally based attitudes, 190, 193 Behavioral self-handicapping, 148 Behaviorism, 12, 25 Belief in a just world, 107 Belief perseverance, 95 Ben Franklin effect, 177–179 Beyea, Ed, 345, 349 Bias blind spot, 108–109 Biases See also Prejudice attributional, 105, 108–109, 113–115 correspondence, 102 hindsight, 24 impact, 161 own-race, 500 Bible, 440 Biden, Joe, 427 Big Blue computers, 52 Biggs, Abraham, Jr., 2, “Birds of a feather flock together,”, 6, 308 Blake, William, 311 Blaming the victim, 402–403, 438–439, 452 Blind date study, 311 Bobo Doll experiment, 384, 395 Bogus pipeline, 427–428, 452 Bonobos, 378, 409 Boomerang effect, 252–253 Boy Scout camp, 441 Bradbury, Malcolm, 332 Brain See also Social neuroscience cognitive dissonance in, 167–168 fMRIs, 44, 331–332 love and, 331–332 Breaking up, 338–341 Brown v Board of Education, 434 Buddhism, 72, 110, 329 Bullying See also Aggression Columbine massacre, 376, 406–407 Facebook and, 19 punishment and, 407–408 reducing, 407–408, 411 Burnett, Thomas, 345 Burns, Ken, 511 Burns, Robert, 377 Bush, George H W., 92 Bush, George W., 212–213, 237, 270, 273, 287 Bystander effect Chinese 2-year-old girl, death, 361 defined, 362 diffusion of responsibility, 26, 364, 365–366 Kitty Genovese case, 26, 361–362, 368 pluralistic ignorance, 363–365 prosocial behavior, 361–367 Bystander Intervention Decision Tree, 364 C Carbon dioxide emissions, 456, 464 Carol Marcy experiment, 351 Castro, Fidel, 102, 285 Categorization, social, 437, 452 Catharsis, 401–403, 459 Cats, rats and, 378 Causal theories, 128 Causation, correlation compared to, 32–33, 48 The Central Park Five, 511 Central Park rape, 511 Central route to persuasion, 200–202 Cheating pyramid, 167 Chess, 25, 288 Childhood sexual abuse, 508 Children See also Bullying Bobo Doll experiment, 384, 395 forbidden-toy experiment, 175 gorilla and, 351 insufficient punishment, 174 intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation studies, 131–134 jigsaw classroom, 447–450, 453 media violence and, 394–398 modeling nonaggressive behavior, 404 praising, 12, 163 reading programs, 131–134 Chillingworth, William, 349 Chimpanzees, 378, 409 China See also Collectivistic cultures; East Asian cultures fundamental attribution error study, 112–113 gan qing concept, 329 2-year-old girl, death, 361 yuan concept, 329 Chocolate, love and, 331–332 Christianity Bible and, 440 Golden Rule, 357 homosexuality and, 440 scapegoating and, 443, 452 CISD (Critical Incident Stress Debriefing), 459–461, 490 Cities study, prosocial behavior, 356 Classical conditioning, 191–192 Clinton, Hillary, 290 Coal, oil, water depletion, 456 Cocaine, 332, 421 Cockroaches experiment, 276–280 Cognitive component, of prejudice, 415–419 Cognitive dissonance attitude change, 199–200 in brain, 167–168 culture aspects, 167–168 decisions and, 163–167 definition, 158 final thoughts on, 181–184 Heaven’s Gate massacre, 181–182 hypocrisy induction and, 176–177, 465–467, 474 immoral decision, 166–167 impact bias, 161 irrevocability of decision, 165–166 lowballing, 165–166 overcoming, 183–184 politics and, 182–183 postdecision dissonance, 164 rationalizing and, 160 reduction, 159 self-affirmation, 160 self-concept, 162–163 Cognitively based attitudes, 190–193, 208 Cold, stress and, 482 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 487 Collectivistic cultures cognitive dissonance and, 168 groups, 246–248 interdependent view of self, 280 love, 331–332 normative social influence, 246–248 passionate love, 325–326 College Life Stress Inventory, 480–481 Columbine High School massacre, 376, 406–408 Common sense “birds of a feather flock together,” 6, 308 CISD, 460, 490 folk wisdom, 5, 308, 489 naive realism, 13 “opposites attract,”, 6, 304, 308, 341 social psychology compared to, 4–6, 20 Communal relationships, 337, 341 Communication See also Persuasion anger and, 404–405 negotiation, 298–299 Community or Wall Street game, 10–11, 295 Companionate love, 325, 341 Comparison, social comparison theory, 288, 465 Comparison level, interpersonal attraction, 332–334, 342 Comparison level for alternatives, 332–334, 342 Competence, 314, 315 Competition See also Sports economic, prejudice and, 440–441 environmentally responsible behavior and, 465, 474 prisoner’s dilemma game, 10–11, 294–295, 298, 301 Computers Big Blue, 52 Watson Supercomputer, 52 Condoms, STDs and, 32 Confessions, 510–512 Conformity See also Groups; Norms Abu Ghraib prison abuse, 229–230, 273 Asch line-judgment studies, 238–241 autokinetic effect, 231 contagion effect, 234 definition, 230 group size effects, 245 Heaven’s Gate massacre, 229 idiosyncrasy credits, 245 importance of being accurate, 233–234, 241–243 informational social influence, 234–235, 363 McDonald’s incident, 227–228 590  Subject Index Conformity (Continued) minority influence, 248 normative, 434–436, 452 obedience, 256–265 prejudice and, 434–436, 452 private acceptance, 232 public compliance, 232 social impact theory, 244–245 social norms, 237 Confucianism, 72 Consensus information, 99 Consistency information, 99 Construals defined, 12, 21 described, 12–14 source of, 15–19 Contact hypothesis, 443–445, 453 Contagion effect, 234 Contingency theory of leadership, 290 Control internal-external locus of, 483 perceived control, 482–486 Controlled thinking counterfactual thoughts, 76–77 definition, 52, 73 drawbacks of, 73 free will and, 73–75 overconfidence barrier, 77–79 Convincing myself, 161–162 Cooperation group conflict and, 292–299 jigsaw classroom, 447–450, 453 prisoner’s dilemma game, 10–11, 294–295, 298, 301 Cooperative learning, 408, 450, 453 Coping, with stress, 486–491, 494 Coping styles, 486–487 Correlation, causation compared to, 32–33, 48 Correlational method, 27, 30–34, 48 Correlation coefficient, 30 Correspondence bias See Fundamental attribution error Cotton, Ronald, 503–504 Counterattitudinal advocacy, 171–173 Counterfactual thinking, 76–77 Covariation model causal attributions, 100 consensus information, 99 consistency information, 99 definition, 99 description, 98–99 distinctiveness information, 99 Kelley’s theory, 99 Cover story, 38 Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD), 459–461, 490 Cross-cultural differences, social psychology and, Cross-cultural research defined, 43 importance of, 8, 20 passionate love, 325–326 Cuba, 285, 287 Cues, aggressive objects as, 390–391 Cultural argument, aggression, 379–380, 409 Cultural determinants, 70–71 Cultural differences See also Collectivistic cultures; ­­ Cross-cultural research; East Asian cultures; East Asiancultures; Individualistic cultures; Western cultures advertising, 218 aggression, 379–380, 409 beauty, 312–313 cognitive dissonance, 167–168 facial expressions, 87–90 fundamental attribution error, 111–113 gender roles, 216 holistic vs analytic thinking, 71–72 impression management, 149 leadership, 292 love, 327–329 nonverbal communication, 91 other attributional biases, 113–115 passionate love, 325–326 prosocial behavior, 355–357 self-knowledge, 124 social cognition, 70–72 social loafing, 280–281 social perception and, 109–115 social psychology and, 43, 48 Cultural truisms, 219 Cultures of honor, aggression and, 379–380, 409 Cyberbullying, 383 D Dalai Lama, 358 Darby, Joe, 273 Darwin, Charles, 43–44, 87, 346 Date rape, 410 Dating blind date study, 311 Internet, 304, 305, 315, 318, 319, 323–324 speed, 318–319 Debriefing CISD, 459–461, 490 experiments, 46, 49 Deception, 46, 263 Deciding to help, bystander intervention process, 366–367 Decision making, automatic, 63 Decisions Bystander Intervention Decision Tree, 364 cognitive dissonance and, 163–167 in groups, 283–292, 301 immoral, 166–167 irrevocability of, 165–166 jury deliberations, 509–513 Decoding facial expressions, 89–90 Dehumanization Abu Ghraib prison abuse, 273 empathy and, 404–405 justifying cruelty, 179–181 Deindividuation, 281282, 301 de La Rochefoucauld, Franỗois, 337, 349 Deliberative prediction behaviors, 196–198 Dependent variables, 34–36, 48 Depletion, of natural resources, 473 Descriptive norms, 250–252, 462–464, 474 de Tocqueville, Alexis, 360, 389 Trucking Game, 297–298 Diallo, Amadou, 423 Diffusion of responsibility, 26, 364, 365–366 See also Bystander effect Disappointment, overestimation of, 161–162 Discrimination See also Prejudice defined, 421 drug abuse and, 421 economic competition and, 440–441 institutional, 434–436, 452 prejudice and, 421–426, 451 realistic conflict theory, 440–442 sexism, 419, 426, 430 social distance, 422, 451 Disease, perceived control and, 485–486 Display rules, 90 Dispositional (internal) attributions blaming the victim, 402–403, 438–439, 452 Dissonance See Cognitive dissonance Dissonance reduction See Cognitive dissonance Distance, social, 422, 451 Distinctiveness information, 99 Distraction, 63 Dogs, fight-or-flight response, 487 Door-in-the-face technique, 254 Dopamine, 332 Downward social comparison, 140–141 Draper, Don, 210–211 Drug usage cocaine, 332, 421 discrimination and, 421 Dryden, John, 283 Duke, David, 146–147 E Early hominid prosocial behavior, 349 East Asian cultures collectivism and, 489 holistic thinking style, 71 perceived control and disease, 485–486 social loafing, 280 Economic competition, prejudice and, 441–442 Edwards, Edwin, 146 EEG (electroencephalography), 44 Eichmann, Adolf, 257 Elaboration likelihood model, 201, 203 Electroencephalography (EEG), 44 Eliot, George, 368 Emblems, 92 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 287, 289 Emotions See also Facial expressions attitude types, 208–209 facial expressions, 87–90 fear-arousing communications, 205–207 as heuristic, 207 prejudice and, 420–421 two-factor theory, 134–137 Empathy defined, 350 dehumanization and, 404–405 Empathy-altruism hypothesis, 349–352, 372 Empirical science, social psychology as, 4–5, 20–21, 24–27 Encoding facial expressions, 87 Ending intimate relationships, 338–340 Subject Index 591 Energy conservation, 459, 466, 467 natural resource depletion, 465–467, 473 renewable, 458, 474 Enjoying activities, happiness and, 469–472, 470 Environment, prosocial behavior and, 359–360 Environmentally responsible behavior, 458, 462–469 competition and, 465, 474 energy conservation, 459, 466 happiness and sustainable lifestyle, 469–473 implementation intentions, 468, 474 inducing hypocrisy, 465–467, 474 recycling, 467–468, 474 remove small barriers to achieve big changes, 467–468, 474 renewable energy, 458 through social norms, 462–464, 474 Environmental problems addressing, 459 air pollution, 464, 481 applied research and, 458–461, 473 carbon dioxide emissions, 456, 464 global warming, 388–389, 456–458, 473 greenhouse gases, 456 littering, 462–464, 474 natural resource depletion, 456, 466, 473 plastic materials, 467, 468 population growth, 457–458, 465 smog-infested areas, 481 social psychology and, 19–20, 458–459 trash vortex areas, oceans, 457 world hunger, 457 Epinephrine, 487 Equity theory, 335–337 Essay on Criticism, 507 Ethical issues, 45–47 Ethical principles, American Psychological Association, 45–47 Ethnography, 28, 48 Evaluation apprehension, 278, 279, 280, 281 Evolutionary approach to mate selection, 316–319 Evolutionary psychology See also Genes defined, 44, 48–49, 316 mate selection and, 316–319 natural selection, 346–347, 372 prosocial behavior and, 346–348 Evolutionary theory aggression, 366–367 Darwin and, 43–44, 346 defined, 43 natural selection, 43, 49, 316, 341 Exchange relationships, 336, 342 Experimental method improve people’s lives, 459–461, 473 research methodology, 27, 48 Explicit attitudes, 193–194 Exposure, mere exposure effect, 307–308 The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Darwin), 87 External attributions, 98 External-internal locus of control, 483 External justification, 171, 176 External validity, 38, 48 Extrinsic motivation, 131–132 Eye contact, 91 Eyewitness testimony See also Bystander effect; Memory accuracy studies, 503–506 Randall Adams case, 497–498, 500, 501–502, 504, 509, 512 recovered memory debate, 506–508 F Facebook, 304, 322, 382 Facial expressions attractive faces, 311–312 decoding, 89–90 of emotion, 87–90 encoding, 87 evolution and, 87–89 Facilitated communication, 74–75 False confessions, 511 False memory syndrome, 507–508 Familiarity, 307–308, 314 See also Exposure, mere exposure effect Fear, stereotype threat, 431–433, 452 Fear-arousing communications, 205–207 Feedback, after an identification, 505–506 Feeling in charge, 482–486, 493–494 Feelings See also Emotions; Moods; Stress catharsis, 401–403, 459–460 “telling more than you can know” studies, 32 Female suicide bombers, 382 Field experiments, 39–40 Fight-or-flight response, 487 Financial crisis of 2007, 287 First impressions belief perseverance, 95 lingering influence, 94–95 nonverbal communication, 95–96 persistance of, 93 primacy effect, 95 thin-slicing, 93 Fischer, Andrew, 189 Fixed mindset, 134 Folk wisdom, 5, 308, 489 Fonda, Henry, 512 Foot-in-the-door technique, 254 Forecasting, affective, 472–473 Forer, Bertram, 69 Franks, Tommy, 270 Free will, 73–75 Freud, Sigmund, 293, 401 Fromm, Erich, 333 Frustration aggression and, 388–389 scapegoating and, 443, 452 Frustration-aggression theory, 388–389 Fulbright, J William, 296 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 44, 332 Fundamental attribution error cultural differences, 111–113 defined, 10, 21, 102 people as personality psychologists, 101–103 perceptual salience, 103–105 Rosa Parks Day, 101 two-person game, 10 two-step attribution process, 105–106 Furnham, Adrian, 114 G Gandhi, Mohandas, 229 Garbage dumps, oceans and, 457 Gaze, 91 Gender differences aggression, 381–383, 409 leadership, 290–292 prosocial behavior, 355 relational interdependence, 280 sex differences, 317 social loafing, 279–280 stress management, 487, 494 Gender roles, 216 Gender stereotypes, 216–218 Geneen, Harold, 290 Genes See also Evolutionary psychology aggression, 377–378, 408 facial attractiveness, 313 instincts and, 346–348 prosocial behavior, 346–348 Genovese, Kitty, 26, 34, 38, 48, 361, 362, 368 Gestalt psychology, 12 Gide, Andrew, 435 Girl, Interrupted (Kaysen), 57 Gladwell, Malcolm, 94 Glick, Jeremy, 345 Global warming, 387, 456–457, 473 Goal pursuit, automatic, 62–63 Golden Rule, 357 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 296 Gore, Al, 212 Gorilla, prosocial behavior, 351 Great person theory, 289, 301 Greenhouse gases, 456 Group cohesiveness, 273, 285–287, 301 Group conflict theory, 441 Group polarization, 287–289 Groups, 269–299 See also Conformity; ­­ In-groups; Out-groups benefits of, 270–271 collectivistic culture, 246–248 composition of, 271–275 conflict, 293–299 contact hypothesis, 443–445, 453 cooperation, 293–299 decisions, 283–292, 301 defined, 270 deindividuation, 281–282, 301 functions of, 271–275 groupthink, 301 individual behavior in, 275–282 interdependence, 445, 453 jury deliberations, 509–513 leadership in, 289–292 minimal, 437 minority influence, 248 normative conformity, 434–436, 452 process loss, 283–292, 301 reasons for joining, 270–271 roles, 272–273, 301 scapegoating and, 443, 452 social dilemmas, 293–296, 301, 467 social facilitation, 276–278, 280, 301 592  Subject Index Groups (Continued) social loafing, 279–280, 301 social norms, 237 transactive memory, 285 Group selection, prosocial behavior and, 348, 372 Groupthink, 285–287, 301 Growth, of world population, 457–458, 465 Growth mindset, 134 H Hale-Bopp Comet, 158 Hamm, Mia, 134 Hand gestures, 91 “Hand-purse” gesture, 91 Happiness causes of, 469–472 enjoying activities and, 470 money and, 470–471 relationships and, 469–470 sustainable lifestyle and, 469–473 Harris, David, 497 Harris, Eric, 376, 382, 394, 406–407 See also Columbine High School massacre Hazing, 2, 16–17 Head gestures, 91 Head nodding, 91 Health feeling in charge, 482–486 fight-or-flight response, 487 Joanne Hill case, 477, 478, 481–482, 483 nursing homes, 483–485 preventing illness, 491–493, 494 reframing traumatic events, 489–491 resilience and, 460, 478–479 social support, 487–489 stress impacts, 477–486 stress management, 486–491 tend-and-befriend response, 487 Heaven’s Gate massacre, 181–182, 229 Hemingway, Ernest, 489 Heuristics availability, 65–67 judgmental, 65 representativeness, 68–69 in social cognition, 65 Heuristic–systematic model of persuasion, 207 Hikikomori, 238 Hill, Joanne, 477, 478, 481–482, 483 Hinde, Robert, 317 Hindsight bias, 24 Hitler, Adolf, 254–255, 414 HIV virus, 492 Holistic thinking style, 71–72, 110–111 Holmes, Oliver Wendall, 420 Holocaust, 256, 490 Homeless people, 284, 406, 438 Homogeneity, out-group, 437–438 Homosexuality communal relationships, 337, 341 contact hypothesis, 443 investment model of commitment, 334–335 Justification-Suppression Model of Prejudice, 439 lesbians, 334, 337, 415, 427, 435, 440, 443 microaggressions, 422 prejudice, 415 religion and, 440 same-sex marriage, 415, 435 sexual scripts, 392 similarity and, 308 Honor, cultures of, 380–381, 409 Hostile aggression, 377, 408 Hunger, world, 457 Hurons, 379 Hussein, Saddam, 182 Hybrid cars, SUVs and, 464 Hypocrisy induction, 176–177, 465–467, 474 Hypotheses See also Theories contact hypothesis, 443–445, 453 empathy-altruism hypothesis, 349–352, 372 research methodology, 6, 24–27, 48 theories and, 6, 24–27, 48 urban overload, 359–360 I Idiosyncrasy credits, 245 Immoral decision, 166–167 Impact bias, 161 Implausible arguments, 161 Implementation intentions, 468, 474 Implicit Association Test (IAT), 428–429, 452 Implicit attitudes, 193–194 Implicit prejudices, 428–429, 452 Impression management, 124 culture in, 149 definition, 147 description of, 146–147 ingratiation, 147 self-handicapping, 148–149 Improve people’s lives, applied research, 458–461, 473 Increasing prosocial behavior, 368–371 Independent variables, 34–36, 48 Independent view of the self, 122 Individual behavior, in groups, 276–278 Individual differences, 6, 20–21 Individualistic cultures love, 327–328 passionate love, 325–326 perceived control and disease, 485–486 social loafing, 280 Industrial Revolution, 189 Inflicted insight, 264 Informational social influence, 363 ambiguous situations, 235 autokinetic effect, 231 being accurate, importance of, 233–234 conformity, 234–235 contagion effect, 234 crisis situations, 235 definition, 231 obedience, 260–261 private acceptance, 232 public compliance, 232 Informed consent, 46, 49, 263 Ingram, Paul, 507 Ingratiation, 147 In-groups defined, 355 in-group versus out-group concept, 436–437 prosocial behavior, 355–356, 372 Injunctive norms, 250–252, 462–464, 474 Innocence Project, 498 Instincts, prosocial behavior and, 346–348 Institutional discrimination, 434–436, 452 Institutionalized racism, 434–436, 452 Institutionalized sexism, 435 Institutional review board (IRB), 46–47, 49 Instrumental aggression, 377, 408 Insufficient punishment, 174 Integrative solution, 299, 301 Interdependence, 445, 453 jigsaw classroom, 447–450, 453 Interdependent view of self, 122–123, 280 Interjudge reliability, 28 Internal attributions, 97 Internal-external locus of control, 483 Internal justification, 171, 176 Internal validity, 36, 48 Internet cyberbullying, 383 dating, 304, 305, 315, 318, 319, 323–324 deindividuation on, 282 mate preference in online era, 321–323 pornography and, 24 Internment camps, 442 Interpersonal attraction, 303–343 anxious/ambivalent attachment style, 329–331 attachment styles, 329–332, 342 avoidant attachment style, 329–331 brain research and, 331–332 comparison level, 332–334, 342 evolutionary approach to mate selection, 316–319 familiarity, 307–308, 309, 314, 342 Internet dating, 304, 305, 315, 318–319, 323–324, 341 mere exposure effect, 307–308 opposites attract, 6, 304, 308 physical attractiveness, 311–316 prediction of, 305–319 propinquity effect, 306–308, 311, 314, 341 reciprocal liking, 310–311, 314 relationship satisfaction theories, 332–337 secure attachment style, 329–331 sex differences, 317–319 social exchange theory, 332–335, 342 speed dating, 318–319 Interpreting event as emergency, bystander intervention process, 364, 365–366 Interventions, trauma and, 459–461 Intimate relationships, 325–337 arranged marriages, 327, 328 attachment styles, 329–332, 342 communal relationships, 337, 341 comparison level, 332–334, 341, 342 comparison level for alternatives, 332–334, 342 ending, 338–340 equity theory, 335–337, 342 exchange relationships, 336, 342 investment model, 333, 342 relationship satisfaction theories, 332–337 Intrinsic motivation, 131–132 Introspection causal theories, 128 consequences of, 128–129 definition, 125 reasons-generated attitude change, 129 self-awareness theory, 125–127 Subject Index 593 Investment model of commitment, 332–337, 342 Invisible support, 489 Iraq Abu Ghraib prison abuse, 273 U.S invasion of, 270 Iroquois, 379 Irrevocability of decision, 165–166 J James, LeBron, 237 James, Williams, 61 Japan conformity and, 246–248 hikikomori, 238 Jennings, Ken, 52 Jeter, Derek, 134 Jigsaw classroom, 447–450, 453 Jobs, Steve, 290 Jones, Jim, 2, 5, 6–7, 10 Jonestown massacre, 2, 5, 6–7, 10 Judgmental heuristics, 65 Jung concept, 328 Jury deliberations, 509–513 Justification of kindness, 177–179 overjustification effect, 132–133, 370 self-esteem approach and, 16–17, 21 Justification of effort (self-justification) cruelty, 179–181 description of, 169–171 external, 171, 176 good deeds, 177–179 internal, 171, 176 obedience, 262 punishment, 173–174 Justification-Suppression Model of Prejudice, 439 Just-world belief, 107 K Kallgren, Carl, 250 Kapista, Peter L., 34 Karma, 329 See also Just-world belief Kasparov, Gary, 52 Kaysen, Susanna, 57 Kelly’s Covariation Model, 99 Kennedy, John F., 285, 286, 287 King, Martin Luther, Jr, 289 King, Stephen, 290, 293 Kin selection, 346–347 Kipling, Rudyard, 246, 248 Kitty Genovese murder, 26, 34, 38, 48, 361, 362, 368 Klebold, Dylan, 376, 394, 406–407 Knowing how to help, bystander intervention process, 366 Korsakov’s syndrome, 54 Ku Klux Klan, 146, 281 L Lady Gaga, 237 Landon, Alf, 31 Larry Mayes case, 184 Law, 497–513 See also Eyewitness testimony jury deliberations, 509–513 polygraphs, 427 Randall Adams case, 497–498, 500, 501–502, 504, 509, 512 Lawrence, D H., 331 Leadership, 289–292, 301 Learning aggression, 383–385, 409 cooperative, 408, 450, 453 jigsaw classroom, 447–450, 453 Lee, Harper, 245, 248, 509 Lepchas, 379 Lesbians, 334, 337, 415, 427, 435, 440, 443 Lie detector test, 427 Life events, negative, 479 Liking physical attractiveness and, 311–316, 317 reciprocal, 310–311, 314 Lincoln, Abraham, 350–351 Lineups See also Eyewitness testimony accuracy studies, 503–506 recommendations for conducting, 503 Literary Digest poll, 31–32 Littering, 462–464, 474 Loafing, social, 279–280, 300 Locus of control, internal-external, 483 Locust years, 487 Long-lasting attitude change, 205 Lootah, Wedad, 416 Loss of personal responsibility, 262–263 Love, 325–331 See also Interpersonal attraction; Intimate relationships arranged marriages, 327, 328 brain and, 327 chocolate and, 332 companionate, 325–326 defining, 325–326 passionate, 326, 329, 341 Lowballing, 165–166 Lucky Charms, Quaker granola and, 18 Lynchings, 247, 281, 434 M Machiavelli, Niccolò, 289 Magnetic resonance imaging, functional, 44, 332 Malthus, Thomas, 457 Marriages arranged, 327, 328 same-sex, 415, 435 Marshall, Thurgood, 434 Marx, Karl, 276 Massacres See also Holocaust Columbine High School, 376, 406–408 Heaven’s Gate, 181–182 Jim Jones, 2, 5, 6–7, 10 My Lai, 230, 257 Materialism, happiness and, 471 McDonald’s incident, 227–228 Measuring implicit prejudices, 428–429, 452 Media See also Video games prosocial behavior and, 366–367 Memory acquisition process, 498–500 false memory syndrome, 507–508 reconstructive, 501 recovered, 506–508 retrieval process, 498, 499, 502 source monitoring, 502 storage process, 498, 499, 500–502 transactive, 285 Mencken, H L., 338 Mental shortcuts, 65–69 Mental strategies, 65–69 Mere exposure effect, 307–308, 314 Meta-analysis, 40–41 Microaggressions, 422 Miller, Robert, 497 Mind control See Subliminal advertising Mindsets fixed, 134 growth, 134 motivations and, 134 Minimal groups, 437 Minority influence, 248 Misattribution of arousal, 137–139 Mobro 4000 barge, 456–457 Modeling nonaggressive behavior, 404 Modern racism, 428–429 Money, happiness and, 470–471 Moods negative, 481 prosocial behavior and, 357–358, 372 “telling more than you can know” studies, 32 Morrison, Toni, 326 Mortality, perceived control and, 485 Motivation extrinsic, 131–132 intrinsic, 131–132 mindsets and, 134 Music lyrics, prosocial behavior and, 366–367 Muslims, 179, 181, 416 My Lai massacre, 230, 257 N Naive realism, 13 Narcissism, 151–153 Natural resources, depletion, 456, 466, 473 Natural selection, 43, 49, 316, 346–347 The Nature of Prejudice (Allport), 420 Nazi regime anti-Semitism, 13, 420 Gestalt psychologists and, 12 Hitler and, 414 Holocaust, 490 propaganda, 254–255 Negative life events, 479, 493 Negative moods, 481 Negotiation, 294–295, 298–299, 301 Neuroscience See Social neuroscience Neurotransmitters, 8, 332 New York Stock Exchange, 71 New York Times, 85 Nonaggressive behavior, modeling, 404 Nonrenewable natural resource depletion, 456, 473 Nonverbal communication culture and the channels of, 90–92 definition, 86 facial-expressions, 87–90 first impressions, 93–96 importance of, 87 Normative conformity, 434–436, 452 594  Subject Index Normative social influence Asch line-judgment studies, 238–241 being accurate, importance of, 241–243 collectivistic group culture, 246–248 consequences of resisting, 243–244 definition, 238 idiosyncrasy credits, 245 minority influence, 248 obedience, 259–260 social impact theory, 244–245 social norms, 237 Norms to change behavior, 252–253 descriptive, 462–464, 474 environmentally responsible behavior and, 462–464, 474 injunctive, 462–464 littering and, 462–464, 474 prejudice and, 434–436, 452 reciprocity, 347, 372 North Tower, 345 See also September 11th terrorist attacks Noticing an event, bystander intervention, 364–365 Nursing homes, perceived control in, 483–485 O Obama, Barack, 32, 89, 427 Obedience aggression, 265 conformity, 256–265 informational social influence, 260–261 loss of personal responsibility, 262–263 normative social influence, 259–260 reasons for, 261–263 research studies, 263–265 self-justification, 262 Observational method, 27, 28–29, 48 Oil, water, coal depletion, 456 “OK” sign, 91 Online dating, promise and pitfalls in, 323–324 Operant conditioning, 191–192 Opinions, similarity and, 308 “Opposites attract,”, 6, 304, 308 Orestes, 314 Oscar case, 2, 16–17 Out-groups defined, 355 groupthink, 286 homogeneity, 437–438 vs in-group, 436 prosocial behavior, 355 Overcoming dissonance, 183–184 Overconfidence barrier, 77–79 Overjustification effect, 132–133, 370 Owada, Masako, 122 Own-race bias, 500 P Pacific Ocean, garbage dump, 457 Palin, Sarah, 291 Panera Cares restaurant chain, 294 Parks, Rosa, 101 Passionate love, 325–326, 329, 341 Passionate Love Scale, 327, 331 Peer pressure, 220–221 Pentagon attacks, 443 See also September 11th terrorist attacks Peoples Temple massacre, Perceived behavioral control, 198 Perceived control, 482–486 Perceived similarity, 43, 310 Perceptual salience definition, 103 effects of, 104 manipulating, 104 Performance-contingent rewards, 133 Peripheral route to persuasion, 200–202 Personality altruistic, 354–355, 372 individual differences, 6, 21 leadership and, 289 similarity and, 308 Personality psychology defined, social psychology compared to, 6–9 Personality tests, representativeness heuristics and, 69 Personal observations, hypotheses and, 26–27 Personal qualities, prosocial behavior, 353–358, 372 Personal space, 91 Persuasion ability to pay attention, 204–205 central route to, 200–202 confidence effects, 209 elaboration likelihood model, 201, 203 heuristic–systematic model of, 207 ingratiation, 147 long-lasting attitude change, 205 motivation to pay attention, 202–204 peer pressure, 220–221 peripheral route to, 200–202 reactance theory, 221–222 self-persuasion, 174–175 strategies for, 219–222 Philosophy, social psychology and, 4–6 Physical aggression, 376, 381–383, 408 Physical attractiveness See also Beauty liking and, 311–316 Physiological influences, on aggression, 385–388, 409 Pipeline, bogus, 427–428, 452 Planned behavior, theory of, 196–197 The Plant (King, S.), 293 Plastic materials, 457, 467, 468 Plato, 72 Plausible arguments, 161 Pluralistic ignorance, 363–365 Polarization, group, 287–289 Polar plunges, 236–237 Poole, Bobby, 504 Pope, Alexander, 507 Population growth, 457–458 Pornography defining, 29 Internet and, 24 violence and, 24, 29, 30, 33, 37, 41, 398, 410 Porteus, Belby, 325 Positive psychology, 371, 372 Postdecision dissonance, 164 Post-identification feedback, 505–506 Post-traumatic stress disorder, 459, 460 Power of social situation, 9–15, 21 Predicting behaviors, attitudes, 196–198 Prejudice, 413–453 activating implicit prejudices, 423–426 affective component, 420–421, 451 African Americans, 425 behavioral component, 421–426, 451 blaming the victim, 438–439, 452 causes of, 434–442 cognitive component, 415–419 components, 415–419, 451 conformity and, 434–436, 452 cooperative learning, 450, 453 defined, 415–416 discrimination and, 421–426, 451 economic competition and, 440–441 effects on victim, 430–433 emotions and, 420–421 examples, 414 homosexuality, 415 implicit, 428–429, 452 institutional discrimination, 434–436, 452 jigsaw classroom, 447–450, 453 Justification-Suppression Model of Prejudice, 439 measuring implicit prejudices, 428–429, 452 microaggressions, 422 modern racism, 428–429 The Nature of Prejudice, 420 normative conformity and, 434–436, 452 out-group homogeneity, 437–438, 452–453 realistic conflict theory, 440–442, 452 reduction strategies, 443, 452 religion and, 440 scapegoating, 443, 452 self-fulfilling prophecies and, 430–433, 452 sexism, 419, 426, 430 social categorization, 436–437 stereotypes and, 415–416, 451, 458 Preserving natural resources, 466 Prevention, health and, 491–493, 494 Pride, 89 Primacy effect, 95 Priming effects body and mind, metaphors of, 63–64 definition, 57–58 Prisoner’s dilemma, 10–11, 294–295 Prisons Abu Ghraib prison abuse, 273 Zimbardo study, 273 Probability level (r-value), 36 Process loss, 283–292, 301 Product placement, 219–220 Propaganda, 254–255 Propinquity effect, 306–308, 311, 314 Prosocial behavior, 344–374 See also Altruism; Bystander effect; Empathy bystander effect, 361–367 cities study, 356 cultural differences, 355–357 defined, 345–346 early hominid, 349 empathy-altruism hypothesis, 349–352, 372 environment and, 359–360 evolutionary psychology and, 346–348 gender differences, 355 genes, 346–348, 372 Golden Rule, 357 Subject Index 595 gorilla, 351 group selection, 348, 372 increasing, 368–369 in-groups, 355–356, 372 instincts, 346–348 kin selection, 346–347, 372 media and, 366–367 moods and, 357–358, 372 music lyrics and, 366–367 out-groups, 355–356, 372 personal qualities, 353–358, 372 positive psychology, 371, 372 reciprocity norm, 347, 372 religion and, 357, 362, 364, 372 self-interest, 372, 348352 September 11th terrorist attacks, 345, 349, 354, 361, 368 situational determinants of, 359–367 social exchange theory, 348–349, 372 video games, 366–367, 373 volunteerism, 370 Prosocial video games, 366–367, 373, 396 Proximity, 306 See also Propinquity effect Psychological distress, 264 Psychological intervention techniques, trauma and, 459–461 Psychological realism, 38 Psychology Gestalt, 12 personality, 6–9 positive, 371, 372 Punishment aggression reduction through, 399–400 forbidden toy experiment, 175 insufficient, 174 in justification, 173–174 tangible rewards, 175–176 Pygmies, 379 Q Quaker granola, Lucky Charms and, 18 R Racism institutionalized, 434–436, 452 modern, 428–429 Randall Adams case, 497–498, 500, 501–502, 504, 509, 512 Random assignment to condition, 36 Random selection, 31 Rape Amadou Diallo case, 423 blame the victim, 438–439, 452 in To Kill a Mockingbird, 248 motivations for, 391 pornography and, 24, 33, 37 reframing event, 489 Ten Commandments film and, 395 Rats, cat and, 378 Reactance theory, 221–222 Reagan, Ronald, 296 Realism, psychological, 38 Realistic conflict theory, 440–442, 452 Reasons-generated attitude change, 129 Reciprocation, 310–311, 314 Reciprocity norm, 347, 372 Reconstructive memory, 501 Recovered memories, 506–508 Recycling, 467–468, 474 Reduction strategies aggression, 399–408 anger, 403–406 bullying, 407–408 Reframing traumatic events, 489–491, 494 Rejection-rage cycle, disrupting, 406–408 Relational aggression, 382–383, 409 Relational interdependence, 280 Relationship-oriented leadership, 290, 291 Relationships See also Intimate relationships attachment styles, 329–331, 342 communal, 337, 341 comparison level, 332–334, 341 comparison level for alternatives, 332–334, 341 equity theory, 335–337, 342 exchange, 336, 342 happiness and, 469–470 investment model, 332–337, 341 Relationship satisfaction theories, 332–337 Religion See also Christianity; September 11th terrorist attacks Bible and, 440 Buddhism, 329 Golden Rule, 357 Muslims, 416 Peoples Temple massacre, prejudice and, 440 prosocial behavior and, 357, 362, 372 Renewable energy sources, 458 Reno, Raymond, 250 Replications, 40–41, 48 Reported self-handicapping, 148 Representativeness heuristics base rate information, 68 definition, 68 personality tests and, 69 Research empirical science and, 4–5, 20–21, 24–27 new frontiers, 42–45, 48–49 Research methodology correlational method, 27, 30–34, 48 experimental method, 27, 34–42, 48 hypotheses, 6, 24–27, 48 research quiz, 25 summary of methods, 27 theories, 6, 24–27, 48 Resilience, 460, 478–479, 493 Responsibility, diffusion of, 26, 364, 365–366 Retrieval process, 498, 499, 502 Rewards performance-contingent, 133 task-contingent, 133 Richter, John Paul, 359 Riots, 386, 387, 399 Road rage, 388 Roles (social roles) defined, 272–273 groups, 272–273, 300 violating, 272 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 448 Roosevelt, Franklin, 31, 147 Roosevelt, Teddy, 296 Ruskin, John, 279 Rutter, Brad, 52 S Sacks, Oliver, 54 Same-sex marriage, 415, 435 Scanzoni, Letha, 440 Scapegoating, 443, 452 Schemas accessibility, 56–57 automatic thinking with, 54–56 cultural determinants, 70–71 definition, 54 priming effects, 57–58 Schlesinger, Arthur, 286 Science, social psychology and, 5–6 Secure attachment style, 329–331 Self executive function of, 144–146 functions of, 124 independent view of the, 122 interdependent view of, 280 interdependent view of the, 122–123 key attributes of, 121–122 Self-affirmation, 160 Self-awareness theory, 125–127 venting versus, 401, 410 Self-concept cultural influences, 122–124 definition, 121 development of, 120–122 dissonance and, 162–163 Self-control, 124 executive function of the self, 144–146 thought suppression, 144–145 Self-enhancement, 149 Self-esteem, 124 African American children, 163 approach, 16–17, 21 definition, 150 jigsaw classroom, 447–450, 453 pros and cons of, 150–153 terror management theory, 150 Self-focus, 126 Self-focused attention, 126 Self-fulfilling prophecies, 18 beauty and competence, 315 defined, 59, 430 first and second graders percentages, 60 jigsaw classroom and, 447–450, 453 prejudice and, 430–433, 452 Self-perpetuating cycle of, 58–59 Self-handicapping behavioral, 148 definition, 148 reported, 148 Self-interest altruism versus, 348–352, 372 prosocial behavior, 348–352, 372 relationship satisfaction, 332–335, 341 Self-justification See Justification of effort (self-justification) 596  Subject Index Self-knowledge, 124 Self-perception theory, 130–131 Self-persuasion definition, 175 lasting effects, 174–175 Self-serving attributions, 106–108 September 11th terrorist attacks Pentagon attacks, 443 prosocial behavior, 349, 354, 361 psychological debriefing, 460 Rescorla and, 345 resilience and, 478 United Airlines Flight, 345 World Trade Center towers, 345, 349, 443 Zelmanowitz and, 345, 349, 368 Sex differences, 317 See also Gender differences Sexism, 419, 426, 430 Sexual abuse, childhood, 508 Sexual assault, 391–393 Sexual scripts, 392, 410 and the problem of consent, 392–393 Shaich, Ronald, 294 Shakespeare, William, 124, 291, 312, 325, 470 “Shooting people” video game experiment, 425 Similarity, 43, 308 Situational determinants, of prosocial behavior, 359–367 Smog-infested areas, 481 Social categorization, 436–437 Social cognition controlled, 73–79 cultural differences, 70–72 defined, 17–18 definition, 52–53 kinds of, 53 Social cognition approach, 17–20, 21 Social comparison theory, 140–141, 288, 465 Social competence, 314, 315 Social dilemmas, 293–296, 301, 467 Social distance, 422, 451 Social exchange theory prosocial behavior, 348–352, 372 relationship satisfaction, 332–334, 342 Social facilitation, 276–278, 280, 300 Social impact theory, 244–245 Social influence defined, 3, 20 descriptive norms, 250–252 door-in-the-face technique, 254 foot-in-the-door technique, 254 informational, 230–235, 363 injunctive norms, 250–252 normative, 236–248 obedience, 256–265 propaganda, 254–255 strategies for, 249–255 tactics of, 253–255 Social intervention techniques, trauma and, 459–461 Social learning theory, aggression and, 383–385, 409 Social loafing, 279–280, 300 Social neuroscience holistic and analytical thinking styles, 111 new frontiers, 44, 49 Social norms, 237 Social perception attributions and, 97–109 cultural differences, 109–115 definition, 86 nonverbal communication, 86–96 Social problems, social psychology and, 18–20, 21, 458–459 Social psychology common sense compared to, 4–6 cultural differences and, 8, 43, 48 defined, 3, 20 as empirical science, 4–5, 20, 24–27 environmental problems and, 19–20 goal of, introduction, 1–22 personality psychology compared to, 6–9 philosophy and, science and, 5–6 social problems and, 18–20, 21 sociology compared to, 6–9 Social situations aggression and, 387–393, 409 power of, 9–12, 20 Social support, 487–489, 494 Social tuning, 141–143 Sociology, social psychology and, 6–9 Sodomy, 435 Source monitoring, 502 South, culture of honor in, 380 South Korea beauty stereotype, 315 jung concept, 328, 329 South Tower, 345 See also September 11th terrorist attacks Speed dating, 318–319 Spencer, Herbert, 415 Spinoza, Benedict, Split cable market tests, 211 Spontaneous predicting behaviors, 196 Sports aggression and, 401–402 stereotype threat and, 431–433, 452 STDs (sexually transmitted diseases), 32 Stereotypes See also Prejudice beauty, 314–315 prejudice and, 415–416, 451, 458 sexism, 419, 426, 430 Stereotype threat, 431–433, 452 Storage process, 498, 499, 500–502 Story model, 509–510 Story order, 510 Stress College Life Stress Inventory, 480–481 coping styles, 486–487 coping with, 486–491 Critical Incident Stress Debriefing, 459–461 defined, 481 fight-or-flight response, 487 health and, 477–486 post-traumatic stress disorder, 459, 460 psychological intervention techniques, 459–461 reframing traumatic events, 489–491 resilience and, 460, 478–479 Selye on, 479 social support, 487–489 tend-and-befriend response, 487 Subjective norms, 198 Subliminal advertising debunking the claims, 213–214 form of mind control, 212–214 laboratory evidence, 214 Subliminal messages, 213 Sugar, Lucky Charms-Quaker granola study, 18 Suicide Abraham Biggs case, 2, Jim Jones massacre, 2, 5, 6–7, 10 Suicide bombers, 10, 382, 389 See also September 11th terrorist attacks Summers, Donna Jean, 227–228 Supercomputer, Watson, 52 Support, social, 487–489 Supreme Court decisions, 283, 394, 400, 443 Surveys, 30–32 Sustainable lifestyle, happiness and, 469–473 SUVs, hybrid cars and, 464 T Taguba, Antonio, 273 Taliban regime, 43 Taoism, 72, 110 Task-contingent rewards, 133 Task-oriented leadership, 290 Technology, making connections in age, 320–324 Teduray people, 379 Television advertising, 216 “Telling more than you can know” studies, 32 Ten Commandments film, rape incident and, 395 Tend-and-befriend response, 487 Terrorism See also September 11th terrorist suicide bombers, 10, 382, 389 Terror management theory, 150 Testosterone levels, 377, 378, 380, 381 Theories attribution theory, 97 causal theories, 128 equity theory, 335–336, 342 frustration-aggression theory, 388–389 great person theory, 289 group conflict theory, 440–442, 452 Kelley’s theory, 99 Lewin on, 41, 459 planned behavior, 196–198 reactance theory, 221–222 realistic conflict theory, 440–442, 452 relationship satisfaction theories, 332–337 research methodology, 6, 24–27, 48 self-awareness theory, 125–127 self-perception theory, 130–131 social comparison theory, 288, 465 social exchange theory, 332–337, 342, 348–352, 372 social impact theory, 244–245 social learning theory, 383–385, 409 terror management theory, 150 “There is nothing so practical as a good theory,”, 459 two-factor theory, 134–137 Subject Index 597 Theory of planned behavior, 196–198 “There is nothing so practical as a good theory,”, 41 The Thin Blue Line, 497 Thinking analytic thinking style, 71–72, 110–111 automatic, 53–64 controlled, 52, 73–79 groupthink, 285–287, 301 holistic thinking style, 71–72, 110–111 Thompson, Jennifer, 503, 504 Thought suppression, 144–145 Threat, stereotype, 431–433, 452 Thumbs-up gesture, 91 Tit-for-tat strategy, 296, 336 To Kill a Mockingbird, 248, 509 Torture Abu Ghraib prison abuse, 273 deindividuation and, 248 Touching, 91 Tracy, Jessica, 89 Transactive memory, 285 Transformational leadership, 289, 301 Trash littering, 462–464 recycling, 467–468 trash vortex areas, oceans, 457 Trauma Critical Incident Stress Debriefing, 459–461 reframing traumatic events, 489–491 social intervention techniques, 459–461 Trucking game, 297–298 Turn the other cheek, 389 Twelve Angry Men, 512 Twilight saga, 326 2-year-old Chinese girl, death, 361 Two-factor theory of emotion, 134–137 Two-step attribution process, 105–106 United States (U.S.) See also Individualistic cultures; Iraq; September 11th terrorist attacks Bush, George W and, 16, 270, 287 internment camps, 442 Obama and, 16, 32, 427 Upward social comparison, 140–141 Urban overload hypothesis, 359–360 U.S Food and Drug Administration, 205 Ustinov, Peter, 307 U W Unconscious thinking, 71 United Airlines Flight, 345 V Values, Variables dependent, 34–36, 48 independent, 34–36, 48 Venting, self-awareness versus, 401, 410 Vicary, James, 213 Video games prosocial, 366–367, 373, 396 “shooting people” video game experiment, 425 violent, 43, 366–367, 373, 376, 383, 425 Vietnam War, 172, 179, 235 prolonging of, 16 Violating roles, 272 Violence See also Aggression; Massacres; Nazi regime; Rape; September 11th terrorist attacks in media, 394–398, 410 pornography and, 24, 29, 30, 33, 37, 41, 398, 410 religion and, 394 riots, 386, 387, 399 road rage, 388 video games, 43, 366–367, 373, 376, 383, 394–398, 410, 425 Vioxx, 459 Volunteerism, prosocial behavior, 370 Vonnegut, Kurt, 436 Wall Street or Community game, 10–11, 295 See also Prisoner’s dilemma Warner, Charles Dudley, 351 Washington, Kerry, 237 Water conservation, 467, 474 natural resource depletion, 456, 474 trash vortex areas, oceans, 457 Watson supercomputer, 52 Weapons, as aggressive cues, 390–391 Weapons of mass destruction, 182–183 Wegner, Daniel, 74 Weiner, Anthony, 147 Welles, Orson, 234 Wells, H G., 234 Western cultures analytic thinking style, 71 personality psychologists, 113 Westgate West Building study, 306 What God Has Joined Together: The Christian Case for Gay Marriage (Myers & Scanzoni), 440 Wik, William, 345 Wilde, Oscar, 312 Witness order, 510 Women See also Beauty; Gender differences head-to-toe covering, 43 lesbians, 334, 337, 427, 435, 440, 443 sexism, 419, 426, 430 suicide bombers, 382, 389 Wood, Robert, 497 World hunger, 457 World Trade Center attacks, 345, 349, 354, 361 See also September 11th terrorist attacks World War II, 442, 490 See also Nazi regime Wozniak, Stephen, 290 Y Yale Attitude Change approach, 200–201 Z Zelmanowitz, Abe, 345, 349, 368 Zimbardo study, 273 This page intentionally left blank Answer Key Chapter Answers to Review Questions on p 9: c b b a d Answers to Review Questions on p. 14: a a d d c Answers to Review Questions on p. 19: a a, b, d d Test Yourself on p 21: a c b a, b, d 10 a d a c b, d e Chapter Answers to Review Questions on p. 27: c a d Answers to Review Questions on p. 42: c d b a c b a d ­ articipants administered what p they thought were near-lethal shocks to another subject (In fact, no real shocks were administered; see Chapter 8.) (c) Rewarding people for doing something they enjoy will typically make them like that activity less in the future (see Chapter 5) (b) False; groups often make worse decisions than individuals (see Chapter 9) (a) Under most circumstances, ­repeated exposure increases liking for a stimulus (see Chapter 10) (a) More (see Chapter 6) (b) People who are in good moods or bad moods are more likely to help others than people in neutral moods, though for different reasons (see Chapter 11) (a) Research has found that when women think there are sex differences on a test, they worse, because of the added threat of confirming a stereotype about their gender When women were told that there were no gender differences in performance on the test, they did as well as men (see Chapter 13) (b) There is no evidence that subliminal messages in advertising have any effect; considerable evidence shows that normal advertising is quite effective (see Chapter 7) (a) ( Playing violent video games increases the likelihood that people will act aggressively (see Chapter 12) (b) People given the heavy clipboard thought that student opinion should be weighed the most (see Chapter 3) Answers to Review Questions on p. 45: b d c 10 Answers to Review Questions on p. 47: b c a Answers to Try It! on p 33: The politician ignored possible third variables that could cause both Scout membership and crime, such as socioeconomic class Traditionally, Scouting has been most popular in small towns and suburbs among middle-class youngsters; it has never been very attractive or even available to youths growing up in densely populated, urban, high-crime areas Not necessarily It might be the other way around—namely, that moms and dads are more likely to become Test Yourself on p 49: b c b c 10 a d d b c d Answers to Try It! on p 25: In studies conducted by Stanley Milgram (1974), up to 65% of helicopter parents if their kids are having academic problems Or there could be a third variable that causes parents to hover and their kids to have academic problems Did tattoos cause motorcycle accidents? Or, for that matter, did motorcycle accidents cause tattoos? The researchers suggested that a third (unmeasured) variable was in fact the cause of both: A tendency to take risks and to be involved in flamboyant personal displays led to tattooing one’s body and to driving a motorcycle recklessly It is possible that religion makes people more likely to obey the law It is equally possible, however, that some other variable increases the likelihood that people will be religious and follow the rules—such as having parents who are religious Not necessarily People who not eat breakfast might differ from people who in any number of ways that influence longevity—for example, in how obese they are, how hard-driving and high-strung they are, or even how late they sleep in the morning Not necessarily, because milk drinking may have little to with weight gain Children who drink a lot of milk might be more likely to eat cookies or other high-calorie foods It is possible that watching public television makes people want to have more sex It is equally possible, however, that some third variable, such as health or education, influences both television preferences and sexual behavior It is even possible that having sex makes people want to watch more public television Based on the correlation the researchers reported, there is no way of telling which of these explanations is true Not necessarily There could be a third variable that is causing kids to eat a lot of candy and to become violent later in life Not necessarily Perhaps students who study less are more drawn to Facebook Or, there is some third variable that causes people to want AK-1 AK-2  Answer Key to use Facebook and worse ­academically 10 Not necessarily There may be a third variable that makes kids more interested in watching sex and ­having sex Note: For more examples on correlation and causation, see http://jfmueller faculty.noctrl.edu/100/correlation_ or_-causation.htm Chapter Answers to Review Questions on p. 61: c a a b d Answers to Review Questions on p. 70: b d c a a Answers to Review Questions on p. 72: b d a c b Answers to Review Questions on p. 80: b a b d c Test Yourself on p 82: a d c b 10 d c a a d b Answers to Try It! on p 69: The correct answer is (b), the third letter Tversky and Kahneman (1974) found that most people thought that the answer was (a), the first letter Why people make this mistake? Because, say Tversky and Kahneman, they find it easier to think of examples of words that begin with r By using the availability heuristic, they assume that the ease with which they can bring examples to mind means that such words are more common The correct answer is (b) Slovic, Fischhoff, and Lichtenstein (1976) found that most people think that (a) is correct (accidents) Why people make this error? Again, it’s the availability heuristic: Accidental deaths are more likely to be reported by the media, so people find it easier to bring to mind examples of such deaths than deaths from strokes The correct answer is (c) Both outcomes are equally likely, given that the outcomes of coin flips are random events Tversky and ­Kahneman (1974) argue that, due to the representativeness heuristic, people expect a sequence of random events to “look” random That is, they expect events to be representative of their conception of randomness Many people, therefore, choose HTTHTH because this sequence is more representative of people’s idea of randomness than HHHTTT In fact, the chance that either sequence will occur is out of 26 times, or in 64 As another illustration of this point, if you were to buy a lottery ticket with four numbers, would you rather have the number 6957 or 1111? Many people prefer the former number because it seems more “random” and thus more likely to be picked In fact, both numbers have a in 1,000 chance of being picked The correct answer is (b) Many people choose (c) because they think that after five tails in a row, heads is more likely “to even things out.” This is called the gambler’s fallacy, which is the belief that prior random events (e.g., five tails in a row) have an influence on subsequent random events Assuming that the coin is fair, prior tosses have no influence on future ones Tversky and Kahneman (1974) suggest that the gambler’s fallacy is due in part to the representativeness heuristic: Five tails and one head seems more representative of a chance outcome than six tails in a row Answers to Try It! on p 76: These questions are based on ones used by Pronin and Kugler (2010), who found that people tend to believe that they have more free will than other people In their study, they asked Princeton undergraduates to predict what would happen in the year after graduation, either to them or to a friend of their choosing When the students answered the questions about themselves, they circled “both are possible” 52% of the time, whereas when they answered the ­questions about a friend, they circled “both are possible” only 36% of the time In other words, the students seemed to think their friends’ actions were more predetermined than were their own Answers to Try It! on p 78: (a) This question assesses methodological reasoning, the recognition that there are several reasons why crime has gone down other than actions taken by the police chief and that a better test of the mayor’s claim is to compare the crime rate in Middleopolis with other, similar cities The other answers might be true, but they don’t involve sound methodological reasoning (a) This question assesses statistical reasoning, the recognition that large samples of information are more likely to reflect true scores and abilities than small samples of information For example, if you flip a fair coin four times, it is not unusual to get all heads or all tails, but if you flip the coin a thousand times, it is extremely unlikely that you will get all heads or all tails Applied to this example, this statistical principle says that when baseball players have a small number of at-bats, it is not unusual to see very high (or very low) averages just by chance By the end of the season, however, when baseball players have hundreds of at-bats, it is highly u ­ nlikely that they will have a very high average just by luck The other answers might also be true, but they don’t reflect sound statistical reasoning Chapter Answers to Review Questions on p. 92: b a c a b Answers to Review Questions on p. 96: d a b c d Answers to Review Questions on p. 109: d c a a a Answer Key  AK-3 Answers to Review Questions on p. 115: a c c c d Test Yourself on p 117: d c b c 10 b c a a c b Chapter Answers to Review Questions on p. 124: c b a a Answers to Review Questions on p. 130: a d c Answers to Review Questions on p. 139: b d b b Answers to Review Questions on p. 144: b c d Answers to Review Questions on p. 146: b d a Answers to Review Questions on p. 149: a b c Answers to Review Questions on p. 153: c d b Test Yourself on p 155: a d a d 10 b a b c d c Answers to Try It! on p 123: To estimate your degree of interdependence, take the average of your answers to questions 1–5 To estimate your degree of independence, take the average of your answers to questions 6–10 On which measure did you come out higher? Singelis (1994) found that Asian Americans agreed more with the interdependence than the independence items, whereas Caucasian Americans agreed more with the independence than the interdependence items Answers to Try It! on p 127: Reverse your answers to questions and If you answered to these ­questions, change it to a 5; if you answered 2, change it to a 4; and so on Then add your ratings for all 10 questions The higher your score, the more likely you are to focus your attention on yourself Fenigstein, Scheier, and Buss (1975) found that the average score was 26 in a sample of college students Chapter Answers to Review Questions on p. 169: d a c b b Answers to Review Questions on p. 222: b b a b d Test Yourself on p 224: b b a d b b d c c 10 c Chapter Answers to Review Questions on p. 230: c b c Answers to Review Questions on p. 236: a b c d c Answers to Review Questions on p. 249: b c c a a d Answers to Review Questions on p. 184: d a d a c d Answers to Review Questions on p. 256: d a c c b Test Yourself on p 186: e d a b d a c b Answers to Review Questions on p. 265: c b a b d a, b, d 10 c Chapter Answers to Review Questions on p. 194: c b a d c Answers to Review Questions on p. 198: b c a b d Test Yourself on p 268: a c b d c b a a b 10 d Chapter Answers to Review Questions on p. 275: d a c b b Answers to Review Questions on p. 210: d a c c c d Answers to Review Questions on p. 283: b c d b b Answers to Review Questions on p. 218: c b c c a Answers to Review Questions on p. 292: a b c d a AK-4  Answer Key Answers to Review Questions on p. 300: b c b c b Test Yourself on p 301: a b d c 10 d a c b a d Chapter 10 Answers to Review Questions on p. 319: c b b c a d d Answers to Review Questions on p. 324: c b a a Answers to Review Questions on p. 337: c b d a b c Answers to Review Questions on p. 340: b a b Test Yourself on p 342: c a a d 10 a c a d b d Chapter 11 Answers to Review Questions on p. 353: c b a d Answers to Review Questions on p. 359: a d b a Answers to Review Questions on p. 368: c b a d Answers to Review Questions on p. 371: b c d Test Yourself on p 373 a b c b 10 d c a b a d Chapter 12 Answers to Review Questions on p. 387: b d c b b Answers to Review Questions on p. 393: c c a d b c b Answers to Review Questions on p. 399: b b c a e Answers to Review Questions on p. 408: a c b d c Test Yourself on p 411: a c c e 10 a d a d c h Chapter 13 Answers to Review Questions on p. 426: a b a f c Answers to Review Questions on p. 429: c c a e a Answers to Review Questions on p. 433: b c d a b Answers to Review Questions on p. 442: d c b a d Answers to Review Questions on p. 451: b a c d b Test Yourself on p 453: a d b d 10 b a b c c a SPA Answers to Review Questions on p. 461: c b d Answers to Review Questions on p. 468: d a c Answers to Review Questions on p. 473: b a c Test Yourself on p 474: a d a b d c c b SPA Answers to Review Questions on p. 486: b a d b Answers to Try It! on p 488: You get point each time you answered true (T) to questions 1, 4, 5, 6, and 10 and point for each time you answered false (F) to questions 2, 3, 7, 8, and This scale was developed to measure what the researchers call appraisal social support, or “the perceived availability of someone to talk to about one’s problems” (Cohen et al., 1985, pp. 75–76) One of the findings was that when people were not under Answer Key  AK-5 stress, those low in social support had no more physical symptoms than people high in social support did When people were under stress, however, those low in social support had more physical symptoms than did people high in social support Another finding was that women scored reliably higher on the social support scale than men did If you scored lower than you would like, you might want to consider reaching out to others more when you are under stress Answers to Review Questions on p. 491: c d b Answers to Review Questions on p. 493: d a Answers to Review Questions on p. 513: d b c Test Yourself on p 494: c b b b Test Yourself on p 514: d a c c 10 c c a b d SPA Answers to Review Questions on p. 508: c b c b a c b a b d ... Cataloging-in-Publication Data Aronson, Elliot   Social psychology / Elliot Aronson, Timothy D Wilson, Robin M Akert, Samuel R Sommers — Ninth Edition   pages cm   Revised editon of the authors’ Social psychology, ... Cures  375 413 Social Psychology in Action  sing Social Psychology to Achieve a U Sustainable and Happy Future  455 Social Psychology in Action Social Psychology and Health  476 Social Psychology. .. reflect these updates • Social Psychology in Action chapters—“Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy Future,” Social Psychology and Health,” and Social Psychology and the Law”—have