CHAPTER THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: MESOPOTAMIA, EGYPT, PHOENICIA, ISRAEL CHAPTER OUTLINE ១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១ I Introduction II The First Europeans: The Paleolithic Era III The Neolithic Revolution IV Mesopotamia: The Social and Economic Structures of Mesopotamian Life A The Sumerians, Akkad, Babylonia, and Assyria B Mesopotamian Culture, Law, and Religion V Ancient Egypt A The Social and Economic Structures of Ancient Egypt B Egyptian Culture, Science, and Religion VI Canaan, Phoenicia, and Philistia VII The Historical Development of Ancient Israel A The Origins of Judaism B The Social and Economic Structures of Ancient Israel W estern civlization rests upon the achievements of far more ancient societies Long before the Greeks or Romans, the peoples of the ancient Near East had learned to domesticate animals, grow crops, and produce useful articles of pottery and metal The ancient Mesoptamians and Egyptians developed writing, mathematics, and sophisticated methods of engineering while contributing a rich variety of legal, scientific, and religious ideas to those who would come after them The Phoenicians invented the alphabet and facilitated cultural borrowing by trading throughout the known world, and ancient Israel gave birth to religious concepts that form the basis of modern Judaism, Christianity, and Islam Chapter will look briefly at life in the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age before examining the Neolithic revolution and its material consequences, including its impact on diet, demography, and the advent of warfare It will then describe the development and structure of two great ancient socieities, the Mesopotamian and the Egyptian, before concluding with descriptions of the Phoenicians and of the life and religion of ancient Israel Q The First Europeans: The Paleolithic Era Few subjects are more controversial than the origins of the human species During the long series of ice ages, the fringes of the European ice pack were inhabited by a race of tool-making bipeds known conventionally as Neanderthals Heavier, stronger, and hairier than modern Homo sapiens, they hunted the great herding animals of the day: mammoth, bison, wooly rhinoceros, and reindeer They lived in caves, knew how to make flint tools and weapons, and buried their dead in ways that suggest some form of religious belief Chapter About thirty thousand years ago the Neanderthals were abruptly superseded by people who were physically identical to modern men and women Where they came from or whether they somehow evolved within a few generations from a basically Neanderthal stock is unclear, but within a short time the Neanderthals were no more This development remains a mystery because the first true humans did not have a more advanced culture or technology than their more established neighbors and were by comparison weak and puny Some have suggested that the Neanderthals fell victim to an epidemic disease or that they could not adapt to warmer weather after the retreat of the glaciers They may also have found hunting the faster, more solitary animals of modern times difficult after the extinction of their traditional prey, but no one knows The new people, like their predecessors, were hunter-gatherers who lived in caves and buried their dead They, too, used stone tools and weapons that became steadily more sophisticated over time, which is why the period up to about 9000 B.C is known as the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age Paleolithic people lived on a healthy diet of game and fish supplemented by fruit, berries, nuts, and wild plants, but little is known about their social structure If the hunter-gatherer societies of modern times are an indication, they probably lived in extended families that, if they survived and prospered, eventually became tribes Extended families may contain older surviving relatives—siblings, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews, and cousins—as opposed to nuclear families of only parents and children Tribes are composed of several nuclear or extended families that claim common descent The division of responsibilities probably was straightforward Men hunted and perhaps made tools; women cared for the children, preserved the fire, and did most of the gathering Among the most extraordinary achievements of these paleographic cultures was their art Caves from Spain to southern Russia are decorated with magnificent wall paintings, usually of animals Many groups also produced small clay figurines with exaggerated female features This suggests the widespread worship of a fertility goddess, but Paleolithic religious beliefs remain unclear Were the cave paintings a form of magic designed to bring game animals under the hunter’s power, or were they art for art’s sake? The question may sound silly, but articles of personal adornment in caves and grave sites indicate, as the paintings themselves, that these people had a well-developed sense of aesthetics (see illustration 1.1) Illustration 1.1 — Paleolithic Cave Paintings of Bison, at Altamira, Spain The cave paintings at Altamira in Spain and at Lascaux in France were evidently produced by the same Paleolithic culture and date from c 15,000 B.C to 10,000 B.C The purpose of the paintings is unclear, but the technical skill of the artists was anything but primitive Q The Neolithic Revolution Hunting and gathering remained the chief economic activity for a long time, and even today they provide supplementary food for many westerners The bow and arrow as well as the basic tools still used to hook or net fish or to trap game were developed long before the advent of agriculture, pottery, or writing The domestication of animals probably began at an early date with the use of dogs in hunting, but was later extended to sheep, goats, and cattle that could be herded to provide a reliable source of protein when game was scarce Shortly thereafter, about ten thousand years ago, the first efforts were made to cultivate edible plants The domestication of animals and the invention of agriculture marked one of the great turning points in human history Several species of edible grasses are native to the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys in Asia Minor, including wild barley and two varieties of wheat Of the latter, einkorn (one-corn), with its single row of seeds per stalk, produces only modest yields, but emmer, with multiple rows on each stem, is the ancestor of modern wheat When people learned to convert these seeds into gruel or bread is unknown, but once they did so the value of systematic cultivation became apparent By 7000 B.C farming was well established from Iran to Palestine It spread into the Nile valley and The Ancient Near East: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Phoenicia, Israel the Aegean by 5000 B.C and from the Balkans up the Danube and into central Europe in the years that followed Radiocarbon dating has established the existence of farming settlements in the Netherlands by 4000 B.C and in Britain by 3200 B.C The diffusion of agricultural techniques came about through borrowing and cultural contact as well as through migration Farming, in other words, developed in response to local conditions As the last ice age ended and hunting and fishing techniques improved, a general increase in population upset the Paleolithic ecology Game became scarcer and more elusive while the human competition for dwindling resources grew more intense Herding and the cultivation of row crops were soon essential to survival In time, as the human population continued to grow, herding diminished It provides fewer calories per unit of land than farming and was increasingly restricted to tracts otherwise unsuitable for cultivation Though crop raising would always be supplemented to some extent by other sources of food, it gradually emerged as the primary activity wherever land could be tilled The invention of agriculture marked the beginning of the Neolithic or New Stone Age The cultivation of plants, beginning with grains and expanding to include beans, peas, olives, and eventually grapes, made food supplies far more predictable than in a hunting or herding economy At the same time, it greatly increased the number of calories that could be produced from a given area of land Efficiency was further enhanced by the invention of the wheel and the wooden plow, both of which came into common use around 3000 B.C Farming therefore promoted demographic growth both absolutely and in the density of population that a given area could support On the negative side, the transition to a farming economy often resulted in diets that were deficient in protein and other important elements Bread became the staff of life, largely because land supports more people if planted with grain The nuts, animal proteins, and wild fruits typical of the Paleolithic diet became luxuries to be eaten only on special occasions As a result, the skeletal remains of Neolithic farmers indicate that they were shorter and less healthy than their Paleolithic ancestors Though beans, peas, lentils, and other pulses became a valuable source of protein, ordinary people consumed as much as 80 percent of their calories in the form of carbohydrates Caloric intake varied widely An adult male engaged in heavy labor requires a minimum of thirtyseven hundred calories per day No way exists to measure a normal diet in Neolithic or ancient times, but the average peasant or laborer probably made on far less, perhaps only twenty-five hundred to twenty-seven hundred calories per day Grain yields on unfertilized land are relatively inelastic, typically ranging from three to twelve bushels per acre with a probable average of five Populations expand to meet the availability of resources, and Neolithic communities soon reached their ecological limits If they could not expand the area under cultivation, they reached a balance that barely sustained life Moreover, because grain harvests depend upon good weather and are susceptible to destruction by pests, shortfalls were common In years of famine, caloric intake dropped below the level of sustenance The establishment of permanent farming settlements also encouraged the spread of disease The hunter-gatherers of Paleolithic times had lived in small groups and moved frequently in pursuit of game, a way of life that virtually precluded epidemics Farming, however, is by definition sedentary Fields and orchards require constant attention, and the old way of moving about while camping in caves or temporary shelters had to be abandoned Early farmers built houses of sundried brick or of reeds and wood in close proximity to one another for security and to facilitate cooperation The establishment of such villages encouraged the accumulation of refuse and human waste Water supplies became contaminated while disease-bearing rats, flies, lice, and cockroaches became the village or town dweller’s constant companions Inadequate nutrition and susceptibility to epidemic disease created the so-called biological old regime, a demographic pattern that prevailed in Europe until the middle of the nineteenth century Though few people starved, disease kept death rates high while poor nutrition kept birth rates low Malnutrition raises the age of first menstruation and can prevent ovulation in mature women, thereby reducing the rate of conception After conception, poor maternal diet led to a high rate of stillbirths and of complications during pregnancy If a child were brought to term and survived the primitive obstetrics of the age, it faced the possibility that its mother would be too malnourished to nurse Statistics are unavailable, but infant mortality probably ranged from 30 to 70 percent in the first two years of life The distribution of Neolithic and ancient populations therefore bore little resemblance to that of a modern industrial society Ancient people were younger and had far shorter working lives than their modern counterparts Their reproductive lifetimes were also shorter, Chapter and in people of mature years (aged thirty to fifty), men may have outnumbered women, primarily because so many women died in childbirth The life expectancy for either gender may not have been much more than thirty years at birth, but those who survived their fifties had as good a chance as their modern counterparts of reaching an advanced age This pattern, like the conditions that produced it, would persist until the industrial revolution of modern times The invention of agriculture expanded the idea of property to include land and domesticated animals, which were not only personal possessions but also the means of survival In Paleolithic times the primary measure of individual worth was probably a person’s ability as a hunter or gatherer, skills from which the entire tribe presumably benefited The Neolithic world measured status in terms of flocks, herds, and fields This change affected the structure of human societies in three important ways First, because luck and management skills vary widely, certain individuals amassed greater wealth than others To gain the maximum advantage from their wealth, they found it necessary to utilize, and often to exploit, the labor of their poorer neighbors Neolithic society was therefore characterized by social stratification, though a measure of cooperation could be found at the village level in the performance of agricultural and construction tasks Second, the emergence of property seems to have affected the status of women Little is known about the lives of women in Paleolithic times, but most theorists agree that, with the development of herds and landed property, controlling female sexuality became necessary in ways that would have been unnecessary in a community of hunter-gatherers The issue was inheritance The survival of the family depended upon the preservation and augmentation of its wealth Women were expected to provide heirs who were the biological children of their partners The result was the development of a double standard by which women had to be pure and seen to be pure by the entire community If anthropologists are correct, the subjugation of women and the evolution of characteristically feminine behaviors were an outgrowth of the Neolithic revolution Third, the Neolithic age marked the beginning of warfare, the systematic use of force by one community against another Though Paleolithic hunters may have fought one another on occasion, the development of settled communities provided new incentives for violence because homes, livestock, and cultivated land are property that must be defended against the predatory behavior of neighboring peoples Dealing with the problems of population growth by annexing the land of others was all too easy War, in turn, made possible the development of slavery To a hunter-gatherer, slaves are unnecessary, but to herders and agriculturalists their labor makes possible the expansion of herds and the cultivation of more land because under normal circumstances slaves produce more than they consume At first, Neolithic communities seem to have been organized along tribal lines, a structure inherited from their hunting and gathering ancestors when they settled down to till the land Most inhabitants shared a common ancestor, and chieftainship was probably the dominant form of social organization The function of the chief in agricultural societies was far more complex than in the days of hunting and gathering, involving not only military leadership but also a primary role in the allocation of goods and labor Efficiency in operations such as harvesting and sheep shearing requires cooperation and direction In return, the chief demanded a share of an individual’s agricultural surplus, which he then stored against hard times or allocated in other ways This function of the chief helps to explain the storehouses that were often constructed by early rulers As agriculture developed, crops became more varied Wheat, wine, and olives became the basic triad of products on which society depended in the Mediterranean basin One farmer might have a grove of olive trees but no land capable of growing wheat, while another would be blessed with well-drained, south-facing hillsides that produce the best grapes In such cases the chief encouraged a measure of agricultural specialization He could collect a tribute of oil from one and grapes from another and barter both to a third farmer in return for his surplus wheat In the north, different commodities were involved, but the principle was the same Specialization in Neolithic times was rarely complete because prudent farmers knew that diversification offered a measure of security that monoculture, or the growing of only one crop, can never provide If the major crop fails, something else must be available to fall back upon, but even a modest degree of specialization can increase efficiency and raise a community’s standard of living Effective systems of distribution can also encourage the development of technology Pottery was invented soon after the Neolithic revolution, primarily as a means of storing liquids The first pots were probably made by women working at home and firing their pots in a communal oven, but the invention of the potter’s wheel allowed for throwing pots with unprecedented speed and efficiency Because the new method required great skill, those who mastered it tended to become specialists who were paid for their work in food or other commodities The Ancient Near East: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Phoenicia, Israel Illustration 1.2 — Stonehenge The greatest of all stone circles, shown here from the north, stands on England’s Salisbury Plain Some believe that Stonehenge served as an astronomical calculator, but the real purpose is as obscure as the culture of its builders The huge stones were quarried, and perhaps shaped elsewhere, and transported many miles to their present site The lintels are pegged and fitted into prepared holes in the standing stones or fitted with mortise-and-tenon joints The stonemasonry as well as the size of the project is remarkable The advent of metallurgy provides a more dramatic example of occupational specialization Pure copper, which is sometimes found in nature, was used for jewelry and personal items before 6000 B.C., but by 4500 B.C it was being smelted from ores and forged into tools and weapons These complex processes appear to have evolved separately in the Middle East and in the Balkans, where copper deposits were common They were based on the development of ovens that could achieve both a controlled air flow and temperatures of more than two thousand degrees Fahrenheit An analysis of pottery from these areas reveals that such ovens had already been developed to facilitate glazing By 3500 B.C., bronze—a mixture of copper and tin—was in general use throughout the West for the manufacture of tools and weapons The Neolithic Age was over, and the Bronze Age had begun Because the skills involved in working bronze were highly specialized, smiths probably forged their wares almost exclusively for sale or barter A sophisticated system of trade and governance must have been established Furthermore, the large-scale production of metal weapons further enhanced the power of chiefs Chieftainship might also involve religious duties, though organized priesthoods evolved in some soci- eties at an early date Chiefs almost certainly organized the building of communal burying places in the Aegean and along the Atlantic and North Sea coasts from Iberia to Scandinavia Originally simple dolmens formed of a giant stone or megalith laid upon other stones, these tombs gradually evolved into domed chambers that were entered through long masonry passages Graves of this kind are often found in the vicinity of stone circles Stonehenge, constructed around 3500 B.C on England’s Salisbury Plain, is the largest and best known of these structures (see illustration 1.2) Because the circles are oriented astronomically, many have assumed that they served as giant calendars, but their precise function and the beliefs that mandated their construction are unknown The prevalence of these large-scale construction projects, whatever their purpose, indicates that Neolithic societies could achieve high levels of organization and technological sophistication When survival—as opposed to the demands of ritual—required a major cooperative effort, some societies evolved into civilizations Civilization is a term loaded with subjective meanings In this case, it refers to the establishment of political and cultural unity over a wide geographic area and the development of elaborate social, commercial, Chapter Caucasu Black Sea s Mts Caspian Sea Hattusha HITTITE EMPIRE F E R T I L E r u s M ts Ebla AKKAD R PHOENICIA erranean Sea Sahara IRAN M E N T ou nt Eridu Ur Persian Gulf Arabian Desert R SINAI Nile LOWER EGYPT C os Umma Lagash Uruk SUMER Syrian Desert Dead Sea S gr R Jordan R PALESTINE Jericho Jerusalem E Babylon Tyre Medit Za ns Byblos Cyprus R is Euph tes Nineveh Assur r Tig Tau C ASSYRIA Çatal Hüyük 200 400 200 600 Kilometers 400 Miles Red Sea MAP 1.1 — The Ancient Near East — and administrative structures based upon high population densities and the production of substantial wealth In most cases, civilization also meant the development of mathematics and written languages Both were needed for surveying, administration, and the distribution of goods and services in a complex society As chiefs became kings, the record of taxes and tributes paid, of lands annexed, and of the provisions consumed by their ever-larger armies acquired great significance The desire to record the ruler’s glorious deeds for posterity came slightly later but was nevertheless important Writing gives names to individuals and permits the dead to speak in their own words Without it there is no history The emergence of societies at this level of complexity affected even those areas that they did not directly control Great civilizations are magnets that draw other cultures into their orbits As peoples on the pe- riphery become involved with the larger market through trade or tribute, cultural borrowing accelerates Then, as civilizations expand, they come into conflict with one another, a process that brings neighboring peoples into their systems of war and diplomacy as well By 3000 B.C., at least two such civilizations had begun to emerge, one in the valley of Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the other in the valley of the Nile Q Mesopotamia: The Social and Economic Structures of Mesopotamian Life Mesopotamia, in Greek, means the land between the rivers, in this case the Tigris and the Euphrates (see map 1.1) It is a hot, fertile flood plain, most of which falls The Ancient Near East: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Phoenicia, Israel within the borders of modern Iraq Summer high temperatures reach 110 to 120 degrees Fahrenheit, and no rain falls from May to late October Winters are more moderate, but only Assyria in the north receives enough rainfall to support agriculture without irrigation In the lower valley, everything depends upon water supplied by the two rivers Of the two, the Tigris carries by far the larger volume of water The Euphrates on the east has fewer tributaries and loses more of its flow to evaporation as it passes through the dry plains of Syria In April and May the melting of snow in the Zagros Mountains causes massive flooding throughout the region This provides needed water and deposits a rich layer of alluvial silt, but the inundation presents enormous problems of management The floods must not only be controlled to protect human settlement, but water also must somehow be preserved to provide irrigation during the rainless summer To make matters worse, both rivers create natural embankments or levees that inhibit the flow of tributaries and over time have raised the water level above that of the surrounding countryside If spring floods wash the embankments away, the river changes its course, often with disasterous results The biblical story of Noah and the Flood originated in Mesopotamia, though there was probably not one flood but many (see document 1.1) The first known settlements in the region were village cultures possibly speaking a Semitic language distantly related to the more modern Hebrew or Arabic They grew wheat and barley and were established as far south as Akkad, near modern Baghdad, by 4500 B.C Other Semitic peoples continued to migrate into the region from the west and southwest until the Arab invasions of the ninth century A.D., but by 3000 B.C the Sumerians, a non-Semitic people who may have come originally from India, had achieved dominance in the lower valley They introduced large-scale irrigation and built the first true cities Sumerian cities were usually built on a tributary and dominated a territory of perhaps a hundred square miles Their inhabitants cultivated cereals, especially barley, and had learned the secret of making beer Sumerian homes, made of sun-baked brick, originally were small and circular like a peasant’s hut but gradually expanded to become large one-story structures with square or rectangular rooms built around a central courtyard Governance seems to have been by elected city councils Each city also had a king who ruled with the assistance of a palace bureaucracy The precise division of powers is unknown, but the later Babylonian council had judicial as well as legislative authority [ DOCUMENT 1.1 [ The Flood The great Mesopotamian epic about Gilgamesh contains an account of the Flood that strongly resembles the biblical account in Genesis, although divine caprice, not human wickedness, brings on the disaster Here, Utnapashtim, the Mesopotamian equivalent of Noah, tells his story to the hero Gilgamesh In those days the world teemed, the people multiplied, the world bellowed like a wild bull, and the great god was aroused by the clamor Enlil heard the clamor and said to the gods in council, “the uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possible by reason of the babel.” So the gods agreed to exterminate mankind Enlil did this, but Ea [the god of the waters] because of his oath warned me in a dream “tear down your house and build a boat, abandon possessions and look for life, despise worldly goods and save your soul alive then take up into the boat the seed of all living creatures ” [After Utnapashtim did this] for six days and six nights the winds blew, torrent and tempest and flood overwhelmed the world, tempest and flood raged together like warring hosts When the seventh day dawned the storm from the south subsided, the sea grew calm, the flood was stilled; I looked at the face of the world and there was silence, all mankind was turned to clay The surface of the sea stretched as flat as a rooftop; I opened a hatch and the light fell on my face I looked for land in vain, but fourteen leagues distant there appeared a mountain, and there the boat grounded; on the mountain of Nisir the boat held fast When the seventh day dawned I loosed a dove and let her go She flew away, but finding no resting place she returned Then I loosed a swallow, and she flew away but finding no resting place she returned I loosed a raven, she saw that the waters had retreated, she ate, she flew around, she cawed, and she did not come back Then I threw everything open to the four winds, I made a sacrifice and poured out a libation on the mountain top The Epic of Gilgamesh, trans N.K Sandars Rev ed Harmondsworth, England Penguin Classics, 1964 Chapter An organized priesthood served in the great raised temple or ziggurat that dominated the town The ziggurat was a stepped pyramidal tower dedicated to the god or goddess who was the patron of the city The earliest examples were built of packed earth After about 2000 B.C most were constructed on a foundation of imported stone and decorated with glazed tiles The temple and its priests were supported by extensive landholdings Other large tracts were owned by the royal family and its retainers Sumerian kings were likely at first war chiefs whose powers became hereditary as their responsibilities for the distribution of goods and labor grew Like chiefs in other societies, they stood at the center of a system of clientage that involved their families and their servants as well as officials, commoners, and probably priests Clientage is best defined as a system of mutual dependency in which a powerful individual protects the interests of others in return for their political or economic support With or without legal sanction, clientage is the basic form of social organization in many cultures and was destined to become a powerful force in the history of the West In Sumer, clients formed a separate class of free individuals who were given the use of small parcels of land in return for labor and a share of their produce Their patrons—kings, noble officials, or temple priests—retained title to the land and a compelling hold on their client’s political loyalties The cities were therefore ruled by a relatively small group Clients had full rights as citizens, but they could not be expected to vote against those who controlled their economic lives The rest of the land was owned by private families that were apparently extended, multigenerational, and organized on patriarchal lines Though rarely rich, these freeholders enjoyed full civil rights and participated in the city’s representative assembly The greatest threat to their independence was debt, which could lead to enslavement Other slaves were sometimes acquired for the temple or palace through war, but Sumer was not a slave-based economy The organization of trade, like that of agriculture, reflected this social structure For centuries Sumerian business was based on the extended family or what would today be called family corporations Some firms ran caravans to every part of the Middle East or shipped goods by sea via the Persian Gulf They exported textiles, copper implements, and other products of Mesopotamian craftsmanship and imported wood, stone, copper ingots, and precious metals Iron and steel were as yet unknown Later, in the time of Hammurabi, Babylonian rulers attempted to llustration 1.3 — A Cuneiform Tablet This fragment of the eleventh tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh from Ashurbanipal’s great library at Nineveh is a superb example of cuneiform text bring some of these trading concerns under government regulation The organization of Sumerian society was probably much like that of earlier Neolithic communities, and its political institutions reflect the ancient idea of chieftainship More is known about it only because the Sumerians were the first Western people to create a written language Their political and economic relationships had reached a level of complexity that required something more than the use of movable clay tokens to record transactions, a practice characteristic of many earlier cultures Though the Sumerian language was apparently unrelated to any other and was used only for ritual purposes after the second millennium B.C., all later Mesopotamian cultures adopted its cuneiform system of writing Cuneiform refers to the wedge-shaped marks left by a stylus when it is pressed into a wet clay tablet Sumeria was rich in mud, and slabs of clay were perfect for recording taxes, land transfers, and legal agreements When the document was ready, the tablet could be baked hard and stored for future reference (see illustration 1.3) The Ancient Near East: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Phoenicia, Israel The Sumerians, Akkad, Babylonia, and Assyria Even with written records, political relations between the Sumerian city-states are difficult to reconstruct As populations increased, struggles over boundaries and trading rights grew more violent, and by 2300 B.C inter-city conflicts engulfed all of Mesopotamia At times, a king would claim to rule over more than one city or over Sumer as a whole There may therefore have been no Sumerian Empire, or if there was, its existence could have been brief According to his inscriptions, Lugalzaggeszi of Umma (c 2375 B.C.) achieved control over the entire region only to have it taken from him by a non-Sumerian, Sargon of Akkad (reigned c 2350–2300 B.C.) The Akkadian triumph marked the beginning of a new imperial age The unification of southern and central Mesopotamia provided Sargon with the means to conquer the north together with Syria Though Akkadian rule was brief, it transmitted elements of Mesopotamian culture throughout the Middle East, and Akkadian, a Semitic language, became standard throughout the Tigris and Euphrates valleys But the brevity of Sargon’s triumph set a pattern for the political future For a millennium and a half, the rulers of different regions in succession achieved hegemony over all or part of Mesopotamia This was normally achieved by force combined with the careful manipulation of alliances and ended when the ruling dynasty fell prey either to the divisive forces that had created it or to invasions by people from the surrounding highlands Throughout its history, Mesopotamia’s wealth and lack of natural defenses made it a tempting prize for conquerors After the overthrow of Sargon’s descendents by a desert people known as the Guti and a brief revival of Sumerian power under the Third Dynasty of Ur, Babylon became the chief political and cultural center of the region Under Hammurabi (ruled c 1792–1750 B.C.) the Babylonians achieved hegemony over all of Mesopotamia, but a series of invasions after 1600 B.C led to a long period of political disorder The invaders, the most important of whom were Hittites, an IndoEuropean people from central Asia Minor Their influence was otherwise impermanent, but a rivalry soon developed between Babylon and Assyria, a kingdom in the northern part of the valley centered first on the city of Ashur and later on Nineveh The Assyrians, a fierce people who spoke a dialect of Akkadian, may have been the first people to coordinate the use of cavalry, infantry, and missile weapons Not only were their armies well organized, but their grasp of logistics also appears to have surpassed that of other ancient empires Though in other respects a highly civilized people whose literary and artistic achievements continued the traditions of Sumer and Babylon, they waged psychological warfare by cultivating a reputation for horrific cruelty They eventually defeated the Babylonians and after 933 restored the achievements of Sargon by establishing an empire that stretched from Egypt to Persia In spite of these violent political alterations, Mesopotamia remained culturally homogeneous for nearly three thousand years Mesopotamian Culture, Law, and Religion Though capitals and dynasties rose and fell, the land between the rivers remained captive to the annual floods and to the consequent need for cooperation, superlative engineering, and frequent redistribution of land The Mesopotamians’ highest intellectual achievements were therefore practical rather than speculative The development of writing is a prime example of their talents The Mesopotamians were also the first great mathematicians Using a numerical system based on sixty instead of the modern ten, they produced reference tables for multiplication, division, square roots, cube roots, and other functions Their greatest achievement, however, was the place-value system of notation in which the value of each digit is determined by its position after the base instead of by a separate name This makes describing large numbers possible and is the basis of all modern numeral systems The Babylonians also created one of the first comprehensive legal codes Named after Hammurabi, it is almost certainly a compendium of existing laws rather than new legislation and reflects a legal tradition that had been developing for centuries Its basic principles were retribution in kind and the sanctity of contracts In criminal cases this meant literally “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth,” if the social status of the parties was equal If not, a defendant of higher status could usually escape by paying a fine Blood feuds, private retribution, and other features of tribal law were, however, forbidden This same sense of retributive justice extended to the punishment of fraud and negligence A builder whose house collapsed and killed its occupants could be executed; tavern keepers who watered their drinks were drowned Craftsmen were required to replace poor workmanship at their own expense, and farmers who failed to keep their ditches and levees in good repair were sold into slavery if they could not compensate the victims of their 668 Suggested Readings Chapter 22 For the industrial revolution, see the older, but still classical, work by P Mantoux, The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century (1961); T S Ashton, The Industrial Revolution (1948), a brief introduction, stressing the human side; D Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present Day (1969); P Dean, The First Industrial Revolution (1965); E A Wrigley, Continuity, Chance, and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England (1988); and R M Hartwell, ed., The Causes of the Industrial Revolution (1967), an anthology presenting several conflicting perspectives For industrialized Britain, see J H Clapham, An Economic History of Modern Britain, vols (1926–39), and F Crouzet, The Victorian Economy (1982) For continental and comparative industrialization, see A Milward and S Saul, The Economic Development of Continental Europe, vols (1977–79); T Kemp, Industrialization in NineteenthCentury Europe (1985); C Trebilcock, The Industrialization of the Continental Powers, 1780–1914 (1981); W O Henderson, The Industrial Revolution in Europe (1961) and The Industrialization of Europe, 1780–1914 (1969); F Crouzet, Britain Ascendant (1990), on the continental effort to catch up; P O’Brien and C Keyder, Economic Growth in Britain and France, 1780–1914 (1978); J H Clapham, The Economic Development of France and Germany, 1815–1914 (1936); C Kindleberger, Economic Growth in France and Britain (1964); and A L Dunham, The Industrial Revolution in France, 1815–1848 (1955) Chapter 24 For general works on this period, the most recent surveys are R Gildea, Barricades and Borders (1987), which covers the period 1800–1914; F Ford, Europe, 1780–1830 (1989); E J Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution (1978); and T Hamerow, The Birth of a New Europe (1983), which covers the entire nineteenth century Valuable older studies include F Artz, Reaction and Revolution, 1814–1832 (1968) and W Langer, Political and Social Upheaval, 1832–1852 (1969), from the “Rise of Modern Europe” series Chapter 25 For surveys of the period, see E J Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital, 1848–1875 (1979), the second volume of his history of modern Europe; the volume of the New Cambridge Modern History edited by J P T Bury, The Zenith of European Power, 1830–1870 (1964); R Binkley’s volume in the Rise of Modern Europe series, Realism and Nationalism, 1852–1871 (1963) Chapter 26 The most recent surveys of this period are E J Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875–1914 (1987) and N Stone, Europe Transformed, 1878–1919 (1984); see also C Hayes, A Generation of Materialism, 1871–1900 (1941); O Hale, The Great Illusion, 1900–1914 (1971), in the Rise of Modern Europe series; and F H Hinsley, ed., Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–1898 (1962), in the New Cambridge Modern History series B Tuchman, The Proud Tower (1966) is a highly readable overview of the period 1890–1914 Chapter 27 For European imperialism, see T Pakenham, The Scramble for Africa, 1876–1912 (1991); D Gillard, The Struggle for Asia, 1828–1914 (1977) For the debate over the origins of World War I, see J Joll, The Origins of the First World War (1992) and L Lafore, The Long Fuse (1965), both good syntheses For World War I, see B Tuchman, The Guns of August (1962), for the opening phase of the war; M Ferro, The Great War, 1914–1918 (1978), for a good short history For surveys of the Russian Revolution, see R Pipes, The Russian Revolution (1990), a vigorously hostile account; J Reed, Ten Days That Shook the World (1935), a highly sympathetic contemporary account; E H Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917–1923, vols (1950–53), for an exceptionally detailed investigation Chapter 28 For surveys of the interwar period, see R Sontag, A Broken World, 1919–1939 (1971), for political detail, and C Kindleberger, The World in Depression, 1929–1939 (1986), for economics Chapter 29 For overviews of the wartime era, see G Wright, The Ordeal of Total War, 1939–1945 (1968), a comprehensive survey in the Rise of Modern Europe series; G Weinberg, A World at Arms (1994), a massive and up-to-date general history; and E Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes (1996), helpful for putting the war into context Chapter 30 For general economic histories of the twentieth century, see C Cipolla, ed., The Fontana Economic History of Europe, especially vol 5: The Twentieth Century and vol 6: Contemporary Economies (1976); M M Poston, D C Coleman, and P Mathias, eds., The Cambridge Economic History, especially vols and (1978); S Clough, T Moodie, and C Moodie, eds., Economic History of Europe: Twentieth Century (1969) Chapter 31 For overviews of the period, see E Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes (1994) and A W De Porte, Europe between the Superpowers: The Enduring Balance (1986) PHOTO CREDITS ១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១ Front Matter Chapter Page ii (upper left) Giraudon/Art Resource, NY; (upper right) The National Gallery, London/AKG, Berlin/Superstock; (lower left) Hirmer Verlag Muenchen; (lower right), Scala/Art Resource, NY 140, Ovo Holst ©Viking Ship Museum, University Museum of National Antiquities, Oslo, Norway; 142 Bibliotheek Der Rijksuniversiteit, Leiden, BPL 20, fol.60r; 164, f 6v.; 149 Michael Holford; 152 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 156 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Chapter Michael Holford; 5, Michael Holford; 8, The British Museum; 10 The Oriental Institute, University of Chicago; 14 Museum Expedition, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; 17 British Museum Chapter 25 (bottom) Robert Harding Picture Library; 29 Scala/Art Resource, NY; 38 Alexandra Guest/Courtesy of The Trireme Trust Chapter 45 (left and right) Hirmer Verlag Muenchen; 50 Louvre, © Photo RMN-Herve Lewandowski; 56 Scala/Art Resource, NY; 57 Alinari/Art Resource, NY Chapter 62 (top), 64 Guy Marche/Tony Stone Images; 66 (top, middle, and bottom) Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 71 Louvre, © Photo RMN/Chuzeville; 74 A Bracchetti/Vaticano Museo Gregoriano Profano; 75 Scala/Art Resource, NY; 76 Scala/Art Resource, NY Chapter 87 British Museum; 88 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 90 M Sarri/Vaticano Cortile Delle Corazze; 91 Scala/ Art Resource, NY; 95 David Hiser/Photographers Aspen; 97 Alinari/Art Resource, NY Chapter 101, 103 Scala/Art Resource, NY; 107 Michael Holford; 110 Alinari/Art Resource, NY; 111 Hirmer Verlag Muenchen; 112 (bottom) Chapter 122 Scala/Art Resource, NY; 123 Gian Berto Vanni/Art Resource, NY; 129 Robert Harding Picture Library; 131 Art Resource, NY; 132 The Pierpont Morgan Library/Art Resource, NY; 136 Bodleian Library, Oxford; Ms Bodl 218, f.62r Chapter 161 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 162 Michael Holford; 163 SEF/Art Resource, NY; 164 Michael Holford; 168 Conway Library/Courtauld Institute of Art; 172 Scala/Art Resource, NY; 173 Staatliche Museen zu Berlin/bildarchiv preussischer kulturbesitz Chapter 10 178 Foto Marburg/Art Resource, NY; 179 Mary Evans Picture Library;180 The Pierpont Morgan Library/Art Resource, NY; 186 Edifice/Darley; 188 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 191 Scala/Art Resource, NY Chapter 11 198 Österreichische Nationalbibliothek; 201 Superstock; 202 A F Kersting; 203 Mary Evans Picture Library; 206 Giraudon/Art Resource, NY; 213 A F Kersting Chapter 12 217 Bibliotheque Royale Albert ler, Brussels; 222 Graphische Sammlung Albertina; 223 Guilmartin, Jr., John F, Gunpowder and Galleys, Cambridge University Press, 1974; 224 (A) Science and Society Picture Library/Science Museum; (B) National Maritime Museum Picture Library; 231 Giraudon/Art Resource, NY; 232 Scala/Art Resource, NY Chapter 13 240 National Portrait Gallery, London/Superstock; 248 Art Museum, Basel, Switzerland/A.K.G., Berlin/Superstock; 250 Scala/Art Resource, NY; 251 (left) Scala/Art Resource, NY; (right) Alinari/Art Resource, NY; 252 Scala/Art Resource, NY Chapter 14 255 Thomas Renaut/Tony Stone Images; 260 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 261 Niels Elswing/Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen; 265 “King Henry VIII” by Hans the Younger Holbein (1497/81543), Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection, Madrid, Spain/The Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York; 268 Giraudon/Art Resource, NY; 270 Scala/Art Resource, NY 669 670 Photo Credits Chapter 15 Chapter 24 273 National Maritime Museum Picture Library; 279 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 281 Scala/Art Resource, NY; 282 Victoria & Albert Museum, London/Art Resource, NY; 283 The National Maritime Museum Picture Library 459 Hulton Getty/Liaison Agency; 464 Mary Evans Picture Library; 467 e.t archive; 468 bildarchiv preussischer kulturbesitz; 470 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY Chapter 16 293 T S Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution Harvard University Press, 1957; 294 Scala/Art Resource, NY; 296 Courtesy of The New York Academy of Medicine Library; 300 Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam; 303 Philippe Renault/ The Liaison Agency; 304 Erich Lessing/ Art Resource, NY; 305 Historical Museum, Moscow, Russia/Superstock Chapter 17 Chapter 25 483, 484 Mary Evans Picture Library; 486 Österreichische Nationalbibliothek; 489 Roger Viollet/Liaison Agency Chapter 26 507 Mary Evans Picture Library; 510 Corbis-Bettmann; 510 Mary Evans Picture Library; 519 Popperfoto/Archive Photos; 523, bildarchiv preussischer kulturbesitz Chapter 27 312 Hulton Getty/The Liaison Agency; 317 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 320 Bibliotheque Nationale de France; 323 (top) “Fruits of Early Industry & Economy”; Morland, George (English 1763–1805), Philadelphia Museum of Art: The John H McFadden Collection; (bottom) bildarchiv preussischer kulturbesitz; 326 New York Public Library/Art Resource, NY 533 Mary Evans Picture Library; 540 L’Illustration/Sygma; 542 Hulton Getty/Liaison Agency; 547 Grosz, George “Fit for Active Service.” 1916–17 Pen and brush and ink on paper, (50.8 ϫ 36.5cm) The Musuem of Modern Art, New York A Conger Goodyear Fund.; 550 Hulton Getty/Liaison Agency Chapter 18 Chapter 28 329 Jean Loupe Charmet; 334 Hulton Getty/Liaison Agency; 336 Victoria & Albert Museum, London/Art Resource, NY; 341 Corbis-Bettmann; 345 Devis, Arthur, The John Bacon Family, c.1972–3., Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection 555 e.t archive; 557 UPI/Corbis-Bettmann; 561 UPI/CorbisBettmann; 572 bildarchiv preussischer kulturbesitz Chapter 19 583 Hulton Getty/Liaison Agency; 584 UPI/Corbis-Bettmann; 588 Corbis-Bettmann; 589 Novosti Press Agency; 592 UPI/Corbis-Bettmann 354 Mary Evans Picture Library; 358 Bibliotheque Nationale de France; 361 Scala/Art Resource, NY; 365 (top) bildarchiv preussischer kulturbesitz; (bottom) Mansell/Time Inc Chapter 20 371 Scala/Art Resource, NY; 372 A F Kersting; 373 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 377 A F Kersting Chapter 21 393 Musee de la Ville de Paris, Musee Carnavalet, Paris, France/ Giraudon/Art Resource, NY; 398 Giraudon/ Art Resource, NY; 402 Hulton Getty/ Liaison Agency; 403 Mansell/Time Inc.; 413 (top and bottom) Erich Lessing/ Art Resource, NY Chapter 22 421 bildarchiv preussischer kulturbesitz ; 422 Science Museum/Science & Society Picture Library; 426 Fine Art Photographic Library, London/Art Resource, NY; 427 Illustrated London News/Mary Evans Picture Library; 434 Mary Evans Picture Library Chapter 23 437 Wellcome Institute Library, London; 438 Le Petit Journal/ Mary Evans Picture Library; 441 Jean-Loup Charmet; 448 JeanLoup Charmet; 456 Bibliotheque Nationale de France Chapter 29 Chapter 30 598 Popperfoto/Archive Photos; 603 (top and bottom) Mary Evans Picture Library; 605 (top), Courtesy of International Business Machines; (bottom) Cahiers du Cinema Chapter 31 617 e.t archive; 623 Popperfoto/Archive Photos; 626 Hulton Getty/Liaison Agency; 628 UPI/Corbis-Bettmann; 636 UPI/ Corbis-Bettmann Chapter 32 638 Sipa Press; 642, 645 UPI/Corbis-Bettmann; 647 P Aventurier/ Gamma Liaison; 652 Regis Bossu/ Sygma; 655 © 1991 Gueorgui Pinkhassov/Magnum Photos; 657 © 1996 Gilles Peress/Magnum Photos, Inc GLOSSARY ១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១១ Chapter Biological Old Regime The natural restrictions on population size and living conditions in the age before the Industrial Revolution, such as widespread undernourishment, famine, and unchecked disease Clientage A system of mutual dependency in which a powerful individual protects the interests of others in return for their political or economic support It may exist with or without legal sanction, and has long been a basic institution in many societies Polis The Greek city-state, composed in theory of those who shared a common ancestry and worshipped the same gods It was the basis of Greek life and values in the Classical Age Trireme The dominant warship of the Classical Age It was propelled by three ranks of oars supplemented by square sails, and had a metal prow for ramming opponents Tyrant A ruler who, though sometimes legitimately elected, ignored the laws and institutions of his polis and governed as a dictator Demography The statistical study of populations through data such as birth and death rates, censuses, or marriage rates Zoroastrianism A Persian religion based upon the conflict between a god of good (Ahura Mazda) and a god of evil (Ahriman) Its duallism influenced later Christian thought Extended Family A family unit containing not only the nuclear family, but other relatives (siblings, parents, etc.) living under the same roof Chapter Matrilineal Inheritance of property, and sometimes the family name, through the female line Epistemology In philosophy, the study of how human knowledge is acquired Monotheism Belief in the existence of only one god, as opposed to Polytheism, or the belief in many Hellenistic The Greek culture of the fourth through the first centuries B.C., based not on the polis, but on the great empires founded by Alexander the Great’s commanders Neolithic Revolution The transition to the “new stone age” involving the domestication of animals, the development of agriculture, and the extensive use of basketry and pottery Nuclear Family The basic family unit of mother, father, and their children Paleolithic The “old stone age” before the invention of agriculture Tools were made of stone and people lived by hunting and gathering Slave A person who is the chattel property of another and therefore without rights Debt Slavery is the practice of enslaving someone to satisfy a debt, often for a fixed period of time Chapter Democracy Rule by the people In Greek terms, this meant government by the entire body of male citizens as opposed to by a small group of wealthy aristocrats Slaves, women, and resident aliens were excluded Hoplites Armored spearmen trained to fight shoulder to shoulder in a rectangular formation that was normally eight ranks deep Pharisees A Jewish sect that demanded strict observance of the religious laws and opposed the introduction of Greek customs and ideas by their rivals, the Sadducees Platonic Idealism (Realism) Plato’s theory that ideas or forms are real and intelligible, and that they exist independently of appearances discernible to the senses Sophists Teachers of rhetoric who held that individual experience, based primarily on the senses, was the only basis for knowledge, and that all teachings were therefore relative Syllogism A form of argument, common to much of western thought, that reasons: if all A is B, and all C is A, then all C must be B Teleological Relating to the assumption that things can best be understood in relation to their end or purpose In ethics, the principle that actions must be judged in terms of the result they are intended to produce Chapter Censor The official responsible for conducting the Census which ranked each citizen’s property qualifications In later years 671 672 Glossary the censor acquired substantial authority over public morals and religious observances as well Chapter Consul The highest office in the Roman state Consuls served one-year terms and could succeed themselves only after the passage of ten years They commanded the army and, in civil matters, their edicts had the force of law Arianism The doctrine, advanced by Arius and accepted by many of the Germanic tribes, that Christ was a created being, neither fully God, nor fully man The orthodox view in both the Eastern and Western churches is that Christ is both fully God and fully man Familia In Roman Law, the entire household headed by a Paterfamilias, or father, including his nuclear family, dependent relatives, and slaves Cataphracti Armored heavy cavalry first commonly used under Diocletian They became the dominant branch of the Roman army after the battle of Adrianople in 378 Partible Inheritance The legal requirement that all property be distributed equally among an individual’s heirs It is the opposite of Nonartible Inheritance, which permits all of the property in an estate to be passed to a single heir, often the eldest son Command Economy An economic system in which the government sets wages and prices and attempts to regulate production Patricians The hereditary aristocracy of the Roman Republic Only they could hold office as magistrates or serve in the Senate Plebeians The lower class of Roman citizens They could vote and, after the so-called struggle of the orders, served in the Plebeian Assembly and were represented to the Senate by Tribunes Decurians In the late Roman empire, members of the urban elite who monopolized most city offices, but who also paid many of the costs of government Forced Requisitions The practice of confiscating food, draft animals, and other private property to support the army in a particular region Monasticism The practice of living in a secluded community under the rule of religious vows Proconsul A consul whose authority was extended for the duration of a military campaign, normally in a distant province Paganism A generic term for all those who had not been converted to Christianity It is derived from the Latin word pagani, a slang term for rustics Chapter Predestination The doctrine, advanced by Augustine, that God selects those who will be saved Double Predestination holds that God also selects those who will be damned (see also Chapter Fourteen) Pax Romana The Roman Peace A long period of peace within the empire established by Augustus It did not preclude revolts within individual provinces or conflicts with the Germanic tribes and other outsiders Latifundia Large, self-sufficient estates that dominated the economic life of the western Roman empire In the late Republic they were usually worked by slaves, who were gradually replaced by tenants (coloni) under the empire Codex A manuscript volume of pages, usually bound in leather It began to replace the scroll in the first century A.D Coloni Tenants on a Roman estate or latifundia Under the early empire coloni were normally free citizens who leased their land and returned a percentage of their yield to the estate Tetrarchy The system introduced by Diocletian under which the empire was ruled by two caesars and two augusti Chapter Epiboli The Byzantine system whereby all of the members of a community were required to pay the taxes of those unable to so Iconoclasm The belief that images should be destroyed because they are contrary to God’s commandment Shahada The Muslim profession of faith: “There is no God but God and Mohammed is his prophet.” Equestrians A new social class that emerged after the Punic Wars Most were merchants or financiers who, while rich enough to fight on horseback (hence the term “equestrian”), lacked the political privileges of the Patricians Shar’ia A way of life wholly commanded by God The religious goal of pious Muslims Imperator Originally a military title, it was adopted by Vespasian as a symbol of ultimate power The origin of the title “emperor.” Caliph The chief civil and religious ruler in Islamic society Insulae The large, tenement-like apartment houses in which most urban Romans lived Carolingian Minuscule A style of handwriting developed in the Carolingian renaissance that became the basis of most modern hands Publicani, or Publicans Tax farmers who purchased the right to levy provincial taxes at auction in return for a percentage of the funds to be raised Jihad A holy war fought against the enemies of al-Islam Allod A freehold property, normally unencumbered by feudal dues or other obligations Salic Law The law of the Salian, or “salty” Franks that became the basis of succession in the Frankish kingdoms and later in Glossary 673 France It demanded partible inheritance and in later years was said to forbid the succession of women Chapter Comitatus The Latin term for a war band bound to their chieftain by oaths of loyalty Custom of the Manor The collective record of contractual obligations within a manor, including the dues and services owed by each tenant to the lord It was usually preserved in the form of an oral tradition until the fourteenth century Fief The landed property granted to a warrior in return for his promise of military service It was sometimes called a Benefice, but this term more commonly refers to property granted for the support of a cleric Feudalism A social and economic system based upon grants of land offered in exchange for military service Homage The formal expression of loyalty offered by a vassal to his lord Private Jurisdiction The right of a vassal to establish courts of law within his fief It was normally granted by a lord as part of the feudal contract Manor An estate whose inhabitants are the legal subjects of its lord or owner In most cases, manorialism involves some form of tenancy Peasants hold land and a cottage in return for specified dues and services Subinfeudation The process by which vassals grant a portion of their fiefs to vassals of their own, thereby creating subtenants who owe homage to them rather than to the original tenant-inchief Tenement, or Tenure Property held by a peasant within the manor Vassal The party to a feudal agreement who receives a fief in return for military service Though subordinate to a lord, all vassals were by definition members of the feudal elite by vows and were expected to live by begging Collectively called Friars, they included the Dominicans and the Franciscans Nominalism The theory that universals are not real, but nomina or “names” that reflect little more than linguistic convention Romanesque A style of architecture that featured massive vaulting and round arches It generally preceeds the Gothic Scholasticism The thought of the medieval schools and universities It attempted to solve theological and philosophical problems through the application of Aristotelian logic Universals Those qualities and categories held by philosophical realists to have objective reality of their own (e.g., redness, justice, beauty, etc.) Chapter 10 Agricultural Specialization The practice of cultivating those crops for which a given estate is best suited It is the opposite of Subsistence Farming, which seeks to grow everything that the inhabitants of a farm or estate may need Commune A government of citizens and its institutions, as opposed to one controlled by a bishop or feudal lord In some medieval towns the commune at first grew in parallel with the government of the lord and then supplanted it Signorie In some Italian cities, the name of the elected council that governed the town, combining legislative and executive authority Ghetto Part of a city in which members of a minority group live as a result of social, religious, or economic discrimination Originally, the district of Venice to which Jews were confined Guild An association of craftsmen or merchants whose purpose was to guarantee quality, set prices, and provide for the general welfare of its members In some cities, citizens had to be guild members Hanse In North Germany, a league of cities formed to protect their commercial and military interests Militia The citizen-soldiers of a medieval city Chapter Dominium The theory that the church, and in particular the pope, has authority over secular rulers Gothic A style of medieval architecture characterized by pointed arches, extensive carving, and sometimes by flying buttresses Hildebrandine Reformation The movement for papal reform that grew out of the Cluniac movement, for which Hildebrand of Soana (Pope Gregory VII) has been given too much credit Investiture The process by which rank or office is bestowed In the Middle Ages, Lay Investiture meant the granting of ecclesiastical rank or authority by lay people Mendicant Orders Religious societies, the first of which were founded in the thirteenth century Their members were bound Monoculture Primary reliance on a single crop by a farm or manor The ultimate form of agricultural specialization Rentiers Townspeople who live primarily from the proceeds of rented or leased property They were an important segment of the elite in most medieval towns Vendetta A feud or private war, usually between two clientage groups or factions within a town or among the landed nobility Chapter 11 Chivalric Romance An epic, often recited in poetic or musical form by troubadours, which glorified the chivalric values of bravery, loyalty, and courtesy 674 Glossary Domus In southern Europe, an entity composed of the family (usually extended), the household, and the physical property from which both took their name Entail A legal restriction placed upon an inheritance to prevent future generations of heirs from alienating or otherwise disposing of property against the wishes of the original holder Lent The six-and-a half week period of fasting and penitence from Ash Wednesday to Easter during which Christians were supposed to refrain from eating meat Lineage The concept of a family name and family identity handed down from generation to generation More common in southern than in northern Europe, it was often based upon the domus or the possession of some other landed estate Midwife A woman trained to assist in childbirth In medieval and early modern times, university-trained physicians did not normally practice obstetrics Primogeniture Inheritance of all or most of an estate by the eldest son Tournament A contest between knights that attempted to mimic the conditions of feudal warfare in a controlled, ritualized setting Wardship The placement of orphans (and their assets) under the guardianship of an individual or of the courts In medieval and early modern times the practice was largely restricted to the wealthier classes Chapter 13 Classicism The admiration (and emulation) of the styles, aesthetics, and thought of the “classical” civilization of ancient Greece and Rome Domain Land, properties, rents, and income-producing rights that are the personal property of a ruler Domain Revenues are those derived from the domain as opposed to those derived from taxation Enclosure The process by which landowners deprived peasants of a village’s common lands and seized them for their own use Humanism The study of Greek and Roman classics with the intention of applying their teachings to life in the present Neoplatonism A philosophical school founded originally in Hellenistic Alexandria and revived during the Renaissance Its chief concern was achieve knowledge of the Platonic forms Perpetual Taxes Taxes that may be collected each year without further permission from a representative body In the medieval and early modern period, most taxes required a special and separate vote each time they were levied Pomest’e System In Muscovy, the system by which the Tsar granted land directly to cavalrymen in return for military service, thereby creating a kind of “service nobility” that was separate from the traditional boyars Serfdom A form of servitude in which tenants are regarded as the property of an estate Unlike slaves, they cannot be sold as individuals, but they lack all other rights and may be sold as part of the property on which they live Chapter 12 Bastion Trace A system of fortification based upon a series of bastions or projections connected by walls and manned by artillery Ideally, every part of a bastion trace could be covered by defending fire Bundschuh The peasant boot, bound with laces German peasants took it as symbol of social revolt during the fifteenth century, hence the term Bundschuh revolts Forest Laws Laws passed to prevent peasants from hunting, fishing, or gathering firewood in forests claimed by the lords Ghazis Muslim raiders, primarily of Turkish origin, who raided the Byzantine Empire and other Christian states They were in some respects the Muslim equivalent of crusaders Regency The period during which an individual or group of individuals is appointed to rule on behalf of a prince who is either a minor or incapacitated Soldier A warrior who receives a cash payment or solde for fighting, as opposed to one who serves in return for land or in the discharge of some non-monetary obligation Chapter 14 Anticlericalism Opposition to the influence and special privileges of the clergy or to the existence of the clergy as an organized hierarchy Conciliarism The theory that the rulings of a council of the church are superior to those of any pope, and that a council may depose an unworthy pope if necessary Mysticism The effort to achieve personal union with God through ecstatic contemplation Popular Culture The culture that springs from the interests, activities, and entertainments of the people rather than from the received traditions of the cultural elite Possessionist Controversy The dispute between Spiritual or Observant Franciscans and Conventual Franciscans over whether it was permissible for the order to hold property Transubstantiation The doctrine that the substance of the bread and wine in Communion are converted by consecration to the body and blood of Christ, though their appearance or “accidents” remains the same Glossary 675 Witchcraft In the sixteenth century, a body of practices that included magic, the casting of spells, and usually Satanism, or devil-worship Oligarchy A form of government in which power is in the hands of a relatively small group of people, usually wealthy ones Chapter 15 Chapter 17 Administrative Devolution The process by which early modern rulers assigned military and administrative functions to private contractors in an attempt to save money Corporative Society Term to describe the highly stratified social structure of Europe during the Old Regime, with the population in most countries divided into separate legal bodies (most often called estates) each with separate rights, duties, and laws Also called the Ständestaat Cuius regio, eius religio The principle that the religion of an area may be determined by its ruler Encomienda An institution in which Spanish kings placed newly converted subjects under the “protection” of a Christian lord who was supposed to defend them and see to their religious instruction in return for certain dues and payments Military Contractors Entrepreneurs who contracted to provide a fixed number of fully equipped troops, and sometimes to lead them, in return for pay Ships were often contracted on a similar basis in time of war Proprietary Colonies Overseas colonies granted to a private individual (a Captain or Lord Proprietor) whose responsibility it was to settle and defend them Puritans A party of English Protestants which demanded simplicity in church ceremonies and a high standard of moral conduct Chapter 16 Absolutism A political doctrine that asserts the unrestrained power of a monarch, who is usually considered to hold sovereignty by divine will Chartered Companies Companies of merchants chartered by the crown to conduct business in specified areas overseas (e.g The East India Company) Such companies often maintained their own armies and fleets of warships Cosmology The study of the universe as an ordered whole Experimentalism The idea, supported by Francis Bacon, Galileo, and others that experiment can determine the validity of a scientific theory, and that, conversely, theories should be experimentally verifiable Elbe-Trieste Line An imaginary diagonal line, drawn on the map of Europe between the mouth of the Elbe River on the North Sea and the town of Trieste at the head of the Adriatic Sea; used by historians as a general line separating western and eastern Europe Gentry A portion of the land-owning upper class, deemed people of “gentle” birth (gentlemen and women), holding a privileged position but not always part of the titled aristocracy (as in England) Mercantilism The predominant economic theory of the Old Regime, holding that states should seek self-sufficiency in resources and manufactured goods and thus import little; to achieve this end, the state regulated trade, granting monopolies and regulating manufactures and trade Nobility of the Robe A branch of the nobility in many countries (especially France), composed of families who had recently acquired noble status through service to the monarch, typically as judges; in contrast to the older “nobility of the sword,” ennobled for military service Old Regime Term used to describe the period before the French Revolution of 1789 – roughly the 17th and 18th centuries – and its institutional structure of monarchy, aristocracy, and state religions Triangular Trade A pattern of Old Regime commerce, following a triangle across the Atlantic Ocean: European manufactured goods were taken to Africa, slaves from Africa were shipped to the Americas, and American agricultural goods (especially sugar and tobacco) went to Europe Heliocentric Theory The theory, originally developed by such ancient thinkers as Eratosthenes and Aristarchus of Samos, that the planets revolve around the sun Revived by Copernicus in the sixteenth century it was accepted by Kepler and Galileo Chapter 18 Hermetic Tradition A body of occult literature, supposedly derived from ancient Egypt, that concerned itself with natural magic, alchemy, and related subjects Eendemic Disease A disease located only in specific regions, such as malaria, which is native to warm, swampy regions Magic A science or pseudo-science that attempts to manipulate the supposed relationships among phenomena or natural objects for the magician’s ends Columbian Exchange The reciprocal introduction of unknown plants, animals, and microorganisms into Europe and the Americas following the voyages of Columbus, such as the arrival of the first potatoes in Europe or the first sheep in the Americas Foundlings Unwanted newborn babies, abandoned by their parents at high rates during the Old Regime, sometimes in the open with the expectation of death, sometimes at churches or hospitals, with modest prospects of survival 676 Glossary Germ Theory The theory of disease transmission holding that invisible microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses spread disease Inoculation A medical procedure which intentionally introduces a mild dose of a disease, such as smallpox, into a patient to build antibodies against that disease and acquire future immunity Patriarchal Family The typical structure of families during the Old Regime, in which authority—domestic, legal, and economic authority—was vested in the husband/father and obedience was expected from the wife/children Puerperal Fever The greatest cause of death among pregnant women during the Old Regime (also known as “child-bed fever”) in which the absence of aseptic methods during delivery led to acute infections Chapter 19 Cabinet System A form of government that began to emerge in the 18th century, in which a “cabinet” of advisers to the monarch assumes responsibility for a branch of the bureaucracy, with each adviser serving as “minister” in charge of one specialty (e.g., finance) The cabinet stands collectively as “the government.” Civil Code A codified body of civil law, addressing private issues such as property law or marriage, as distinct from criminal law or constitutional law; especially found in regions who inherited their legal traditions from the Roman Empire Enlightened Despotism An interpretation of the rule of some Old Regime monarchies,suggesting that a monarch retained the absolute power of a despot yet chose to adopt some advanced reforms deemed “enlightened.” Josephinism An Austrian religious policy, similar to Gallicanism in France, in which the monarch contested the authority of the papacy over the Catholic Church in their lands, hoping to shape a national Catholicism more obedient to the throne Parlements The high courts in Old Regime France, dominated by aristocrats who owned their offices and used the courts to check the powers and policies of the king Republic A form of government without a monarch, in which sovereignty rests with the people (or some portion of them) and public business is conducted by representatives of the people, usually elected to an assembly such as a parliament or diet State Service A doctrine especially strong in Eastern Europe, by which the aristocracy accepted a duty to serve the monarch in a variety of posts, such as the officer corps and the bureaucracy, but in return received an aristocratic monopoly over such positions Ukase The Russian term for a royal decree that has the force of law without being approved by any legislative body Chapter 20 Baroque The predominant style in European arts during 17th century and early 18th century, which appealed to the emotions and spirituality through the ornately decorated and the extravagantly expressed The Enlightenment Term to describe European thought in the “Age of Reason” extending from the late 17th century to the late 18th, when philosophes stressed the need to be skeptical about all received knowledge and apply rationalism to test its validity Gallicanism Doctrine supporting French kings in creating a virtually autonomous Catholic Church in France, in which the monarch named cardinals and bishops and decided if papal decrees would apply Natural Laws Universal, immutable laws believed to exist in the natural world (such as the law of gravity), in contrast to laws promulgated by rulers Leaders of the Enlightenment believed that natural laws of human behavior existed and awaited discovery or articulation Philosophes A French term, much broader than the English equivalent (philosophers), used to identify the influential thinkers, writers, scientists, and reformers of the Enlightenment Rationalism The belief, widely held during the Enlightenment, that all knowledge should be based upon human reason and rational proof, rather than accepted on other standards, such as faith Salon A social gathering held in a private home where notable literary, artistic, and political figures discussed the issues of the day with other well-born or well-educated guests; typically organized and hosted by women who thereby played a central role in the shaping and transmission of ideas Chapter 21 Cahiers The political pamphlets produced in France in 1788– 1789 to express the grievances which the Estate General should address Continental System Napoleon’s economic plan to close European markets to the British and weaken the British economy, begun in the Berlin Decree of 1806 Coup d’état The overthrow of a government by force, such as Napoleon’s seizure of power in Brumaire (which became a synonym for a coup) 1799 Émigrés French term for people who emigrate from their homeland, especially those (such as aristocrats) who fled the French Revolution Great Fear Rural disturbances in France during the summer of 1789 in which peasants, frightened by rumors of violence against them, turned on local aristocrats and forced them to renounce their feudal rights Glossary 677 Jacobins Radical leaders of the French Revolution who drew their name from a former monastery where they met; they initially championed constitutional freedoms and a republic instead of a monarchy, but later directed the reign of terror Passive Citizens The portion of the population of France, under the Constitution of 1791, who enjoyed all civil rights of citizenship but did not pay enough taxes to qualify for the right to vote or hold office Reign of Terror The thirteen-month period of the French Revolution during 1793–1794 when radical revolutionaries held a virtual dictatorship and executed thousands of opponents of the regime, most famously 2.700 people executed on the guillotine in Paris Thermidorean Reaction The overthrow of the reign of terror, the execution of its leaders, and the establishment of a conservative republic during the summer of 1794, named for the mid-summer month in the revolutionary calendar Chapter 22 Agricultural Revolution The significant improvement of European agriculture, beginning in 18th century Britain, where more intensive and extensive use of the soil sharply improved the food supply, sustaining population growth Cottage Industry A traditional form of handcraft manufacture of textiles in rural regions during the Old Regime; spinning and weaving were done by individuals in their homes, typically with raw materials provided by a middleman who bought the finished cloth and marketed it Enclosure The process of enclosing open fields of farm land, often shared for common use, within walls or fences and assigning them to a single owner, especially in Britain, 1700– 1850; the change led to greater agricultural production, but to the failure of many small farmers Vital Revolution A major demographic shift in which the death rate declined sharply and life expectancy steadily increased, due to the steady improvement of diet and the gradual conquest of contagious disease Zollverein Prussian-led customs union linking states of northern Germany in the early 19th century which promoted free trade, stimulating economic development and enhancing the Prussian position in Germany Chapter 23 Adulterated Food A widespread scandal of the unregulated economy of the 19th century, in which many foods were mixed with cheap extenders in order to increase profits, such as putting powdered clay in cocoa Antisepsis A medical term, coined after acceptance of the germ theory of disease transmission, to describe conditions in which the growth and multiplication of microorganisms has been inhibited; initially achieved by Joseph Lister’s use of a carbolic acid mist Cholera An acute diarrheal disease caused by microorganisms usually transmitted through contaminated drinking water which was the most persistent epidemic disease of 19th century Europe Double Standard A widespread Victorian attitude about human sexuality, imbedded in the law as well as in middle class standards, in which different sexual behavior was expected of (and allowed to) men and of women Laudanum The Latin name (“highly praised”) for a tincture of opium dissolved in alcohol, which was an unregulated and a very widely consumed pain killer until the drug laws of the 20th century Neo-Malthusians Reformers who advocated birth control and education about it as a means of curbing the population explosion, improving the life of women, and easing the economic burden on poor families Family Wage Economy Economists’ term to describe the relationship of working families to the economy during industrialization; low wages dictated that all members of a family work at wage-paying jobs away from home and pool their earnings Vaccination A form of inoculation against smallpox developed by Edward Jenner in 1796, in which people were administered a small amount of cowpox virus which conferred immunity to smallpox Widespread use of the technique gradually led to the elimination of smallpox Industrial Revolution General term for the transformation of an economy from a predominantly rural and agricultural base to a predominantly urban and industrial-manufacturing base; specific term for the first such transformation, which occurred in Britain c 1750–1850 Victorianism A term used to imply a stereotype of 19th century prudery and repressiveness about human sexuality Laissez-faire Capitalism The economic doctrine advocated by manufacturers and industrialists, especially in Britain, during the industrial revolution; it held that governments should not regulate the economy, but leave individuals free to act as they saw best Congress System The system of regular meetings of leaders of the great powers following the Congress of Vienna, in an effort to cooperate in maintaining the international order established at Vienna Take-off Phase Economists’ term for the period when a nascent industrial economy begins to expand rapidly, leading to an industrial society Corn Laws British laws regulating, through high tariffs, the importation of corn (grain) into Britain, in order to protect the interests of land owners Chapter 24 678 Glossary Feminism The modern name for the 19th-century doctrine and movement for the equal rights of women; the doctrine sought integral equality, but initially stressed economic, educational, legal, and political rights Deference The central concept in many interpretations of Victorian Britain: that the mass of the population recognized the superior position of the upper classes and deferred to their leadership Habeas Corpus The traditional Latin words (“you shall have the body”) at the start of a writ; the right of habeas corpus is the right of a citizen to obtain such a writ as protection against illegal imprisonment Intelligentsia Intellectuals from many different fields who collectively form an elite, and sometimes act as the vanguard of artistic, political, or social movements Legitimacy The doctrine stated by the victorious allies of 1814–15 for the restoration of the old order in Europe after Napoleon’s conquests; it asserted that every region had a “legitimate” ruler who should be restored to the throne, such as Bourbon restoration in France Liberalism The name coined in the early 19th century for the political and economic doctrine that emphasized individual freedoms (such as free speech in politics and free trade in economics) and opposed state restrictions of such liberties; sometimes called “classical liberalism” to distinguish it from later versions of liberalism Nationalism The political doctrine developed in the 19th century to assert the collective rights of a nation, which was understood to be defined by a shared language, culture, history or religion; the doctrine initially sought the independence and the unity of a nation Romanticism The European cultural reaction to the neoclassicism of the 18th century—a rejection of strict artistic rules and an artistic rediscovery of feelings, emotions, and the spirit in contrast to strict reason Socialism A group of political and economic doctrines that stressed the creation of social and economic equality; 19th century varieties included Christian, democratic, revolutionary, and utopian doctrines Chapter 25 Anarchism A political theory asserting that all forms of government are unnecessary and should be abolished, to be replaced by a society based on cooperation and free association Barricades A characteristic feature of urban riots and revolutions, especially in France; residents of a district close streets by building mounds of overturned vehicles, furniture from nearby buildings, and trees, defying the government to attack them Class Struggle A central theory of Marxism, in which inevitable conflict between social classes (such as the property owning bourgeoisie and the laboring proletariat) explains great historical changes Combination Acts A type of legislation (association laws in many countries) by which governments limited the right of citizens to combine (or associate) in groups, such as clubs, political parties, or trade unions; governments required authorization for such groups, declaring some illegal Marxism A radical form of socialism propounded by Karl Marx, encompassing a broad social, economic, and political critique of capitalist society and advocating a workers’ revolution to seize power and institute dramatic reforms such as the abolition of private property Realpolitik German term meaning “a policy of realism,” used to describe political policies developed on pragmatic or opportunistic grounds rather than being defined by ideology or a predetermined program Chapter 26 Bolshevik(s) Russian word meaning “member of the majority,” appropriated by Lenin in 1903 to identify his supporters within the Russian social democratic party, although they were actually a minority; later used as a synonym for Communist Commune The smallest territorial division in the administrative structure of France, roughly equivalent to a town; the term has been borrowed to describe famous municipal governments, notably the radical Paris Commune of 1871 Home Rule The political doctrine holding that the citizens of a region (or country, or colony) should be allowed to govern themselves, especially in local matters; often used specifically for the campaign (c 1870–1914) for the devolution of the government of Ireland Impressionism Avant-garde style of painting originating in France in 1860s–1880s that sought to represent the overall visual impression that a subject made rather than to create a detailed reproduction of the subject Papal Infallibility The Roman Catholic doctrine, promulgated by the Vatican Council of 1869–1870, that the pope infallibly expresses the will of God, when he speaks (1) “ex cathedra” (from the throne of St Peter’s) and (2) on matters of faith and morals Pogrom Russian term for an organized, officially tolerated, attack upon members of a minority; especially attacks on Jewish communities Second Industrial Revolution A stage in the industrialization of the western civilization, reached by the most advanced states (such as Britain and Germany) in the late 19th century, when steel began to replace iron at the center of heavy industry, electricity to replace steam as a power source, and the chemical industry challenged the preeminence of textiles Social Darwinism A nineteenth social theory which used a crude version of Darwin’s principle of natural selection (usually Glossary 679 called “survival of the fittest”) to justify the dominance of some social groups, supporting such ideas as the class system and doctrines of racial superiority by a slump in production, high unemployment, and declining prices Suffragists Advocates of women’s rights who focused on political rights, especially an equal right of women to vote and hold public office; the most militant in tactics were sometimes called suffragettes Fascism A nationalist and militarist political doctrine rejecting both the liberal-democratic tradition of representative government and socialist or communist alternatives to it, in favor of an authoritarian (or totalitarian) government controlled by a strong leader, a single party, and strong police, unrestrained by constitutional laws or bills of rights Chapter 27 Gulag Russian acronym for concentration camps (“labor camps”) created by the Soviet regime, administered by the secret police Dictatorship of the Proletariat Marxist-Leninist term for the phase of the class struggle following the defeat by the bourgeoisie by the proletariat; the dictatorship is seen as an inevitable but temporary stage, giving way to a classless society Eastern Question Name used in the 19th and early 20th centuries to refer to the dangerous weakness of the Ottoman Empire and the many rivalries to acquire Ottoman territory, especially in the Balkans Entente A French word used in the language of diplomacy to describe a close understanding between two governments, a closer relationship than detente (a relaxation of conflict) but not as close as an alliance; most famously used to describe the AngloFrench understanding of 1904 Ersatz Food German term to describe substitute foods developed to replace those that are too expensive (eg, margarine to replace butter), unhealthy (eg, saccharin to replace sugar), or unavailable (eg, chickory to replace coffee during World War One) Home Front Term for the civilian population behind the military lines (the front) during wartime, especially the two world wars; used to explore the civilian condition and role during wartime, such as the role of women in war production or the suffering of non-combattants Satyagraba The sanskrit word used by Ghandi to describe his policy of nonviolent resistance to European imperialism Soviet Russian word meaning “council,” used to describe the revolutionary groups of soldiers and workers who wished to direct their own affairs Trench Warfare The form of fighting that characterized most of World War One on the western front Armies on both sides dug long, narrow trenches as defensive positions from which to fight and fortified them with barbed wire and machine-gun emplacements, making attacks very costly Chapter 28 Collectivization Communist economic policy in which the ownership of the land and the means of production and distribution are transferred from individual to collective (state) ownership Depression Economic term for a period of severe and prolonged decline in economic activity, typically characterized Kulaks Russian term for the land-owning peasants eliminated by the collectivization of agriculture Lost Generation Term originally used in post-World War One Europe by Gertrude Stein to describe the young generation that had experienced the devastation of the war and consequently showed emotional, cultural, and political instability afterwards Popular Front A coalition of political parties of the left and left-center, such as the governments of France and Spain in 1936 which united democrats, socialists, and communists Reparations Postwar compensation demanded of defeated states by the victors in order to repair damage done by a war or recover its costs, as distinguished from indemnity payments which punish a defeated state for the conflict whatever the damages Surrealism An early 20th century trend in western art and literature which sought to replace rational imagery by expressing the subconscious mind in seemingly irrational juxtapositions of images Chapter 29 Aryans The peoples of south Asia who spoke the parent language of the Indo-European family of languages and descendant peoples; term converted in Nazi propaganda to mean non-Jewish Caucasians Blitzkrieg German military term (“lightning war”) for a rapid and powerful offensive campaign intended to produce an equally rapid victory; especially, the Nazi offensives in the early phases of World War Two Crimes against Humanity Category of crimes of total war against civilian populations, including extermination, enslavement, and other inhumane acts; one of the categories of international crimes established by the Nuremberg Tribunal Genocide The deliberate and systematic murder, or attempted murder, of all members of a perceived genus, such as all members of a race, religion, or nation; especially the Nazi attempt to exterminate all the Jews of Europe in the Holocaust Home Front The civilian region of a country at war, behind the lines of combat Isolationism The diplomatic policy of a powerful state (as opposed to small neutral states) not to participate in major 680 Glossary international events, organizations, and especially commitments such as alliances; often used to refer to the policy of Britain in the 1880s–90s or the US in the 1920s–30s Nuclear Fission Term in physics for splitting the nucleus of heavy atoms (such as uranium atoms) into two nuclei, thereby releasing great amounts of energy; the scientific principle behind the atomic bomb Chapter 31 Cold War The global conflict between the United States and its western allies in NATO and the Soviet Union and its communist allies in the period between World War Two and the collapse of the Soviet system, 1945–1989; characterized by constant war-readiness but not combat Sphere of Influence Term in diplomacy for the claim of a strong state to exercise significant authority in a weaker region without fully annexing it; used to describe claims in 19th century imperialism and the cold war Containment The policy adopted by the United States and its western allies of blocking the spread of communism by confronting it in every region where it seemed to be spreading from communist states; stated in the Truman Doctrine and first applied to conflict in Greece and Turkey Total War A war in which all of a society’s resources are dedicated to war, all possible weapons developed and used, all possible personnel conscripted and used, all parts of enemy territory become part of the war zone, and all behavioral scruples may be abandoned Decolonization The breakup of European colonial empires and the granting (or winning) of independence to colonized countries around the world, following World War Two, 1945–1975 Chapter 30 Baby Boom The dramatic upswing in the birth rate in the western world during the generation following World War II Deindustrialization One of the major trends of post-1945 European economic history, in which heavy industry and manufacturing account for a steadily smaller percentage of the economy Economic Miracle Term for the dramatic European economic recovery after World War Two, especially the German recovery known as the Wirtschaftswunder Guest Workers Term for the immigrant labor force in some European countries (especially Germany), where they are not citizens and have no rights as citizens or as immigrants Mixed Economy A national economy, especially in Europe during the Cold War, which combines elements of capitalism with elements of state-planned economies, such as French dirigisme Participation Rate Measurement used by economists to study what segments of the population are employed in the economy; used especially to evaluate the role of the youth or the aged, the comparative role of men and women, and the effects of policies such as retirement of workers Service Economy A “tertiary sector” in the economic analysis of modern economies, comprised of those occupations not engaged in agriculture or industry, a sector in which workers provide a service instead of a product; including occupations such as teachers, bankers, journalists, and civil servants Urbanization The growth of towns and cities, and the evolution of an urban-centered civilization; in Europe, a centuries old pattern of the shift of wealth, population, political power, and cultural focus to the cities which accelerated rapidly in the 19th century Détente French term (literally, relaxation or an easing) used in the language of diplomacy to describe improving relations between rivals after a period of conflict; specifically applied to the easing of the Cold War beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s Iron Curtain Image created by Winston Churchill in a 1946 speech to portray the division of Europe into a democratic west and a communist east, separated by impenetrable barrier maintained by the Red Army Nationalization An economic policy in states with socialist and mixed economies, in which some sectors of the economy (such as railroads and airlines) are acquired by the state and operated in the public interest rather than for private profit Planned Economy An economy in which the government develops a plan to sponsor growth and development (by regulations or benefits) instead of an unregulated free economy; includes early-modern mercantilist economies, war-time managed economies, communist economies, and mixed economies Welfare State A country with, or a policy of, state-provided social services and benefits (especially for the poorest citizens), such as free medical care, free public education, unemployment and accident insurance, paid vacations and retirement pensions Chapter 32 Destalinization A policy of admitting the “crimes of the Stalin era” in communist states, such as the secret police terror and the gulag system, and attempting some degree of liberalization of the totalitarian regime; begun by Khrushchev in 1956, culminating in Gorbachev’s reforms Ethnic Cleansing Violent policy of converting an ethnicallymixed region into one with a homogeneous population by any means necessary, including the terrorizing of civilian populations by planned mass rapes, forced expulsion of people from their homes, or massacres; specifically used in Yugoslav wars of 1990s, chiefly by Serbians in Bosnia Glossary 681 Euro The international currency adopted by the European Union to replace local currencies such as the German mark and the French franc and thereby increase European economic efficiency across borders Perestroika Russian word meaning “restructuring,” used by Gorbachev to describe the political and economic reforms that he proposed to introduce into the USSR to create more democracy and efficiency Glasnost Russian word meaning “openness,” used by Gorbachev to describe the freer cultural and political society he proposed to build in the USSR; linked to the policy of perestroika Privatization An economic policy of selling state-owned enterprises and returning them to the privately owned sector of the economy; the opposite (and the undoing) of nationalization Monetarism Economic theory that holds that increases in the supply of money in circulation leads to inflation; revived by conservative economists in the late 20th century as a component of laissez-faire capitalism Value Added Tax A form of indirect taxation (also called VAT), hidden in the cost of goods and services in Europe by adding a portion of the tax at each stage of production and distribution; the largest source of government revenue in some countries ... is the multitude of your sacrifices? says the LORD I have had enough of burnt offerings of rams and the fat of fed beasts; I not delight in the blood of bulls, or of lambs, or of he-goats When... domestication of animals and the invention of agriculture marked one of the great turning points in human history Several species of edible grasses are native to the upper reaches of the Tigris... of ro-fowl, in the place where Re sails with rowing I am the keeper of the halyard of the boat of the god; I am the oarsman who does not weary in the barque of Re I know those two sycamores of