Social psychology catherine a sanderson

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Social psychology catherine a sanderson

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sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page iv sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page i This online teaching and learning environment integrates the entire digital textbook with the most effective instructor and student resources WR ÀW HYHU\ OHDUQLQJ VW\OH With WileyPLUS: ‡ Students achieve concept mastery in a rich, structured environment that’s available 24/7 ‡ Instructors personalize and manage their course more effectively with assessment, assignments, grade tracking, and more ‡ manage time better ‡study smarter ‡ save money From multiple study paths, to self-assessment, to a wealth of interactive visual and audio resources, WileyPLUS gives you everything you need to personalize the teaching and learning experience » F i n d o u t h ow t o M A K E I T YO U R S » www.wileyplus.com sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page ii ALL THE HELP, RESOURCES, AND PERSONAL SUPPORT YOU AND YOUR STUDENTS NEED! 2-Minute Tutorials and all of the resources you & your students need to get started www.wileyplus.com/firstday Student support from an experienced student user Ask your local representative for details! Pre-loaded, ready-to-use assignments and presentations www.wiley.com/college/quickstart Technical Support 24/7 FAQs, online chat, and phone support www.wileyplus.com/support Collaborate with your colleagues, find a mentor, attend virtual and live events, and view resources www.WhereFacultyConnect.com Your WileyPLUS Account Manager Training and implementation support www.wileyplus.com/accountmanager MAKE IT YOURS! sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page iii SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page iv sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page v SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY C A T H E R I N E A M H E R S JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC A T S A N D E R S O N C O L L E G E sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 18:14 Vice President & Publisher Executive Editor Senior Editor Assistant Editor Executive Marketing Manager Production Manager Senior Production Editor Designer Media Editor Illustration Editor Photo Department Manager Senior Photo Editor Media Editor Production Management Services Cover Photo Page vi Jay O’Callaghan Christopher Johnson Leslie Kraham Eileen McKeever Danielle Torio Dorothy Sinclair Sandra Dumas Brian Salisbury Melissa Edwards Anna Melhorn Hilary Newman Elinor Wagner Lynn Pearlman Ingrao Associates Clockwise from top left: iStockphoto; Blend Images/Getty Images, Inc.; Westend61/SuperStock; Digital Vision/Getty Images, Inc.; Image Source/Getty Images, Inc.; Photodisc/Getty Images, Inc.; Frida Marquez/Getty Images, Inc.; Blend Images/Getty Images, Inc.; Tim Klein/Stone/Getty Images, Inc This book was typeset in 10/12 Sabon Regular by Prepare and printed and bound by Courier/Kendallville The cover was printed by Courier/Kendallville The paper in this book was manufactured by a mill whose forest management programs include sustained yield harvesting of its timberlands Sustained yield harvesting principles ensure that the number of trees cut each year does not exceed the amount of new growth This book is printed on acid-free paper q Copyright © 2010 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600 Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008 Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative ISBN 13 978-0470-25026-5 ISBN 13 978-0470-55646-7 Printed in the United States of America 10 sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page vii To Andrew Reese, Robert Parks, and Caroline Kenton sande_fm_i-xli-hr.qxd 21-10-2009 17:34 Page viii sande_idn_563-578hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:49 Weaver, J B I., 396 Weber, E U., 494 Weber, R., 361, 398 Webster, D., 128, 146, 160 Webster, D M., 253 Wechsler, H., 51 Wegener, D., 146 Wegener, D T., 220, 227, 235, 237, 241, 477 Weger, H., Jr., 444 Wegner, D., 67, 69 Wegner, D M., 360, 414 Wehrle, T., 130 Weibel, D., 199 Weigel, R H., 311 Weiland, P., 124 Weiner, B., 121, 126, 402, 403, 491, 492 Weinstein, N., 83, 84 Weiss, B., 401 Weiss, L., 162, 390, 432 Weiss, W., 226 Welchans, S., 381 Weldon, E., 294 Wells, G., 86, 146 Wells, G L., 219, 269 Welton, G L., 313 Wendelken, C., 438 Wentura, D., 335 Wenzel, M., 387 Werner, C M., 222 West, S G., 388, 420 Westen, D., 236, 445, 446 Westmaas, J L., 485 Weston, D., 37 Weyant, J M., 476 Whalen, P J., 17 Wharton, J D., 387 Wheatley, T., 64, 65 Wheeler, D., 266 Wheeler, J., 45, 298 Wheeler, L , 38, 39 Wheeler, L., 417, 453, 474 Wheeler, M E., 359 Whitcher-Alagna, S., 494 White, G L., 423 White, J B., 314 White, K., 100, 128 White, P H., 222 Whitley, B E., 430 Whitley, B E J., 335 Whitney, G A., 443 Whitney, H., 67 Whitney, S M., 443 Whyte, M K., 455 Wicklund, R., 66, 297 Wicklund, R A., 297 Wieczorkowska, G., 370 Wiegand, A., 208 Wiersema, B., 391 Wieselquist, J., 321 Wilder, D A., 223, 224, 361 578 NAME INDEX Page 578 Wildschut, T., 439 Wilhelmy, R A., 258 Wilke, H., 318, 491 Wilke, H A M., 322 Willard, J., 164 Willemsen, T M., 344 Williams, D R., 353 Williams, K., 17, 294 Williams, K D., 227, 294, 295, 323 Williams, K J., 350 Williams, L L., 417 Williams, M., 477 Williams, P., 243 Williams, S., 162, 432 Wills, T A., 194, 353 Wilson, D W., 490 Wilson, M., 490 Wilson, M I., 380 Wilson, T., 47, 64, 65 Wilson, T D., 65 Windschitl, P., 83 Wingard, D., 84 Winkler, J E., 341 Winner, A L., 467 Winslow, M P., 199 Winstead, B A., 490 Wintemute, G J., 391 Wirtz, D., 147 Wiseman, C., 76 Wiser, P L., 311 Wisniewski, N., 381 Wit, A., 318 Witcher, B S., 423 Wittenbrink, B., 333, 357, 366 Witvliet, C V., 445 Wlodarski, R., 80 Wohl, M J A., 311 Wohlschläger, A M., 71 Wolak, J., 402 Wolfe, C., 353 Wolfe, C T., 338 Wolfson, M., 396 Wolsic, B., 416 Wolsko, C., 366 Wong, F Y., 395 Wong, R Y., 323 Wood, E E., 477 Wood, J V., 87, 387 Wood, W., 225, 227, 228, 241, 260, 262, 395, 420 Woodard, E., 479 Woods, B L., 445 Worchel, S., 202, 268 Word, C O., 349 Word, L E., 471 Worth, L T., 234 Worthington, E L J., 445 Wortman, C B., 152 Wosinska, W., 209 Wright, D J., 76 Wright, L., 42 Wright, M., 391 Wright, S C., 364 Wu, C., 22, 414 Wu, R., 239 Wyer, M., 131 Wyer, M M., 313 Wyer, N A., 344, 360 Wyer, R., 40, 69, 206 Xiaohe, X., 455 Xu, J., 355 Yagi, Y., 477 Yakimovich, D., 471 Yamaguchi, S., 24 Yang, J H., 283 Yang, J N., 284 Yates, S., 230 Ybarra, M L., 402 Ybarra, O., 456 Yik, M., 97 Yoo, S., 19 Young, H., 358 Young, L V., 306 Young, R., 69 Yovetich, N A., 439 Yum, Y., 455 Yurko, K., 84 Zaccaro, S J., 305 Zahn-Waxler, C., 464 Zajonc, R., 71, 183 Zajonc, R B., 183, 291, 292, 421 Zanna, A., 209, 210 Zanna, M., 55, 190, 191, 209, 210 Zanna, M P., 191, 204, 236, 337, 338, 349, 362, 366, 384 Zárate, M., 173, 175 Zavalloni, M., 299 Zebrowitz, L A., 417 Zeh, T., 321 Zeki, S., 432 Zemack-Rugar, Y., 148 Zembrodt, I M., 443 Zerbst, J., 88 Zhang, L., 259, 310, 423 Zhang, S., 88 Zhang, Z., 58 Zhao, X., 134 Zierk, K L., 425 Zillman, D., 391, 392, 396 Zillmann, D., 391 Zimbardo, P., 53, 278, 296 Zimmerman, F J., 395 Zucker, G., 121 Zuckerman, M., 89, 170 Zuwerink, J R., 240, 366 sande_ids_579-590hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:57 Page 579 SUBJECT INDEX Aaker, Jennifer, 243 Abilities, of others, 126–127, 352 Abortion, 307 Abrahamson, Amy, 189 Absolute deprivation, 338 Abstinence-only programs, 45 Abu Ghraib scandal, 53, 278 Academic performance: attributions of, 127 in jigsaw classrooms, 311 and self-affirmation theory, 208 and self-handicapping, 88, 89 and stereotype threat, 349–351 Acceptance of Stereotypes Scale, 346 Accountability, deindividuation and, 297 Accuracy: of first impressions, 161 in marriage, 440 and stereotyping, 367–368 ACT (Adults and Children Together) Against Violence, 392 Activation, of stereotypes, 358–360 Activists, civil rights, 478 Actor-observer effect, 119–122 Adolescents, 117, 193, 229, 260, 442 Adults and Children Together (ACT) Against Violence, 392 Advantage, homefield, 292 Advertising: culture’s influence on, 242–243 routes of persuasion in, 218, 219 sleeper effect in, 226 subliminal persuasion in, 236 on television, 216–217 Affect, 393, 394, 415 Affective forecasting, 65 Affirmative action, 335, 338, 362 Africa, 188 African Americans, 208, 353, 494–495 See also Race, stereotypes about Agape love, 430, 431 Age: and likelihood of receiving help, 490, 495 stereotypes about, 358, 369 Aggression (aggressive behavior), 376–410 biological factors for, 378–385 and climate, 35 cognitive-neoassociation theory of, 389–391 culture’s influence on, 404–408 excitation transfer theory of, 391–392 frustration-aggression theory of, 386–389 general aggression model, 393–395 genetic factors in, 380–382 and hormones, 382–385 instinct and evolutionary theories of, 378–380 and jealousy, 446 media’s influence on, 395–400 modeling of, 30 and overly positive self-views, 89 psychological factors in, 385–395 social learning theory, 392–393 strategies for reducing, 401–404 Aggression Questionnaire, 382 Agreements, integrative, 313–314 AIDS, 233, 491–492 Airborne (product), 224–225 Ajzen, Icek, 193 Alcohol use: and aggression, 384 and attitude-behavior link, 191–192 by college students, norm-based education about, 256 observational learning about, 188 persuasion about, 233–234 pluralistic ignorance about, 253 prototype/willingness model for, 195 and reactance, 239–240 and self-awareness, 69 self-fulfilling prophecies about, 164 Alicke, Mark, 88 Alienation, 34 All My Children, 236 Allport, Floyd, Alone, standing, 259–260, 280 Al Qaeda, 278 Altruism, 460–500 arousal/cost-reward model of, 473–475 benefits to self from, 487–489 culture’s influence on, 495–498 decision-making process model of, 468–473 environmental factors in, 478–480 hypotheses for, 481–488 long-term, 488–489 modeling of, 478 and mood, 476–478 personal factors in, 462–468 person factors in, 489–491 and receiving help, 494–495 relationship factors in, 492–494 situational factors in, 468–480 and social dilemmas, 320 social norms of, 491–492 Altruism Scale, 463 Amanpour, Christiane, 302 Ambady, Nalini, 161 Ambiguity, of emergencies, 471 American Cancer Society, 317 American Idol, 236 American Psychological Association, 54 Amish people, 405 Amish school shooting, 376–377, 403 Amygdala, 358–359 Analyze This (film), 379 Anchoring and adjustment heuristic, 151–152 Anderson, C., 390, 393 Anderson, Pamela, 74 Androgynous dating partners, 420 Anger, 306, 386–387, 403, 437 Anglo Americans, 101–102, 456 See also European Americans Animals, 48–49, 385, 464 Aniston, Jennifer, 62, 75 Anna Karenina (Leo Tolstoy), 441 Anonymity, 296 Anthropology, 18 Antoinette, Marie, 454 Antonovics, Kate, 431 Anxiety, 262, 352 Anxious/ambivalent attachment, 436–438 Apologizing, 400–403, 445 Appraisal process (general aggression model), 393, 394 Apprehension, 292, 349 Arabs, 452 Arab-Israeli relations, 309, 314 Arbitration, 312 Archival research, 35–36 Arms race, 309 Aron, Art, 424, 441 Aronson, E., 195, 201, 311, 422 Aronson, Joshua, 349 Arousal, physiological, see Physiological arousal Arousal-affect/excitation transfer theory, 391–392 Arousal/cost-reward model of helping, 473–475 Arousal-excitation theory, 441 Arranged marriages, 454–455 Arriaga, X B., 445 Asch, Solomon, 159, 257, 258 Ashe, Arthur, 491 Asian Americans, 101–102, 496 Asian Canadians, 209, 211 Asking questions, social norms about, 250, 252–253 Assertiveness, 104 Assessments, of stereotypes, 345–347 Athletes, Olympic, 135, 144, 290 Atta, Mohamed, 191 Attachment styles, 49, 436–438 Attitude(s), 180–213 and classical conditioning, 183–185 in cognitive dissonance theory, 196–205 culture’s influence on, 209–211 extreme, 227–228 and group norms, 300–301 in impression management theory, 207 and observational learning/modeling, 186–188 and operant conditioning, 186–189 and performances, 118, 119 persuasion and importance of, 240, 241 persuasion as source of change in, 222 predicting behavior with, 189–195 in self-affirmation theory, 207–208 in self-perception theory, 206–207 using information to form, 182–183 Attitude certainty, 240 Attraction, interpersonal, see Interpersonal attraction Attractiveness: benefits of, 415 579 sande_ids_579-590hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:57 Attractiveness (cont.) consistency of, 414–415 and contrast effect, 156, 425 culture’s influence on, 452–453 explanations for, 415–417 and friendship, 425, 426 gender differences in, 417–421 in interpersonal attraction, 414–421 and jealousy, 442, 446 of persuasive sources, 223, 224 positive illusions about, 439, 440 and receiving help, 490 and scarcity, 268 and social comparison theory, 75 and value of resources, 417–418 Attribution(s) See also Dispositional attributions in China, 103 in conflicts, 444–445 of crimes, 119–120 culture’s influence on, 134–137 of discrimination, 352 disserving, 120 external, 112, 116, 444 of failure, 127 and gender, 116 and incentives, 126 in India, 134 internal, 112, 116 in “new look” at dissonance theory, 204 of obedience, 276 of obesity, 118 for performance of Olympic athletes, 135 of physiological arousal, 78–79 of poverty, 122 self-serving, 81, 103 and social norms, 257 and social perception, 112–113 of success, 81, 116, 120, 121 two-stage model of, 124–125 Attributional Complexity Scale, 119 Attribution errors, 117–128 about cognitive capacity, 124–126 about others’ abilities and motivations, 126–127 actor-observer effect, 119–122 fundamental (ultimate), 6, 117–119, 342, 369 salience as, 122–124 and self-knowledge, 127 Audience, 229–231, 292 Audience inhibition, 473 Australia, 20, 21, 122, 404, 406, 453, 454 Austria, 497 Authoritarianism, 273 Authority, 270–271, 273, 275, 279 Authority figures, disobedience by, 280 Autokinetic effect, 257 Automatic activation, of stereotypes, 358–360 Automatic thinking, 146 Autonomy, 19 Autrey, Wesley, 474 Availability heuristic, 146–149, 173, 174 Average, regression to the, 80–81 Average faces, attractiveness of, 415, 452 Aversive arousal, 488 Aversive consequences, in cognitive dissonance theory, 202 580 SUBJECT INDEX Page 580 Aversive racism, 338 Avoidant attachment, 436–438 Awareness, of social norms, 252 “Axis of evil,” 302 The Bachelor (television series), 412 Bad moods, prosocial behavior and, 477–479, 485–486 Bandura, Al, 187, 392 Bantu tribe, 282 Barbash, Tom, 152 Bargaining, in conflict resolution, 312, 313 Baseball teams, cohesion-performance link for, 298 Base-rate fallacy, 150–151 Basking in reflected glory (BIRGing), 86, 494 Batson, C D., 488 Batson, Daniel, 470, 475, 481, 483, 487 Baumeister, Roy, 67–68 Beach, Scott, 423 Beauty, 414–416, 452–453 Begin, Menachem, 314 Behavior(s) See also Prosocial behavior; Sexual behavior and attitude, 189–196, 206–207 as cause of stereotyping, 358 counter-attitudinal, 126, 197 destructive, 89–90 examining your, 69–71 external factors on, group influence on, 290–298 health-related, 199 health-risk, 194–195 and introspection, 64–65 overconfidence in predicting, 85 planned, 193–194 priming of, 149 prison environment’s effect on, 52, 53 and self-awareness, 66–65 self-destructive, 378 self-serving, 87–88 situational factors on, social norms as guides for, 250 stereotypic-inconsistent, 360–361 subcultural differences in, 407 Behavioral confirmation, 169–173 See also Self-fulfilling prophecy Behavioral economics, 18 Behavioral genetics, 16 Behavioral problems, of children, 37 Behavior choice (general aggression model), 393, 394 Behaviorism, 8, 198 Belief(s): about traits, 162 expectations based on, 165–168 maintenance of, 168–169 of participants about experiments, 56 and perceptual confirmation, 165–166 reality from, 164–173 self-serving, 82, 83 Belief in a just world, 121, 122, 342, 492 Belief perseverance, 168–169 Bell, Sean, 357 Bem, Daryl, 69, 206 Benevolent sexism, 356, 370 Berglas, Stephen, 88 Bernstein, Eugene, 464 Berscheid, Ellen, 171 Best-friend relationships, 452, 455 Beyea, Ed, 460 Bias(es): cognitive, 340–345, 369 confirmation, 344 correspondence, 117–119 hindsight, 11 and incomplete information, 149 negativity, 182–183 observer, 36 self-serving, 80–82 Biased perceptions, in conflicts, 308–309 Bickman, L., 270 Bierhoff, H W., 491 Biological factors, for aggression, 378–385 Biology, 16–17 BIRGing, see Basking in reflected glory Blaming the victim, 342, 386, 491–492 Blind experimenters, 49 Blood oxygen levels, 17 Body image, 76 Bogus pipeline, 346 Bonds, Barry, 161 Bonuses, 72 Boomerang effect, 239 Boredom, 441 Bosquete, Orlando, 336 Boxing matches, murder rates and, 396, 397 Bradbury, Thomas, 112 Bragging, 91 Brain, 160, 321 Brain activity, 130, 398, 416, 432 Brazil, 282, 283, 496, 497 Breakups, 450–451 Brehm, Jack, 202 Britain, 20, 21 Brown, Nixzmary, 381 Brown v Board of Education, 10 Bulgaria, 497 Bullying, 392, 402 Burger, J M., 266 Bush, George, 38, 86, 91, 149, 236, 302 Bush administration, 302 Buss, D M., 447 Bystander effect, 472 Canada: cognitive dissonance in, 210–211 conformity in, 282 false uniqueness bias in, 103 impact of question wording in, 58 murder rate in, 406 prevalence of aggression in, 404 self-concept clarity in, 100 Car accidents, 151, 293 Car dealers, 267 Carlo, G., 466 Carlsmith, Merrill, 197, 198, 207 Carnegie Hero Medals, 464 Carter, Jimmy, 314 Carter, Stephen, 342, 343 Categorization, social, 334–336 Catharsis, 378–379 Caudate, of brain, 160 Causality, 13–14 Celebrities, 187 Central Park jogger case, 268–269 Central (systematic) route, of persuasion, 218, 222 Chaiken, S., 157 Challenger disaster, 288, 301 sande_ids_579-590hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:57 Page 581 Change, cultural perceptions of, 101 Characteristics: defined, demand, 47 Character strengths, 10 Character traits, and attractiveness of men, 420 Charitable organizations: donations to, 466, 467, 478, 486 gifts from, 265, 491 Charlie’s Angels (television series), 425 CHD (coronary heart disease), 353 Chicago Cubs, 154 Children: aggression in, 381–382, 392–393, 396 altruism of, 466–467, 475, 486 attachment styles of, 436 attitudes of, 182, 186 behavioral problems of, 37 and divorce, 450–451 models of prejudice for, 332–333 observational learning by, 187 seeking of help by, 490 and television, 401, 479 Child abuse, 381 China: attributions in, 103, 134 collectivistic culture of, 21 conformity in, 282 counterfactual thinking in, 174 first memories in, 99 helpfulness of people in, 497 marriage and love in, 453–455 motivation for helping in, 498 persuasive messages in, 243–244 research in, 57–58 self-ratings in, 97 social loafing in, 324 stereotypes about age in, 368 view of conflict in, 324 view of consistency in, 101 Chinese Americans, 58, 138, 281, 323 Chinese people, prejudice against, 190–191 Cho, Seung-Hui, 175 Choi, I., 136 Choice, 117, 118, 204–205 Choking under pressure, 292 Cialdini, R B., 255, 267, 485–487 Civil rights activists, 478 CLalt (comparison level for alternatives), 434 Clark, Kenneth, 10 Clark, Mamie, 10 Classical conditioning, 182–185 Classrooms, jigsaw, 311 Clean Air Act, 40 Climate, aggression and, 35, 390 Clinical psychology, 15–16 Clinton, Bill, 38, 168 Clinton, Hilary, 306 Closemindedness, 302 Close relationships: attachment styles in, 436–438 conflict in, 442–445 dissolution of, 450–451 and health, 432 and helping, 493–494 jealousy in, 445–447 loneliness in, 447–450 positive illusions in, 439–441 problems in, 442–452 satisfaction in, 433–442 in self-definition, 70 and social exchange theory, 433–436 Coercive messages, 224 Coffee drinking, 223 Cognition(s) See also related topics e.g.: Social cognition in general aggression model, 393, 394 and persuasion, 230–231 Cognitive abilities, discrimination and, 352 Cognitive and social interventions, for stereotypes, 363–368 Cognitive-arousal theory of emotion, 77–79 Cognitive bias, 340–345, 369 Cognitive capacity, in social perception, 124–126 Cognitive dissonance, 12, 210–211, 441 Cognitive dissonance theory: attitudes in, 196–205 effort justification in, 200–201 and health, 199 and insufficient deterrence, 199–200 insufficient justification in, 197–198 “new look” at, 202–205 and postdecision dissonance, 201–202 and punishment, 401 and self-standards model, 205, 206 Cognitive-neoassociation theory of aggression, 389–391 Cognitive psychology, 16 Cohesion, in group influence, 297–298 Cohesiveness, groupthink and, 303, 304 Cohn, E G., 390 Colgate Total, 218 Collective effort model, 294 Collectivistic cultures: advertising in, 244 aggression in, 405 attitudes in, 209–210, 283 beliefs about traits in, 174–175 cognitive bias in, 369 cognitive dissonance in, 210 conflict in, 455 conformity in, 281–282 expression of emotion in, 137–138 friendship in, 455 fundamental attribution error in, 134–136 helping in, 496 international negotiations with, 324 marriage and love in, 454 positive self-concept in, 102–104 self-concept in, 97–101 social loafing in, 323–324 social psychology in, 19–23 stereotypes about obesity in, 370, 371 Color blindness, 368 Columbia disaster, 289, 301 Columbine massacre, 402 Commitment, 266–267, 429, 430, 434 Common goals, 365 Common ground, in conflict resolution, 310–312 Common group identity, 364–365 Common Group Identity Model, 310 Common resource dilemma, 316–317 Common sense, 11–14 Communal relationships, 493 Communication: and aggression reduction, 401–403 and Internet, 427 nonverbal, 129–130 and social dilemmas, 319–320 Community identification, 320 Companionate love, 429, 430 Comparison level, in social exchange theory, 434–435 Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt), 434 Compassionate love, 428, 429 Compensation, social, 295, 296 Competence, 85, 91, 295, 355 Competition, 308, 321–322 Complementarity, 421–422 Compliance, 264–270 consequences of, 268–269 consistency and commitment in, 266–267 culture’s influence on, 282–284 defined, 250 and reciprocity, 265–266 and scarcity, 267–268 Condom Use Self-Efficacy Scale, 194 Confessions, false, 268–269 Confidence, self-handicapping and, 89 Confidentiality, 55 Confirmation: behavioral, 169–173 See also Selffulfilling prophecy perceptual, 165–166, 343 Confirmation bias, 344 Conflict: and attachment style, 437–438 between authorities, 280 in close relationships, 442–445 culture’s influence on, 234–235, 455 group influence on, 307–315, 324–325 modeling of, 450 parent-fiancé, 453 and positive illusions, 439 realistic group conflict theory, 337–338 Conflict resolution, 310–315 Conformity, 253–264 benefits of, 263 culture’s influence on, 281–282 defined, 250 factors that increase, 258–262 informational influence on, 257 and minority influence, 262 normative influence on, 257–258 private, 257, 262 public, 257, 262 Conformity values, in advertising, 243 Consensus, 114–115, 333–334 Consent, informed, 54–55 Consequences: aversive, 202 of compliance, 268–269 persuasion with, 234 of stereotypes, 347–357 Conservation, water, 201 Consistency, 115, 116, 266–267 Consummate love, 429, 430 Contact, and stereotypes, 363–365 Contact hypothesis, 310 Contempt, 444 Contingency models of leadership, 305 Contingent rewards, 306 Contrast effect, 156, 225, 226, 425 SUBJECT INDEX 581 sande_ids_579-590hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:57 Contributions, and social loafing, 294–295 Control: high perceived, 83–85 perceived, 85–86, 90 perceived behavior, 193 in research methods, 45, 46 Control conditions, for research, 47 Controlled (effortful) thinking, 146 Convenience, of research studies, 51 Convenience samples, 50 Conversations, videotaped, 122–124 Cooper, Joel, 202, 205 Cooperation, 319–322 Cooperative learning, 311 Coronary heart disease (CHD), 353 Corporal punishment, 401 Correlations, 34, 167, 340–341 Correlational research methods, 33–43 and facial movements, 43 observational /naturalistic methods, 34–37 self-report or survey methods, 37–43 Correspondence bias, 117–119 See also Fundamental attribution error Correspondent inference theory of social perception, 113, 114 Costa Rica, 496, 497 Cottrell, N B., 292 Counterarguments, 239–241 Counter-attitudinal behavior, 126, 197 See also Cognitive dissonance theory Counterfactual thinking, 152–154, 174 Country music, 24–25 Covariation theory of social perception, 114–116 Cover stories, for research, 47 Covert measures, 42–43, 346–347 Cramer, R E., 472 Crandall, Chris, 370 Credibility, of persuasive sources, 224–226 Crest Pro-Health, 218 Crime, 35, 119–120, 390 Criqui, M., 84 Critical thinking, 13–14 Criticism, 303, 304, 444 Cross-cultural research, 22–23, 58 Cross-race identification, 336 Cults, 276–278 Culture: and aggression, 404–408 and anthropology, 18 application of social psychology to, 19–23 and attitudes, 209–211 and cognitive bias, 369 and compliance, 282–284 and conformity, 281–282 and detecting deception, 133 and empathy, 484 and friendship, 455–456 and group influence, 323–325 and helping, 495–498 and interpersonal attraction, 452–453 and love, 453–455 and mate preferences, 420–421 nonverbal communication and, 131 and obedience, 284 and persuasion, 242–244 and physical attractiveness, 414 and prejudice, 369–372 582 SUBJECT INDEX Page 582 and research methods, 57–58 and self-perception, 97–101 and social cognition, 173–175 and social perception, 134–140 Culture of honor, 407 Cunningham, M R., 477 Curie, Marie, 74 Cyberbullying, 402 Czech Republic, 406, 497 Dabbs, Jim, 378 Darley, J M., 468, 470–472, 475 Data collection and analysis, 32 Dating See also Close relationships and attachment styles, 436–438 conflict resolution in, 445 operant conditioning in, 186 pluralistic ignorance in, 252–253 and positive illusions, 439, 440 and self-monitoring, 93–94 Davis, Keith, 113, 114 Deadlines, 73, 268 Death wish, 378–379 Debates, presidential, 166, 167 Debriefing, 56, 277 Deception: APA guidelines about, 54 detecting, 130–133 and informed consent, 55 nonverbal cues to, 128–129 in psychological studies, 56 and self-monitoring, 94 Decision making, 67, 201, 299–306 Decision-making process model of helping, 468–473 Defendants, attractiveness of, 416 Defensiveness, 444 Defensive processing, of persuasive messages, 223 Defiance, 279 Definitions, operational, 32 Deindividuation, 295–297 Delayed rewards, 67 Demand characteristics, 47 Demand/withdraw interaction pattern, 444 Demographics, 229, 260 Denial, 445 Denmark, 406, 497 DePaulo, Bella, 490 Dependent variables, 44 Deprivation, relative, 338, 387, 388 Descriptive norms, 251 Desensitization, to aggression, 398, 399 Designated victims, 387 Desirability, 155, 268, 419–420 Desperate Housewives, 236 Destructive behavior, 89–90 Deterrence, in cognitive dissonance theory, 199–200 Developed countries, developing vs., 122 Developmental psychology, 486 Deviation, from social norms, 253, 254 Devine, Patricia, 358, 366 Die Hard (film), 231 Differences, individual, 15 Direct approaches, in correlational research, 33–34 Direct experience, attitudes and, 190–191 Disabilities, prejudice based on, 368 Disagreement, perceptions of, 308 Discomfort, from tokenism, 341 Disconfirming evidence, 360–361 Discrepancies, 227–229, 387 Discrimination: defined, 332 and facial movements, 43 reverse, 354–355 subtle, 361–362 Discussion, group polarization and, 300–301 Disgust, 355 Disinhibition, 384, 398, 399 Disobedience, 280 Displacement, in frustration-aggression theory, 386–387 Dispositional attributions: for negative behavior in out-group, 342 of others’ behavior, 112–114, 116 of own behavior, 119 and salience, 123 and ulterior motives, 126 Dissatisfaction, relationship, 443, 444 Disserving attributions, 120 Dissolution, of close relationships, 450–451 Dissonance, 196 See also Cognitive dissonance theory cognitive, 12, 210–211, 441 postdecision, 201–202 vicarious, 205, 206 Distinctiveness, in covariation theory, 115–116 Distraction: and aggression, 403 and attributional errors, 136–137 and routes of persuasion, 219–220 and social facilitation, 293 and two-stage model of attribution, 124–125 Distress, cues of, 471 Diversity, 301, 304 Divorce, 450–451 Dog Picture, Domestic violence, 405–406 Dominance, 335, 336, 442, 446 Donation, organ, 465, 495–496 Door-in-the-face technique, 266–267 Dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (PRC), of brain, 160 Double-shot hypothesis of jealousy, 447 Downward social comparisons, 86–88 Drinking and driving studies, 55 Driving, risky, 117 Drug use, 232 Drury, Margaret, 110 Dunning, David, 85 Durkheim, Emile, 34 Dutton, Donald, 424 Dweck, Carol, 127 Eagly, Alice, 225, 420 East Asia, 137 Eating disorders, 199, 254, 256 Economics, 18 Economic conditions, frustration about, 387, 388 Economic decisions, mood and, 163 Economic productivity, 496 Education: and affirmative action, 362 and bullying, 402 sande_ids_579-590hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:57 Page 583 and disobedience, 280 jigsaw classroom, 311 and music preferences, 24–25 norm-based, 256 sexual, 45 and stereotypes, 351, 365–366 Effortful thinking, 146 Effort justification, 200, 201 Effort justification, in cognitive dissonance theory, 200, 201 Egalitarian goals, 367 Egoism, helping and, 481, 483, 485–488 Egoistic-altruism hypothesis, 485–488 Egotism, 82, 310 Egypt, 405 Eisenberger, Naomi, 17 Eisenstadt, Donna, 198 Elaboration likelihood model (ELM), of persuasion, 218, 219 Elliott, Jane, 365 Ellsworth, Phoebe, 493 ELM (elaboration likelihood model), of persuasion, 218, 219 El Salvador, 497 Ely, Robin, 172 Emergencies, 468–473 Emotions, 77–79, 137–140, 163, 236 Emotional (hostile) aggression, 378, 389 Emotional appeals: in persuasion, 232–236 Emotional contagion, 251 Emotional empathy, 466 Emotional infidelity, 446, 447 Emotional loneliness, 448 Empathy, 403, 466, 481, 484 Empathy-altruism hypothesis of helping, 481–485, 487–488 Enchanted April (Elizabeth von Arnim), 173 Energy, 68, 441 England, 20, 21, 406, 454, 492–493 Enron, 301, 303 Entrapment, 309–310 Environmental factors: and aggression, 391 in helping, 478–480 Environmental Protection Agency, 318 Equal status contact, 310 Equity theory, of relationships, 435–436, 441, 495 Eros love, 430, 431 ERPs (event-related potentials), 398 Errors: attribution, see Attribution errors in perceiving social norms, 252–253 Eskimo people, 405 Ethics, 53–57, 277 Ethnicity, stereotypes about, 332, 338 Ethnic slurs, 333 European Americans: cognitive dissonance for, 211 conformity by, 281 positive self-concept of, 102 seeking of help by, 496 self-presentation by, 105 word choice of, 58, 138 European Canadians, 209, 211 Evaluation apprehension, 292 Event-recording measures, 38 Event-related potentials (ERPs), 398 Evidence, disconfirming, 360–361 Evolutionary factors, in helping, 462–464 Evolutionary psychology, 17, 417–421, 445–447 Evolutionary theory of aggression, 379–380 Exams, 147 Excitation transfer theory, 79, 391–392, 423 Exit, in conflict resolution, 443 Expectancy effects, 47–49 Expectations: based on beliefs, 165–168 and confirmation bias, 344 and frustration, 386 loneliness and negative, 450 of medical treatments, 165 and perceptual confirmation, 343 and positive illusions, 441 in self-fulfilling prophecy, 170–171 and social compensation, 295 of teachers, 171 Experience: attitudes and, 190–191 sexual, 419–420, 438 Experience sampling measures, 38 Experimental design, 46 Experimental methods, 44 Experimental realism, 49 Experimental research methods, 44–46 Experimenters, blind, 49 Experimenter expectancy effects, 47–49 Expertise, persuasion and, 221 Expert witnesses, 225 Exposure: classical conditioning and mere, 183 and desensitization to aggression, 398, 399 External attributions, 112, 116, 444 External factors, of behavior, External validity, 49–51 Extrinsic motivation, 71–72, 101–102, 476 Eye contact, 130 Eyewitnesses, 86, 260–262, 269, 336 Fabes, Richard, 475 Face-to-face communication, 319 Facial expressions, 130–131 Facial feedback hypothesis, 71 Facial movements, discrimination and, 43 Facilitation, social, 290–293 Failure, 127 Fallacy, base-rate, 150–151 False confessions, 268–269 False consensus effect, 82 False uniqueness effect, 80, 82, 103–104 Familiarity, 335, 423 Fatal attraction effect, 421 Favoritism, 334–336, 338–339 Favoritism, in-group, 334–336, 338–339, 369 Fazio, Russell, 190, 202 Fear, 232–234, 252–253, 364 Feedback: and attitude change, 210–211 and overconfidence, 86 in self-affirmation theory, 208 and social loafing, 294 Fein, Steve, 323, 332 Fertility, 418, 419 Festinger, Leon, 196–198, 207, 426 Field experiments, 50 Films, sexually aggressive, 399, 400 Fincham, Frank, 112 Finland, 406 Firearms Control Regulations Act, 391 First impressions, 159–161 Fishbein, Martin, 193 Fiske, Susan, 355, 370 Fitzgerald, Louise, 389 Fixed theory of intelligence, 127 fMRI (Functional magnetic resonance imaging), 17 Focus, 219–220 Food, 150, 157 Football games, 166 Foot-in-the-door technique, 265–266, 276 Forecasting, affective, 65 Foreigners, helping of, 492 Forewarnings, 172, 239, 304–305 Forgiveness, 403 Framing, 156–159, 366 Frank, Anne, 340 Fraternities, 248–249, 278, 340 Frequency, salience vs., 147 Freud, Sigmund, 65, 378 Friedman, H., 84 Friendship: culture’s influence on, 452, 455–456 and helping, 493–494 in-group/out-group, 363–364 and interpersonal attraction, 425, 426 and loneliness, 448 love as, 430 and reciprocal altruism, 464 and social comparisons, 77 Frustration, 384, 386–388 Frustration-aggression theory of aggression, 386–389 Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 17 Fundamental (ultimate) attribution error, 6, 117–119, 132, 342, 369 Gain-framed messages, 157 GAM (general aggression model), 393–394 Gambling, 310 Gay/lesbian/bisexual/transgender (GLBT) alliance groups, 339, 340 Gender: and aggression, 380, 382 and attitude toward politics, 186 and attribution, 116 and bullying, 402 and conflict, 444 and conformity, 260 and helping, 464, 465 and jealousy, 445–447 and leadership, 306 and love styles, 430 and obedience, 273 and persuasion, 229–230 prejudice based on, 355–356 and receiving help, 489–490 and relationship satisfaction, 436 and resource preferences, 417–421 and self-definition, 70 and self-promotion, 91–92 and sex-related behaviors, 418–420 and sexual behavior, 13 stereotypes about, 162–163, 340–342, 344–345, 370–372 and stereotype threat in education, 351 SUBJECT INDEX 583 sande_ids_579-590hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:57 Gender empowerment, 405 General aggression model (GAM), 393–394 Genetics: and aggression, 380–382 and altruism, 462, 463 and attitudes, 189 behavioral, 16 and empathy, 466 and social psychology, 16 Genovese, Kitty, 468 Germany, 57–58, 386, 406 Gestalt psychology, 8–9, 11 Ghana, 455 Ghandhi, Mahatma, 152 Gifts, from charitable organizations, 265, 491 GI Joe, 76 Glass ceiling, 344 GLBT (gay/lesbian/bisexual/transgender) alliance groups, 339, 340 Glick, Peter, 355, 370 Goals, 310, 311, 365, 367 Good intentions, 127 Good mood effect, 476–477 “Good Samaritan” parable, 470 Gore, Al, 238 Gottman, John, 443 Grades, 171 Graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction (GRIT), 312 Gratz, Jennifer, 354 “Great person” model of leadership, 305 Greece, 406, 453 Green, Esmin Elizabeth, 469 GRIT (graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction), 312 Group identity, common, 364–365 Group influence, 288–326 on behavior, 290–298 cohesion in, 297–298 and conflict, 307–315, 324–325 and conflict resolution, 310–315 culture’s impact on, 323–325 on decision making, 299–306 deindividuation in, 295–297 groupthink in, 301–305 leadership in, 305–306 polarization in, 299–301 and social dilemmas, 315–322, 325 social facilitation in, 290–293 social loafing in, 294–295, 323–324 Group members, conformity by, 259 Group norms, 300–301 Group polarization, 299–301 Group pressure, conformity and, 257, 258 Group size, 258, 259, 321, 339 Groupthink, 301–305 Growth view of intelligence, 127 Guilt, 124, 153 Guns, 385–386, 391, 407 Happiness, 64, 387, 421, 433, 486 Harassment, sexual, 389 Hardin, Garrett, 316 Hard-to-get effect, 268, 422 Harm, psychological, 277 Harris, Eric, 402 Hart, Allen, 171, 358 Hassan, Nasra, 278 Health: 584 SUBJECT INDEX Page 584 and apologizing, 445 attractiveness as indicator of, 418 framing about, 156, 157 and loneliness, 448 and love, 431, 432 and racism, 353 unrealistic optimism about, 84 Health-related behaviors, and cognitive dissonance theory, 199 Health-risk behaviors, prototype/willingness model for, 194–195 Heat, aggression and, 35, 390 Heider, Fritz, 112 Heine, Steve, 210 Help, receiving, 473, 489–495 Helping See also Altruism long-term, 488–489 motivation for, 462, 481–482, 498 Hepatitis, 233 Heroism, 464 Heterosexual couples, relationship satisfaction for, 434–435 Heuristics: anchoring and adjustment, 151–152 availability, 146–149, 173, 174 defined, 146 Heuristic (peripheral) route, of persuasion, 218, 222, 235 High-income communities, 12 High perceived control, 83–85 Hindsight bias, 11, 167–168 Historical events, in social psychology, 9–11 HIV, 188, 189 Hoffman, Martin, 467 Holocaust, 271, 386, 464 Homefield advantage, 292 Home-shopping programs, 268 Homicide rates, see Murder rates Homosexuality, 340–341 See also Same-sex couples; Sexual orientation Homosexuality Attitudes Test, 345 Honesty, 55 Hong Kong, 324, 453 Honor, culture of, 407 Honor killings, 371–372, 404 Hormones, aggression and, 382–385 Hostile aggression, 378 Hostile media phenomenon, 309 Hostile sexism, 355–356, 370 Hourglass figure, 418 Hovland, Carl, 387 Huesmann, Rowell, 381 Hull, Jay, 69 Hungary, 406, 497 Hurricane Katrina, 330–331, 361 Hurrying, and helping, 470–471 Hussein, Saddam, 197, 302 Huston, T L., 444 Hyman, Misty, 135 Hypertension, 353 Hypotheses, 12, 31 IAT, see Implicit Association Test Iceland, 498 Identifiable contributions, and social loafing, 294 Identification, 320, 336 Identity, 19, 207–208, 364–365 Identity salience, 350 Ignorance, pluralistic, 252–253, 471 “I knew it all along” problem, 11–12, 167–168 Illness, 166, 251, 364 Illusions, positive, 439–441 Illusory correlations, 167, 340–341 Immediate rewards, 67 Immigration policies, 339 Immunizations, 319 Implicit Association Test (IAT), 42, 345, 346–347 Implicit egotism, 82 Implicit personality theory, 159, 162 Importance, of attitudes, 190 Impression formation, 43, 159–162 Impression management, 91, 207 Inaccurate reporting, in surveys, 41–43 Incentives, attributions and, 126 Income discrepancies, 387 Independence, 19 Independent variables, 44 India, 20, 21, 134, 454, 495–498 Indirect approaches, in correlational research, 33–34 Individual contributions, and social loafing, 294–295 Individual differences, 15 Individual difference variables (general aggression model), 393, 394 Individualistic cultures: advertising in, 244 aggression in, 405 attitude formation in, 209–210 beliefs about traits in, 174–175 conflict in, 455 conformity in, 281, 282 expression of emotion in, 137–138 friendships in, 455 fundamental attribution error in, 134–135 international negotiations with, 324 marriage and love in, 453, 454 obesity stereotypes in, 370, 371 positive self-concept in, 102–104 self-concept in, 97–101 social psychology in, 19–23 Individualistic information, prejudice and, 365–366 Indonesia, 454 Inequality, racial, 366 Infants, 416, 481 Inferiority, of group, 340 Infidelity, 433, 435, 445–447 Influence, 6, 257–258, 280, 281 See also Group influence Information: amount of, and availability heuristic, 149 in attitude-behavior link, 191 and attitude formation, 182–183 and conformity, 257 individualistic, 365–366 Informational influence, 257 Informed consent, 54–55 Ingratiation, 92–93 In-group favoritism, 334–336, 338–339, 369 In-group/out-group friendships, 363–364 Inhibition, audience, 473 Initiation, 195–196, 248–249, 278 Injunctive norms, 251 Inoculation, 240, 241 sande_ids_579-590hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:57 Page 585 Insecure attachment, 436–438 Instinct theory of aggression, 379–380 Institutional Review Boards, 53, 54 Instrumental aggression, 378, 389 Insufficient deterrence, in cognitive dissonance theory, 199–200 Insufficient justification, in cognitive dissonance theory, 197–198 Integrative agreements, 313–314 Intelligence, 127 Intentions, 127, 193 Interactions, 364, 423, 441, 444 Internal attributions, 112, 116 Internal traits, Internal validity, 46–49 International conflict resolution, 314 Internet, intimacy and, 427 Interpersonal attraction, 414–427 culture’s influence on, 452–453 in friendship, 425, 426 physical attractiveness in, 414–421 relationship factors in, 421–422 situational factors in, 422–425, 427 Interpretations, of emergencies, 471, 473 Interracial interaction, 364 Inter-rater reliability, 36 Interrogations, by police, 124 Interviews, 146–147 Intimacy, 427, 429, 430 Intrinsic motivation, 71, 101–102 Introspection, 64–65 Intuition, 146–147 Investment, in social exchange theory, 433, 435 Involvement, personal, 221, 223 Invulnerability, groupthink and, 301 Iraq war, 86, 197, 301, 302, 310 Ireland, 406 Islamabad suicide bombing, 279 Isolation, conflict and, 444 Israel, 153, 452, 497 Israeli-Palestinian relations, 309, 314 Italy, 406, 453, 497 Jackson, Jesse, 331 James, William, 414 Japan: children’s’ behavior in, 98 cognitive dissonance in, 210–211 collectivistic culture of, 20 conflict resolution in, 324 conformity in, 282 cooperation in, 325 false uniqueness bias in, 103–104 focus on tone and verbal content in, 324–325 friendship in, 455 murder rate in, 406 obedience in, 283 persuasive messages in, 243 salient objects in, 135–136 self-concept clarity in, 100 self-criticism in, 104 situational attributions in, 134 tone in, 139 word choice in, 58 Japanese Americans, 105, 211 Jealousy, 380, 442, 445–447 Jews, 386, 452 Jiang Yuyuan, 144 Jigsaw classrooms, 311 Job applicants, 75, 112–113 Job security, attractiveness and, 415 Johnson, Shawn, 144 Jolie, Angelina, 62, 75 Jones, Edward, 88, 113, 114 Jones, J L., 234 Jones, Jim, 277, 278 Jones, Ned, 112 Jonestown, Guyana, 277–278 Judgments, overconfidence in, 85–86 Juries, 301, 493 Justification, in cognitive dissonance theory, 197–198 Kadish, Marcia, 110 Kahneman, Daniel, 18 Karney, Benjamin, 441 Kelley, Harold, 114 Kelman, Herbert, 314 Kennedy, John F., 312 Kennedy experiment, 312 Kenrick, D T., 486 Kenya, 188 Kidd, Jason, 388 Killings, mass, 386 Kim, Heejung, 242, 281, 282 Kinship selection, 463–464 Kitayama, Shinobu, 104 Klebold, Dylan, 402 Klein, Bill, 87 Klein, R., 491 Klofas, J., 259 Korea (Korean culture): beauty in, 22, 453 collectivistic culture of, 20 conformity in, 281 in-group favoritism in, 369 persuasive messages in, 243 seeking of help in, 496 situational attributions in, 136 view of consistency in, 101 wording of requests in, 283, 284 Kramp, P., 491 Krosnick, Jon, 229 Krueger, Scott, 248–249 Kruger, Justin, 85, 147 !Kung people, 405 Kuperschmidt, J B., 426 Labels, warning, 238, 239 Labor disputes, 312 Language, 58 LaPiere, Richard, 190, 192 Larsen, R J., 415 Latane, B., 468, 471, 472 Latin America, 496 Latinos, 353, 456 Leadership, in group influence, 305–306 Leading questions, on surveys, 39–40 Learning See also Modeling cooperative, 311 observational, 186–188, 450 social, 33, 332–334, 383, 392–393 Leary, M R., 234 Legal system: attractiveness of defendants in, 416 compliance pressures in, 269 framing in, 158 out-group homogeneity effect in, 336 self-fulfilling prophecy in, 171 similarity of race in, 493 social psychology in, 12 stealing thunder in, 227 Lehman, Darrin, 210 Leippe, Michael, 198 Length, of persuasive messages, 226, 227 Lepper, Mark, 73 Levine, Robert, 496 Lewin, Kurt, 9–11 Likability, 91, 92, 223, 421 Liking, 195–196, 201 Lincoln, Abraham, 485, 488 Linder, D., 422 Lipton Ice, 236, 237 Literature reviews, 35 Literature searches, 31 Littering, 263 Liukin, Natasha, 144 Loftus, Elizabeth, 158 Lone deviant position, 259–260 Loneliness, 447–450 Long-term consequences, persuasion with, 234 Long-term helping, 488–489 Lorenz, Konrad, 379 Losses, 81, 86 Loss-framed messages, 157 Lottery, 85, 149 Love, 428–433 culture’s influence on, 453–455 importance of, 431, 432 passionate-companionate, 428–429 triangular theory of, 429–430 Love styles theory, 430–431 Lowball technique, 267 Low-income communities, 12 Loyalty, in conflict resolution, 443 Ludus love, 430, 431 Lund, Bob, 288–289 Lying, see Deception Lynchings, 387 McCloskey, Tanya, 110 MacDonald, Tara, 191 McDonalds, 276 McFarland, Cathy, 250 McNulty, James, 441 Mahmod, Banaz, 372 Majorities, 262 Malaney, Molly, 412 Malawi, 122, 496, 497 Malaysia, 20, 369, 496, 497 Mandatory tips, 290 Mania love, 430, 431 Marketers, social, 491 Markus, Hazel, 22, 242, 281, 282 Marriage: arranged, 454–455 conflict in, 442–442 culture’s influence on, 453–455 and income, 431 modeling of conflict in, 450 positive illusions in, 439–441 and relationship satisfaction, 434, 441 of same-sex couples, 2, 110–111 Martz, John, 434 Mass killings, 386 Masuda, T., 135 Matching hypothesis, 421 SUBJECT INDEX 585 sande_ids_579-590hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:57 Mate preferences, 420–421 Media: and aggression, 395–400 framing in, 156, 157 hostile media phenomenon, 309 images of women and men in, 76 observational learning from, 187–188 Mediation, 312 Medical student’s disease, 251 Memorable interactions, 423 Memory(-ies), 99, 158, 352 Men See also Gender aggressive behavior of, 395 attraction/attractiveness for, 417, 420, 424, 425 media images of, 76 seeking of help by, 490 Mental energy, and self-control, 68 Mental illness, 166, 364 Mere exposure, 183, 423 Mere presence, in social facilitation, 292 Mesnick, Jason, 412 Messages, and persuasion, 76, 149, 221, 226–229, 236–238 Meta-analysis, 35 Mexican Americans, 173, 456 Mexico, 175, 188, 370, 497 Meyerowitz, E., 157 Milgram, Stanley, 9, 49, 271–273, 277 Milgram obedience experiment, 271–277, 280 Miller, Dale, 7, 250, 360 Miller, Lena, 376 Miller, Mary Liz, 376 Mills, Judson, 195 Minority groups, 339 Minority influence, 262 Mirror-image perceptions, 308–309 Misremembering, 80–81 Misrepresentation, in bargaining, 312 Modeling: of aggression, 30, 392, 395–396, 401 of attitudes, 186–188 of conflict in marriage, 450 of disobedience, 280 of helping, 478 of nonaggressive responses, 401 Modern racism, 337 Modern Racism Scale, 345 Modern Sexism Scale, 345 Modesty, 105 Monin, Benoit, 360 Mood: in facial feedback hypothesis, 71 and helping, 476–478, 485–487 and persuasion, 234–237 prediction of, 65 and social cognition, 163 Morality, 301 Moral motives, 320 Moral reasoning, 466–467 Moreland, Richard, 423 Mortality rate, of optimists, 84 Mortal Kombat (video game), 395 Motivation: and conformity, 260–262 counterfactual thinking as, 154 culture’s influence on, 101–102 extrinsic, 71–72, 101–102, 476 to focus on central messages, 220–221 586 SUBJECT INDEX Page 586 for helping, 462, 481–482, 498 interpreting your, 71–73 intrinsic, 71, 101–102 and leadership, 305 of others, 126–127 Motivation to Be Non-prejudiced Scale, 367 Motives, 122, 126, 225, 320 Mundane realism, 49–50 Murder rates, 391, 396, 397, 404, 406 Music preferences, 24–25, 251 My Lai Massacre, 278, 279 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 289–290, 302 Nazis, 9, 271, 278, 280 Need for Closure Scale, 160 Need for cognition, 230–231 Need for Cognition Scale, 231 Negative affect escape model of aggression, 389 Negative attributional traps, 444–445 Negative (aversive) consequences, 202 Negative correlation, 36, 37 Negative feelings, and counterfactual thinking, 154 Negative incentives, 126 Negative self-views, 449 Negative-state relief hypothesis of helping, 485–488 Negativity bias, 182–183 Neglect, 443 Negotiations, 312, 313 Netherlands, 402, 497 Networks, social, 452 Neuroscience, social, 17 Newcomb, Theodore, 251 “New look” at dissonance theory, 202–205 New Zealand, 405, 406 9/11 Commission, 290 Nisbett, R., 135 Nonverbal communication, 129–130 Norms, 193, 251, 300–301 See also Social norms Normality, of prejudice, 333–334 Normative (term), 82 Normative influence, 257–258 Norm of reciprocity, 491 Norm of social responsibility, 491–492 North America, 97 Nuclear arms race, 309 Olympic athletes, 135, 144, 290 Olympic Games, 103 Omoto, Allen, 485 On Top of the World (Tom Barbash), 152 Operant conditioning, 186–189 Operational definitions, 32 Opposites attract, 421–422 Optimism, unrealistic, 83–85 Organ donation, 465, 495–496 Out-group homogeneity effect, 334, 335 Overbenefiting, in relationships, 435, 436 Overcompensation, for prejudice, 368 Overconfidence, in judgments, 85–86 Overconsumption, of resources, 318, 319 Overgrazing, 316 Overhelping, 494 Overjustification, 72–73, 475 Ovulation, 418 Pain, aggression and, 390 Pakistan, 454 Palestinian-Israeli relations, 309, 314 Palin, Sarah, 342 Paliyan people, 405 Parents: abuse and neglect by, 381 altruism by, 463 attachments of children to, 436 and children’s attitudes, 182, 186 divorce of, 450–451 as models of prejudice, 332–333 teaching of prosocial behavior by, 467 Parietal gyrus, of brain, 160 Passion, in triangular theory of love, 429, 430 Passionate-companionate love, 428–429 Passionate love, 428–429, 453 Passionate Love Scale, 428 Pavlov, Ivan, 183 PBS (Public Broadcasting Station), 317 Peaceful Conflict Resolution and Violence Prevention Program, 402 Peer-directed aggression, 405 Peer pressure, 260 Peer relationships, 452 Pennebaker, Jamie, 268 People-oriented individuals, 305 People’s Temple, 277 Perceived behavior control, 193 Perceived control, 85–86, 90 Perceived superiority, in relationships, 439 Perception(s) See also Social perception Obedience, 270–280 of change, 101 culture’s influence on, 284 in conflicts, 308–309 defined, 250 in Gestalt psychology, ethical issues with, 277 self-, 4–5, 69–70, 101–102, 206–207 examples of, 277–279 of social norms, 252–253 Milgram experiment on, 271–276 Perceptual confirmation, 165–166, 343 resistance to, 280 Performance: Obesity: and arousal, 291–292 attitudes about, 180–181 and attitude, 118, 119 attributions for, 118 and bonuses, 72 and observational learning, 187 and cohesion, 298 stereotypes about, 358, 370, 371 and identity salience, 350 Observational learning, 186–188, 450 See and social facilitation, 290–291 also Modeling and social loafing, 294–295 Observational/naturalistic research methods, and tokenism, 341 34–37 Peripheral (heuristic) route, of persuasion, Observer bias, 36 218, 222, 235 Olewus, Dan, 402 Perseverance, belief, 168–169 sande_ids_579-590hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:57 Page 587 Personal factors, in helping, 462–468 Personal identity, 19 Personal involvement, 221, 223 Personality: changeability of, 135 and helping, 464–467 and impression formation, 43 and persuasion, 230 and receiving help, 490–491 Personality psychology, 15, 189 Personal responsibility, 202 Person factors: in helping, 489–491 in obedience, 272–273 Perspective, 122–124, 365 Perspective taking, 314, 445, 482–483 Persuasion, 216–245 audience as factor in, 229–231 and content of message, 226–229 culture’s influence on, 242–244 defined, 218 emotional appeals in, 232–236 and group polarization, 299–300 processing used for, 218–223 resistance to, 238–242 routes to, 218–223 sources of, 223–226 subliminal, 183–185, 236–238 PET (positron emission tomography), 17 Peterson, Laci Roche, 164 Peterson, Scott, 164 Pets, social support from, 432 Petty, Richard, 220 PGA Tournament Golf (video game), 395 Phelps, E A., 358 Phillips, David, 396 Phobias, 187, 201 Physical aggression, 383 Physical attractiveness, see Attractiveness Physiological arousal: and aggression, 391–394, 397–398 attributions of, 78–79 aversive, 488 in cognitive dissonance theory, 203–204 and interpersonal attraction, 423–425 and jealousy, 447 and performance, 291–292 in response to erotic material, 42 and violence in media, 397 Pitt, Brad, 62 Placebo effect, 165 Plane crashes, 150–151 Planned behavior, theory of, 193–194 Playing hard to get, 268, 422 Pluralistic ignorance, 252–253, 471 Poland, 210, 283, 406 Polarization, group, 299–301 Police, 124, 357, 360, 366 Politics and political views: and emotion, 236 and gender, 186 mirror-image perception about, 308 perceptual confirmation in, 166, 167 placement on ballot in, 38 and prejudice, 338 social norms about, 251–252 subliminal persuasion in, 185 Polygraphs, 132 Pornography, violent, 399 Portion size, 156 Positive correlation, 36, 37 Positive emotion messages, 234–236 Positive illusions, 439–441 Positive incentives, 126 Positive psychology, 10 Positive reinforcement, 186 Positive self-concept, 89, 102–104 Positive stereotypes, 355–356 Positron emission tomography (PET), 17 Postdecision dissonance, 201–202 Poverty, 122, 492 Powell, Colin, 302 Power, 250–252, 280, 367 Pragma love, 430, 431 PRC (dorsomedial prefrontal cortex), of brain, 160 Precentral gyrus, of brain, 160 Predictions, 30, 147, 161 Prejudice, 330–340 and attitude-behavior link, 190 covert measures for, 42 culture’s influence on, 369–372 defined, 332 psychological factors in, 332–347 and psychological well-being, 352–354 and realistic group conflict theory, 337–338 social categorization in, 334–336 and social identity theory, 338–340 and social learning, 332–334 Prentice, Deborah, Presentation, and social cognition, 155–159 Presidential debates, 166, 167 Pricing, 152, 266 Primacy, 159 Priming, 148–149, 386, 396–397 Prisoner’s dilemma, 317–318 Prisons and prison inmates, 52, 53, 119–120, 378 Private conformity, 257, 262 Problem-solving skills, 401–403 Procedure factors, in obedience, 276 Processing, of persuasion, 218–223 Productivity, economic, 496 Project DARE, 232 Prosocial behavior See also Altruism costs and benefits of, 474–475 defined, 462 environmental factors for, 478–480 and mood, 476–478 negative-state relief hypothesis, 485–488 Prototype/willingness model, 194–195 Provocation, 387, 388, 408 Proximity, 422–423, 425–426 Psychiatric illness, 166, 364 PsychINFO database, 31 PsychLIT database, 31 Psychogenic illness, 251 Psychological factors, in prejudice, 332–347 Psychological harm, 277 Psychological well-being: and conflict, 451 culture’s influence on, 100–101 and love, 431, 432 and prejudice, 352–354 Psychology See also Social psychology clinical, 15–16 cognitive, 16 Gestalt, 8–9, 11 personality, 15, 189 positive, 10 Public Broadcasting Station (PBS), 317 Public conformity, 257, 262 Public goods dilemma, 317 Public resistance, 280 Punishment, 199–200, 401, 467, 488 Questions: and culture, 57–58 leading, 39–40 social norms about, 250, 252–253 in social psychology, 30–31 Race: and actor-observer effect, 121 and bias of juries, 493 and pluralistic ignorance, 253 and priming of aggression, 397 and reverse discrimination, 354–355 stereotypes about, 333, 334, 336–338, 344, 349, 358–360 Racial inequality, 366 Racism, 337, 338, 353 Random assignment, 44–45 Rape, 342, 372, 381, 400 Ratner, Rebecca, 252 Rats, expectancy effects on, 48–49 Reactance, 239–240 Reagan, Nancy, 187 Real estate, 152 Realism, 49–50 Realistic Conflict Theory, 31 Realistic group conflict theory, 308, 337–338 Reality, 164–173 Reality television, 412 Reasoning, moral, 466–467 Receiving help, 494–495 Reciprocal altruism, 464 Reciprocity, 265–266, 422, 498 Reconstructive memory, 158 Recycling, 222 Reflections of an Affirmative Action Baby (Stephen Carter), 342 Regan, Dennis, 491 Regression to the average, 80–81 Regret, 153–154 Regulation: of resource use, 318, 319 of the Self, 67–68 Rehn, Trista, 412 Reinforcement, 186, 392–393 Rejection, 17, 252–255, 391, 478 Rejection-identification model, 352 Relationships See also Close relationships and attachment styles, 49 best-friend, 452, 455 communal, 493 costs and benefits of, 433, 434 equity theory of, 435–436, 441, 495 and Internet, 427 interpersonal attraction in, 421–422 overbenefiting in, 435, 436 peer, 452 perceived superiority in, 439 secret, 414 underbenefiting in, 435, 436 in workplaces, 456 Relationship dissatisfaction, 443, 444 SUBJECT INDEX 587 sande_ids_579-590hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:57 Relationship factors: in helping, 492–494 in interpersonal attraction, 421–422 Relationship-oriented individuals, 305 Relationship problems, 442–452 conflict, 442–445 dissolution, 450–451 jealousy, 445–447 loneliness, 447–450 Relationship satisfaction, 433–441 and attachment styles, 436–438 and counterfactual thinking, 152, 153 culture’s influence on, 454, 455 and love styles, 431 and love types, 429 and positive illusions, 439–441 social exchange theory, 433–436 strategies for increasing, 441 Relative deprivation, 338, 387, 388 Reliability, inter-rater, 36 Religion, 364, 462, 467 Repetition, and credibility of persuasive sources, 226 Replications, of research studies, 51 Representativeness, in social cognition, 150 Representative samples, 51 Reproductive fitness, of women, 417, 418 Republican National Committee, 238 Requests, culture’s influence on, 283–284 Research, cross-cultural, 22–23, 58 Research method(s), 28–59 confidentiality in, 55 correlational, 33–43 culture’s influence on, 57–58 debriefing in, 56 ethical issues with, 53–57 experimental, 44–46 external validity in, 49–51 informed consent in, 54, 55 Institutional Review Boards for, 53, 54 internal validity in, 46–49 observational/naturalistic, 34–37 selection of, 51–52 self-report/survey methods, 37–43 testing ideas in, 30–33 Research process, 30–33 Resistance, 238–242, 280 Resource preferences, 417–421 Resources, 308, 316–319 Response options, on surveys, 40–41 Responsibility, 202, 276, 472, 491–492 Reverse discrimination, 354–355 Rewards, 67, 306, 487–489 Rewarding interactions, 441 Reward processing, in brain, 321 Reward theory, 198 Rickey, Branch, 365 Risky shift, 299 Robby the Robot study, 199–200 Roberts, Charles Carl, IV, 376, 403 Robinson, Jackie, 365 Rochester Interaction Record, 39 Rock music, 24–25 Romania, 406, 497 Romantic love, 429 Ronald McDonald, 180 Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, 37–38 Rosenhan, David, 166 Ross, L., 82, 119, 124 Rotton, J., 390 588 SUBJECT INDEX Page 588 Rumination, 403 Rural areas, prosocial behavior in, 478 Rusbult, C E., 434, 443, 445 Russia, 283, 406, 455 Rycroft, Melissa, 412 Self-focus, 470, 488 Self-fulfilling prophecy: about prejudice, 348–349, 369 defined, and loneliness, 449, 450 and social cognition, 169–173 Sadat, Anwar al, 314 Self-handicapping, 88–89 Sadness, 236 Self-image, 120–122, 266 Salary, 345, 415 Self-interest, 225, 335 Salience: Selfish reasons, for helping, 485 frequency of events vs., 147 Self-knowledge, and social perception, 127 of minority members of groups, 340, 341 Self-liking, 104 performance and identity, 350 Self-monitoring, 93–95, 230 in social perception, 122–124 Self-perception: of titles, 146 and culture, 97–101 Same-sex couples: of motivation, 101–102 attachment styles of, 437 in social psychology, 4–5 marriage of, 2, 110–111 Self-perception theory, 69–70, 206–207 relationship satisfaction for, 434–435 Self-presentation, 5, 90–96, 105 Satisfaction, relationship, see Relationship Self-promotion, 91, 104 satisfaction Self-reliance, 19 Scapegoating, 342, 386 Self-report measures, 37–43, 345–346 Scarcity, 267–268 Self-sacrifice, 463 Schachter, Stanley, 78, 254 Self-serving attributions, 81, 103 Schemas, 148 Self-serving behavior, 87–88 Schindler, Oskar, 464 Self-serving beliefs, 82, 83 Schmitt, G., 492 Self-serving biases, 80–82 School shootings, 376–377, 402, 403 Self-serving comparisons, 86–87 Schwartz, J., 84 Self-standards model, of cognitive Schwarz, Norbert, 149 dissonance, 205, 206 Scientific method, 12 Self-verification, 92–95 Sears, Robert, 387 Self-views, negative, 449 Secret relationships, 414 September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 151, Secret Service agents, 132 168, 290, 425, 460–461, 478, 488 Secure attachment, 436, 437 Serotonin, 385 The Self, regulation of, 67–69 Sex education, 45 Self-affirmation theory, 206–208, 233 Sexism See also Gender, stereotypes about Self-awareness, 191, 297, 366, 367, 477 and availability heuristic, 148 Self-awareness theory, 66–67 benevolent, 356, 370 Self-concept, 62–106 and culture, 370–372 culture’s influence on, 97–101 hostile, 355–356, 370 defined, 64 social norms about, 256 and examining your behavior, 69–71 Sexual assault, 90 helping and, 487–489 Sexual behavior: and high perceived control, 83–85 fear-based persuasion about, 232 and ingratiation, 92–93 and gender, 13, 418–420 and interpreting your motivation, 71–73 and implicit personality theory, 162 and introspection, 64–65 pluralistic ignorance about, 253 maintaining a positive concept of, social norms about, 193 102–104 studies of, 50–51 overly positive views of, 89 and virginity pledges, 228 personal factors in, 64–74 Sexual education, 45 positive, 80–90 Sexual experience, 419–420, 438 and social comparison theory, 74–77 Sexual harassment, 389 social factors in, 74–79 Sexual infidelity, 445–447 and spotlight effect, 95–96 and two-factor theory of emotion, 77–79 Sexual jealousy, 380 Sexually aggressive films, 399, 400 Self-concept clarity, 100 Sexually-transmitted diseases (STDs), 228 Self-consistency, 100 Sexual orientation See also Same-sex Self-control, 67–69, 241 couples Self-destructive behavior, 378 predicting, 161 Self-disclosure, 403, 417, 422, 448 prejudice based on, 363, 366, 367 Self-discrepancy theory, 66 social perception of, 110–111 Self-esteem, 75 stereotypes about, 340–341 culture’s influence on, 104 Shackelford, T K., 415 and gambling, 310 Sherif, Muzafer, 9, 257, 308, 365 and help, 490–491, 494 Shields, Brooke, 218 and prejudice, 332, 338–340, 353–354 Shifting standards model, 342 Self-evaluation maintenance model of Shih, Margaret, 350 altruism, 494 sande_ids_579-590hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:57 Page 589 Short-term consequences, persuasion with, 234 Shyness, 490 Similarity: and empathy, 483–485 and friendship, 425, 426 and helping, 492–493 in interpersonal attraction, 421 of persuasive sources, 223–224 Simpson, Nicole, 121 Simpson, O J., 121, 446 Simulation (counterfactual thinking), 152–154 Singapore, 497 Singer, Jerome, 78 Situational attributions, 114, 116, 123, 134, 136, 342 Situational factors: on behavior, in helping, 468–480 in interpersonal attraction, 422–425, 427 Situational variables, in general aggression model, 393, 394 Skinner, B F., Sleeper effect, 226 Slime effect, 92 Sloan, John, 391 Slurs, ethnic, 333 Small towns, prosocial behavior in, 478 Smart, Elizabeth, 148 Smoking, 37, 188, 193, 230–232 Snyder, Mark, 171, 485 Soccer teams, 298 Social and cognitive interventions, for stereotypes, 363–368 Social categorization, 334–336 Social cognition, 144–177 anchoring and adjustment in, 151–152 availability in, 147–149 base-rate fallacy, 150, 151 and beliefs about how traits fit together, 162 contrast effect in, 156 culture’s influence on, 173–175 defined, and expectations based on beliefs, 165–168 and framing, 156–159 impact of mood on, 163 impression formation in, 159–162 intuition in, 146–147 and maintenance of beliefs, 168–169 and presentation, 155–159 and reality from beliefs, 164–173 representativeness in, 150 and self-fulfilling prophecy, 169–173 simulation/counterfactual thinking in, 152–154 Social cognitive perspective, 16 Social comparison theory, 74–77 Social compensation, 295, 296 Social costs, of discrimination, 352 Social dilemmas, 235, 315–322, 325 Social dominance orientation, 335, 336 Social Dominance Orientation Scale, 337 Social exchange theory, 433–436, 441, 474 Social facilitation, 290–293 Social identity theory, 338–340 Social impact theory, 259 Social influence, 6, 281 Social learning, 33, 332–334, 383, 392–393 Social loafing, 294–295, 323–324 Social loneliness, 448 Social marketers, 491 Social networks, 452 Social neuroscience, 17 Social norms, 250–256 about altruism, 491–492 about political views, 251–252 about questions, 250 about sexism, 256 about voting, 263 and attitudes, 192–195 defined, 250 deviation from, 253, 254 errors in perceiving, 252–253 of helping, 491–492 power of, 250–252 pressure to conform to, 253–256 Social perception, 110–140 actor-observer effect in, 119–122 and attribution errors, 117–128 attributions in, 134–137 attribution theory of, 112–113 and beliefs about others’ abilities/motivations, 126–127 correspondent inference theory of, 113, 114 covariation theory of, 114–116 culture’s influence on, 134–140 and detecting deception, 130–133 and expression of emotion, 138–140 fundamental attribution error in, 117–119 lack of cognitive capacity in, 124–126 and nonverbal communication, 129–130 salience in, 122–124 and self-knowledge, 127 in social psychology, and two-stage model of attribution, 124–125 Social psychological factors, in aggression, 385–395 Social psychology, 2–26 and anthropology, 18 and biology, 16–17 and common sense, 11–14 defined, and economics, 18 evolution of, 8–11 in individualistic vs collectivistic cultures, 19–23 and self-fulfilling prophecy, self-perception and self-presentation in, 4–5 social perception in, 6–7 and sociology, 16 in subcultures, 23–25 Social relationships, Internet and, 427 Social sensitivity test, 82 Social skills, 416, 448–449 Social striving, 324 Sociocultural perspective, 19, 420 Socioeconomic status, stereotypes about, 343 Sociology, 16 Sommers, Sam, 493 Sororities, 340 South Africa, 406 Southern culture, of United States, 407 South Korea, 175, 455 See also Korea Spain, 243, 406, 496, 497 Spanking, 401 Speakers, persuasion, and expertise of, 221 Specificity, of attitudes, 192 Spencer, Steve, 332 Splenda, 147 Spokespeople, 259 Sports fans, 297, 340, 492–493 Spotlight effect, 95–96 Standardized test scores, 171 Standing alone, 259–260, 280 Statistical reasoning, 366 Status, 339–340, 364 STDs (sexually-transmitted diseases), 228 Stealing the thunder, 227 Steele, Claude, 207, 349 Stereotypes, 330–372 about gender, 162–163 assessment of, 345–347 and cognitive bias, 340–345 consequences of, 347–357 culture’s influence on, 369–372 and IAT, 42 inevitability of, 357–363 psychological factors in, 332–347 and realistic group conflict theory, 337–338 social and cognitive interventions for, 363–368 social categorization with, 334–336 and social identity theory, 338–340 and social learning, 332–334 strategies for avoiding, 366–369 types of, 370–372 Stereotype threat, 349–352 Stereotypic-inconsistent behavior, 360–361 Sternberg, Robert, 429 Stewart, Martha, 113 Stone, Jeff, 199, 205 Stonewalling, 444 Storge love, 430, 431 Storms, Michael, 122 Straub, Ervin, 387 Strength(s): of attitudes, 190 character, 10 Strippers, earnings of, 418 Striving, social, 324 STS (superior temporal sulcus) activity, 130 Subcultures, 23–25, 479–480 Subjective norms, 193 Subliminal messages, 76, 149, 236–238 Subliminal persuasion, 183–185, 236–238 Substance abuse, 96 Subtyping, 360–361 Success, 23, 81, 86, 116, 120, 121 Sugar, 147 Suicide, 34, 259, 391 Sunscreen, 234 Super Bowl, 216 Superior frontal gyrus, of brain, 160 Superiority, perceived, 439 Superior temporal sulcus (STS) activity, 130 Superordinate goals, 310, 311 Supportive help, 494 Suppression, 69, 360, 438 Surveys, Web-based, 32 Survivor guilt, 153 Sutton, Ryan, 412 Swann, Bill, 172, 439 SUBJECT INDEX 589 sande_ids_579-590hr.qxd 22-10-2009 15:57 Sweden, 406, 497 Switzerland, 406 Symmetry, and physical attractiveness, 415 Systematic route, of persuasion, 218 Taiwan, 497 Takahasi, Naoko, 135 Tanke, Elizabeth, 171 Tanning, 234 Tanzania, 188 Task importance, and social loafing, 295 Task-oriented individuals, 305 Task speed, and social facilitation, 293 Teachers, self-fulfilling prophecies of, 171 Television, 40–41 advertising on, 216–217 aggression on, 395 educating children about violence on, 401 prosocial content on, 479 reality, 412 and relative deprivation, 387 sexual content on, 193 violence on, 30, 33, 396, 397, 401 Tenure, 64 Terrorism, 278 Testimonials, 233 Testosterone levels, aggression and, 378, 382, 383–385 Tetlock, Phillip, 147 Thailand, 20, 497 Thank you, as reward, 475 That’s-not-all technique, 266 Theories, 33 Theory of planned behavior, 193–194 Thinking See also Cognition(s) automatic vs controlled, 146 counterfactual, 152–154, 174 critical, 13–14 Thoughts, suppression of, 69, 438 See also Cognition(s) Threats, 445 Time-outs, 401 Tipping, 235, 290, 294, 477, 491 Tit-for-tat strategies, 321 Tobin, Stephanie, 125 Toch, H., 259 Toi, Miho, 483 Tokenism, 341 Tolstoy, Leo, 441 Tomlinson-Keasey, C., 84 Tone, 139, 324 Town, Robert, 431 Tragedy of the commons, 316 Traits, 6, 162, 420 Trait aggressiveness, 394 Trait model of leadership, 305 Trait negativity bias, 161–162 Transactional leaders, 305 Transformational leaders, 305 Trebeck, Alex, 119 Triangular theory of love, 429–430 Triplett, Norman, 290 Trivialization, 197 Trust, 322, 444 Tucker, J., 84 Turkey, 454–455 Turner, M E., 303 12 Angry Men (film), 262 Twenge, Jean, 477 590 SUBJECT INDEX Page 590 Two-factor theory of emotion, 77–79, 391, 423 Two-stage model of attribution, 124–125 UCLA Loneliness Scale, 448 Ulterior motives, 122, 126, 225 Ultimate (fundamental) attribution error, 6, 117–119, 132, 342, 369 Underbenefiting, in relationships, 435, 436 Undoing negative events, 152, 153 Uniforms, 271 Uniformity, 303 Uniqueness, in advertising, 243 United States: aggression in, 404–408 attitude formation in, 210 beauty in, 22, 453 beliefs about traits and behavior in, 173, 175 children’s’ behavior in, 98 conflict and conflict resolution in, 324, 455 cooperation in, 325 counterfactual thinking in, 174 dispositional attributions in, 134 false uniqueness bias in, 103–104 first memories in, 99 focus on tone and verbal content in, 324–325 helpfulness of people in, 496–498 individualistic culture of, 19–21 marriage and love in, 453, 454 obedience in, 283 organ donation in, 495–496 persuasive messages in, 243, 244 prosocial behavior and subcultures of, 479–480 salient objects in, 135–136 satisfaction from compliance in, 282–283 self-concept clarity in, 100 self-enhancement in, 104 self-serving attributions in, 103 stereotypes about obesity of, 370, 371 tone in, 139 view of consistency in, 101 wording of requests in, 283, 284 U.S Army, 298 University of Michigan, 354 Unrealistic optimism, 83–85 Urban areas, prosocial behavior in, 478, 479 Urban overload hypothesis, 479 “Us versus them” mindset, 278 Vaccinations, 319 Validation, of identity, 207–208 Validity, 46–51 Valins, Stuart, 206 Vandalism, 297 Vangelisti, A L., 444 Vector Marketing, 224 Verbal aggression, 383 Verbal cues, of deception, 132 Vicarious dissonance, 205, 206 Victims, 342, 386, 387, 491–492 Video games, violence in, 393, 395, 397 Videotaped conversations, 122–124 Vietnam War, 278, 279, 301 Violence: domestic, 405–406 on television, 30, 33, 396, 397, 401 in video games, 393, 395, 397 Violent crime, climate and, 35, 390 Violent pornography, 399 Virginia Tech massacre, 175 Virginity pledges, 228 Virtues, 10 Visser, Penny, 229 Voice, in conflict resolution, 443 Volunteering, 72, 73, 464, 467, 476, 481 Vorauer, Jackie, 252 Voting, 38, 263 Vulnerability, 233 Wallace, Mike, 279 Warmth, stereotypes about, 355 Warning labels, 238, 239 Warren, Earl, 10 Water conservation, 201 Water restrictions, 316 Weapons, 391 See also Guns Weary, Gifford, 125 Web-based research, 32 Wegner, Dan, 414 Weight loss, 200, 201 Weiner, B., 492 Weinstein, Neil, 84 Well-being, psychological, see Psychological well-being Westen, Drew, 236 Western culture, 101 Western cultures, 19–23, 98 White, Gregory, 424 “Who are you?” test, 20–21 Willis, Bruce, 231 Wingard, D., 84 Withdrawal, conflict and, 444 Witnesses, expert, 225 Wolfowitz, Paul, 302 Women: affirmative action policies for, 362 aggression toward, 381, 396, 397, 399, 400 attractiveness to, 418, 425 attributions of success by, 120, 121 fertility and body types of, 418, 419 media images of, 76 preference for resources by, 417 sexual harassment against, 389 stereotype threats for, 351 Wood, Wendy, 87, 420 Woods, Tiger, 223, 224 Word choice, 138, 156, 283 Word completion test, 42 Working memory capacity, 352 Workplace relationships, 456 World Series, 292 World War I, 386 World War II, 9, 278, 310, 478 Worrying, 147–147 Wrestling, 396 Yang Yillin, 144 Young, Richard, 69 Yum, Y., 455 Zajonc, Robert, 291, 292 Zanna, Mark, 190 Zelmanowitz, Abe, 460 Zimbardo, P., 52, 53, 278 Zimbardo prison study, 52, 53 sande_ep_001-002hr.qxd 21-10-2009 18:21 Page MAKE THE CONNECTION! boxes apply topics in each chapter to the broader themes of Business, Education, Environment, Health, Law, and Media These applications are uniquely integrated directly with the topics as they are discussed, helping you make critical connections to real life CONNECTIONS Business CONNECTIONS Does Giving Bonuses Enhance or Undermine Motivation? (Ch 3) Why Disserving Attributions Can Be a Good Idea (Ch 4) The Impact of Mood on Economic Decisions (Ch 5) How Waiters and Waitresses Can Increase Tips (Ch 7) Using Mediation and Arbitration to Resolve Conflict (Ch 9) Examining the Effects of Affirmative Action Policies (Ch 10) The Dangers of Sexual Harassment (Ch 11) The Impact of Culture on Workplace Relationships (Ch 12) Education CONNECTIONS Why Focusing on Effort Over Ability Is a Good Idea (Ch 4) The Overwhelming Power of Teacher’s Expectations (Ch 5) Using Self-Affirmation to Increase Academic Achievement (Ch 6) The Power of the Jigsaw Classroom (Ch 9) Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat in the Classroom (Ch 10) The Problem of Bullying (Ch 11) What Are the Consequences of Requiring Volunteerism? (Ch 13) Environment CONNECTIONS The Hazards of Hot Weather (Ch 2) Using Cognitive Dissonance to Increase Water Conservation (Ch 6) How Persuasive Messages Increase Recycling (Ch 7) Why Conformity Can Decrease Littering (Ch 8) Health CONNECTIONS Why College Students Drink Less Than You Think They Do (Ch 1) Evaluating Abstinence-only Sex Education (Ch 2) The Downside of Too Much Optimism (Ch 3) The Role of Attributions in Prejudice Against Obesity (Ch 4) The Power of Belief (Ch 5) Using Cognitive Dissonance to Create a Change in Health Behavior (Ch 6) sande_ep_001-002hr.qxd 21-10-2009 18:21 Page Why Having Wrinkles Is Worse Than Dying (Ch 7) Why Misperceiving the Thinness Norm Can Lead to Eating Disorders (Ch 8) Why Not Vaccinating Your Child Can Be Good for You, but Bad for the Community (Ch 9) The Impact of Racism on Physical Health (Ch 10) The Link Between Alcohol Use and Aggression (Ch 11) Why We Get By with A Little Help from Our Friends (and Pets) (Ch 12) The Amazing Generosity of Living Organ Donors (Ch 13) Law CONNECTIONS The Challenges of Studying Drinking and Driving (Ch 2) The Impact of Feedback on Eyewitness Confidence (Ch 3) The Impact of Salience on Perceived Guilt (Ch 4) The Power of Reconstructive Memory (Ch 5) The Benefits of “Stealing the Thunder” (Ch 7) The Impact of Compliance on False Identifications and False Confessions (Ch 8) The Dynamics of Jury Deliberation (Ch 9) The Hazards of Cross-Race Identification (Ch 10) Why Beautiful People Spend Less Time in Jail (Ch 12) The Impact of Race on Jury Decision-Making (Ch 13) Media CONNECTIONS The Growing Use of Web-based Experiments (Ch 2) What Happens When Barbies Get Smaller and GI Joes Get Bigger? (Ch 3) The Dangerous Impact of Media Images of Smoking and Alcohol Use (Ch 6) Why Publicizing Suicides May Be a Bad Idea (Ch 8) The Hazards of Violent Pornography (Ch 11) Does the Internet Facilitate Intimacy or Inhibit It? (Ch 12) Does Watching Sesame Street Lead to Prosocial Behavior? (Ch 13) ... Hook, Texas Women’s University Kathy Howard, Harding University Maria Hunt, Avila University Karen Huxtable-Jester, University of Texas at Dallas Matthew Isaak, University of Louisiana Julia Jacks,... Prize, a National Science Foundation Fellowship, and a Dissertation Research Award from the American Psychological Association Sanderson s research, which has received funding from the National Institute... Personality and Social Psychology, and the Journal of Research in Personality In addition, Sanderson writes a “Body Talk” blog for Psychology Today In her introductory psychology and social psychology

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  • Cover Page

  • Title Page

  • Copyright Page

  • About The Author

  • Preface

  • Brief Contents

  • Contents

  • 1 Introducing Social Psychology

    • WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY?

      • How We Think about Ourselves

      • How We Think, Feel, and Act in the Social World

      • Health CONNECTIONS Why College Students Drink Less Than You Think They Do

      • How Our Attitudes and Behaviors Shape the Social World

    • HOW HAS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY EVOLVED OVER TIME?

      • Behaviorism

      • Gestalt Psychology

      • Historical Events

    • IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY REALLY JUST COMMON SENSE?

      • The “I Knew It All Along” Problem

      • Use of Scientific Method

      • Emphasis on Critical Thinking

    • HOW IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY CONNECTED TO OTHER FIELDS?

      • Links to Fields within Psychology

      • Links to Other Fields

    • HOW DOES SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY APPLY ACROSS CULTURES AND SUBCULTURES?

      • Individualistic versus Collectivistic Cultures

      • The Impact of Culture

      • The Impact of Subculture

  • 2 Research Methods

    • HOW DO RESEARCHERS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY TEST THEIR IDEAS?

      • Form a Question

      • Search the Literature

      • Form a Hypothesis

      • Create an Operational Definition

      • Collect and Analyze Data

      • Media CONNECTIONS The Growing Use of Web-based Experiments

      • Propose and/or Revise a Theory

    • WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS?

      • Observational/Naturalistic Methods

      • Environment CONNECTIONS The Hazards of Hot Weather

      • Self-Report or Survey Methods

    • HOW DO YOU CONDUCT EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH?

      • Experimental Methods

      • Health CONNECTIONS Evaluating Abstinence-only Sex Education

      • Internal Validity

      • External Validity

      • What Is the Best Approach?

    • WHAT ARE THE ETHICAL ISSUES INVOLVED IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY?

      • Review by an Institutional Review Board

      • Provide Informed Consent

      • Protect Confidentiality

      • Law CONNECTIONS The Challenges of Studying Drinking and Driving

      • Provide Debriefing

    • HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE RESEARCH FINDINGS?

      • The Impact of Question Order

      • The Impact of Question Wording

      • The Impact of Language

  • 3 Self-Perception and Self-Presentation

    • HOW DO PERSONAL FACTORS INFLUENCE THE SELF-CONCEPT?

      • Thinking about Your Thoughts

      • Focusing on Self-Awareness

      • Regulating the Self

      • Examining Your Behavior

      • Interpreting Your Motivation

      • Business CONNECTIONS Does Giving Bonuses Enhance or Undermine Motivation?

    • HOW DO SOCIAL FACTORS INFLUENCE THE SELF-CONCEPT?

      • Social Comparison Theory

      • Media CONNECTIONS What Happens When Barbies Get Smaller and GI Joes Get Bigger?

      • The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

    • HOW DO PEOPLE MAINTAIN A POSITIVE SELF-CONCEPT?

      • Self-Serving Biases

      • Self-Serving Beliefs

      • Health CONNECTIONS The Downside of Too Much Optimism

      • Law CONNECTIONS The Impact of Feedback on Eyewitness Confidence

      • Self-Serving Comparisons

      • Self-Serving Behavior

      • The Downside of Overly Positive Self-Views

    • HOW DO PEOPLE PRESENT THEMSELVES TO OTHERS?

      • Self-Promotion

      • Ingratiation

      • Self-Verification

      • The Good—and Bad—News About Self-Presentation

    • HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE SELF-PERCEPTION AND SELF-PRESENTATION?

      • Factors Influencing the Self-Concept

      • Self-Perception of Motivation

      • Strategies for Maintaining a Positive Self-Concept

      • Strategies of Self-Presentation

  • 4 Social Perception

    • HOW DO WE THINK ABOUT WHY OTHER PEOPLE DO WHAT THEY DO?

      • Attribution Theory

      • Correspondent Inference Theory

      • Covariation Theory

    • WHAT TYPES OF ERRORS DO WE MAKE IN THINKING ABOUT OTHER PEOPLE?

      • Fundamental Attribution Error

      • Health CONNECTIONS The Role of Attributions in Prejudice Against Obesity

      • Actor-observer Effect

      • Business CONNECTIONS Why Disserving Attributions Can Be a Good Idea

    • WHY DO WE MAKE ERRORS WHEN WE THINK ABOUT OTHER PEOPLE?

      • Salience

      • Law CONNECTIONS The Impact of Salience on Perceived Guilt

      • Lack of Cognitive Capacity

      • Beliefs about Others’ Abilities and Motivations

      • Self-Knowledge

      • Education CONNECTIONS Why Focusing on Effort Over Ability Is a Good Idea

      • Final Thoughts on Attribution Errors

    • HOW DO WE FORM IMPRESSIONS OF PEOPLE BASED ON NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR?

      • Communicating in Nonverbal Ways

      • Detecting Deception

    • HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE SOCIAL PERCEPTION?

      • Types of Attributions

      • Factors Influencing Attributions

      • Expression of Emotion

  • 5 Social Cognition

    • HOW CAN SHORTCUTS LEAD TO ERRORS IN THINKING ABOUT THE WORLD?

      • Intuition

      • Availability

      • Representativeness

      • Base-Rate Fallacy

      • Anchoring and Adjustment

      • Counterfactual Thinking

    • HOW DOES PRESENTATION INFLUENCE HOW WE THINK ABOUT THE WORLD?

      • Contrast Effect

      • Framing

      • Law CONNECTIONS The Power of Reconstructive Memory

    • HOW DO WE FORM IMPRESSIONS OF PEOPLE?

      • The Ease of Impression Formation

      • Beliefs about How Traits Fit Together

      • The Impact of Mood

      • Business CONNECTIONS The Impact of Mood on Economic Decisions

    • HOW DO BELIEFS CREATE REALITY?

      • People See What They Expect to See

      • Health CONNECTIONS The Power of Belief

      • People Maintain Beliefs Over Time

      • Education CONNECTIONS The Overwhelming Power of Teacher’s Expectations

    • HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE SOCIAL COGNITION?

      • Cognitive Errors

      • Beliefs about Traits

  • 6 Attitude Formation and Change

    • HOW DO WE FORM ATTITUDES?

      • Classical Conditioning

      • Operant Conditioning

      • Observational Learning/Modeling

      • Media CONNECTIONS The Dangerous Impact of Media Images of Smoking and Alcohol Use

      • How Much Do Attitudes Matter?

    • WHEN DO ATTITUDES PREDICT BEHAVIOR?

      • Strength

      • Accessibility

      • Specificity

      • Social Norms

      • Why (and When) Attitudes Do Matter

    • WHEN DOES ENGAGING IN A BEHAVIOR LEAD TO ATTITUDE CHANGE?

      • Cognitive Dissonance Theory

      • Health CONNECTIONS Using Cognitive Dissonance Can Lead to Changes in Health Behavior

      • Environment CONNECTIONS Using Cognitive Dissonance to Increase Water Conservation

      • Revisions to Dissonance Theory

    • WHAT ARE ALTERNATIVES TO COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY?

      • Self-Perception Theory

      • Impression Management Theory

      • Self-Affirmation Theory

      • Education CONNECTIONS Using Self-Affirmation Can Increase Academic Achievement

      • Which Theory Is Right?

    • HOW DOES CULTURE IMPACT ATTITUDE FORMATION AND CHANGE?

      • Attitudes

      • Cognitive Dissonance

  • 7 Persuasion

    • HOW DO WE PROCESS PERSUASIVE MESSAGES?

      • Routes to Persuasion

      • Factors That Influence Type of Processing Used

      • Which Route Is More Effective?

      • Environment CONNECTIONS How Persuasive Messages Increase Recycling

    • WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE PERSUASION?

      • Source: Who Delivers the Message?

      • Content of the Message

      • Law CONNECTIONS The Benefits of “Stealing the Thunder”

      • Audience

    • HOW CAN SUBTLE FACTORS INFLUENCE PERSUASION?

      • The Impact of Emotional Appeals

      • Health CONNECTIONS Why Having Wrinkles Is Worse Than Dying

      • Business CONNECTIONS How Waiters and Waitresses Can Increase Tips

      • The Impact of Subliminal Messages

    • HOW CAN YOU RESIST PERSUASION?

      • Forewarning

      • Reactance

      • Inoculation

      • Attitude Importance

    • HOW DOES CULTURE IMPACT PERSUASION?

      • Types of Persuasive Messages Used

      • The Effectiveness of Different Persuasive Messages

  • 8 Social Influence: Norms, Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience

    • HOW DO SOCIAL NORMS INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR?

      • The Power of Social Norms

      • Errors in Perceiving Social Norms

      • The Pressure to Conform to Social Norms

      • Health CONNECTIONS Why Misperceiving the Thinness Norm Can Lead to Eating Disorders

    • WHAT FACTORS LEAD TO CONFORMITY?

      • Why We Conform

      • Factors That Increase Conformity

      • Media CONNECTIONS Why Publicizing Suicides May Be a Bad Idea

      • The Power of Minority Influence

      • The Benefits of Conformity

      • Environment CONNECTIONS Why Conformity Can Decrease Littering

    • WHAT FACTORS LEAD TO COMPLIANCE?

      • Reciprocity

      • Consistency and Commitment

      • Scarcity

      • The Serious Consequences of Compliance

      • Law CONNECTIONS The Impact of Compliance on False Identifications and False Confessions

    • HOW DO SOCIAL PRESSURES INFLUENCE OBEDIENCE?

      • Factors That Increase Obedience

      • Ethical Issues

      • Real-World Examples of Obedience

      • Strategies for Resisting Obedience

    • HOW DOES CULTURE IMPACT SOCIAL INFLUENCE?

      • Conformity

      • Compliance

      • Obedience

  • 9 Group Influence: The Impact of Group Processes

    • HOW DO GROUPS INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR?

      • Social Facilitation

      • Social Loafing

      • Deindividuation

      • Cohesion

    • HOW DOES THE GROUP PROCESS INFLUENCE DECISION MAKING?

      • Group Polarization

      • Law CONNECTIONS The Dynamics of Jury Deliberation

      • Groupthink

      • The Power of Leadership

    • HOW DO GROUPS HANDLE CONFLICT?

      • Factors Leading to Conflict

      • Strategies for Resolving Conflict

      • Education CONNECTIONS The Power of the Jigsaw Classroom

      • Business CONNECTIONS Using Mediation and Arbitration to Resolve Conflict

      • Conflict Resolution in the Real World

    • HOW DO GROUPS HANDLE SOCIAL DILEMMAS?

      • Types of Social Dilemmas

      • Solutions to Social Dilemmas

      • Health CONNECTIONS Why Not Vaccinating Your Child Can Be Good for You, but Bad for the Community

    • HOW DOES CULTURE IMPACT GROUP INFLUENCE?

      • Social Loafing

      • Conflict

      • Social Dilemmas

  • 10 Stereotypes, Prejudice,and Discrimination

    • HOW DO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO STEREOTYPING AND PREJUDICE?

      • Social Learning

      • Social Categorization

      • Law CONNECTIONS The Hazards of Cross-Race Identification

      • Realistic Group Conflict Theory

      • Social Identity Theory: The Role of Self-Esteem

      • Cognitive Biases

      • Assessing Stereotypes

    • WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF BEING STEREOTYPED?

      • Self-fulfilling Prophecy

      • Stereotype Threat

      • Education CONNECTIONS Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threats in the Classroom

      • Reduced Psychological Well-Being

      • Health CONNECTIONS The Impact of Racism on Physical Health

      • Reverse Discrimination

      • The Hazards of Positive Stereotypes

    • IS STEREOTYPING INEVITABLE?

      • Stereotypes Are Activated Automatically

      • Stereotypes Are Hard to Suppress

      • Disconfirming Evidence Is Ignored

      • Subtle Discrimination Persists

      • Business CONNECTIONS Examining the Effects of Affirmative Action Policies

    • HOW CAN SOCIAL AND COGNITIVE INTERVENTIONS HELP OVERCOME STEREOTYPES?

      • Increase Contact

      • Provide Training and Education

      • Be Motivated to Avoid Stereotyping

    • HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE PREJUDICE AND STEREOTYPES?

      • Reliance on Cognitive Biases

      • Types of Stereotypes

  • 11 Aggression

    • HOW DO BIOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCE AGGRESSION?

      • Instinct and Evolutionary Theories

      • Genetics

      • Hormones

      • Health CONNECTIONS The Link Between Alcohol Use and Aggression

    • HOW DO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCE AGGRESSION?

      • Frustration-Aggression Theory

      • Business CONNECTIONS The Dangers of Sexual Harassment

      • Cognitive-Neoassociation Theory

      • Excitation Transfer Theory

      • Social Learning Theory

      • General Aggression Model

    • HOW DOES THE MEDIA INFLUENCE AGGRESSION?

      • Models Aggression

      • Primes Aggressive Thoughts and Feelings

      • Creates Physiological Arousal

      • Reduces Reactions to Aggression

      • Media CONNECTIONS The Hazards of Violent Pornography

    • HOW CAN WE REDUCE AGGRESSION?

      • Punishing Aggressive Behavior

      • Modeling Nonaggressive Responses

      • Training in Communication and Problem-Solving Skills

      • Education CONNECTIONS The Problem of Bullying

      • Increasing Empathy

    • HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE AGGRESSION?

      • Prevalence of Aggression

      • Prevalence of Domestic Violence

      • Subcultural Differences in Aggression: The Culture of Honor

  • 12 Interpersonal Attraction and Close Relationships

    • WHAT PREDICTS INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION?

      • Physical Attractiveness

      • Law CONNECTIONS Why Beautiful People Spend Less Time in Jail

      • Relationship Factors

      • Situational Factors

      • Predictors of Attraction in Friendship

      • Media CONNECTIONS Does the Internet Facilitate Intimacy or Inhibit It?

    • WHAT IS LOVE?

      • Passionate-Companionate Love

      • Triangular Theory

      • Love Styles

      • Why Does Love Matter?

      • Health CONNECTIONS Why We Get By With a Little Help from Our Friends (and Pets)

    • WHAT PREDICTS RELATIONSHIP SATISFACTION?

      • Social Exchange Theory

      • Attachment Styles

      • Positive Illusions

      • Strategies for Increasing Relationship Satisfaction

    • WHAT ARE COMMON PROBLEMS IN CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS?

      • Conflict

      • Jealousy

      • Loneliness

      • Relationship Dissolution

    • HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION AND CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS?

      • Defining Beauty

      • The Nature of Love

      • The Nature of Friendships

      • Business CONNECTIONS The Impact of Culture on Workplace Relationships

  • 13 Altruism and Prosocial Behavior

    • HOW DO PERSONAL FACTORS INFLUENCE HELPING?

      • Evolutionary Factors

      • Personality

      • Health CONNECTIONS The Amazing Generosity of Living Organ Donors

      • Religion

    • HOW DO SITUATIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCE HELPING?

      • Decision-Making Process Model

      • Arousal/Cost-Reward Model

      • Education CONNECTIONS What Are the Consequences of Requiring Volunteerism?

      • Mood

      • Modeling

      • Environmental Factors

      • Media CONNECTIONS Does Watching Sesame Street Lead to Prosocial Behavior?

    • DOES PURE ALTRUISM EXIST?

      • Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

      • Negative-State Relief Hypothesis

      • Comparing the Models

      • Predicting Long-Term Helping

    • WHO GETS HELP WHEN THEY ARE IN NEED?

      • Person Factors

      • Social Norms

      • Relationship Factors

      • Law CONNECTIONS The Impact of Similarity of Race on Guilt

      • The Downside of Receiving Help

    • HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE HELPING?

      • Frequency of Helping

      • Norms for Helping

      • Motivations for Helping

  • GLOSSARY

  • REFERENCES

  • NAME INDEX

  • SUBJECT INDEX

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