Transport of Information-Carriers in Semiconductors and Nanodevices Muhammad El-Saba Ain-Shams University, Egypt A volume in the Advances in Computer and Electrical Engineering (ACEE) Book Series Published in the United States of America by IGI Global Engineering Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: cust@igi-global.com Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2017 by IGI Global All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: El-Saba, Muhammad, 1960- author Title: Transport of information-carriers in semiconductors & nanodevices / by Muhammad El-Saba Description: Hershey, PA : Engineering SCience Reference, 2017 | Includes bibliographical references Identifiers: LCCN 2016057816| ISBN 9781522523123 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781522523130 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Electron transport | Photon transport theory | Semiconductors Transport properties Classification: LCC QC611.6.E45 E423 2017 | DDC 621.3815/2 dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc gov/2016057816 This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Computer and Electrical Engineering (ACEE) (ISSN: 2327-039X; eISSN: 2327-0403) British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher For electronic access to this publication, please contact: eresources@igi-global.com. 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cust@igi-global.com • www.igi-global.com Table of Contents Preface vii Chapter Introduction to Information-Carriers and Transport Models Chapter Semiclassical Transport Theory of Charge Carriers, Part I: Microscopic Approaches 72 Chapter Semiclassical Transport Theory of Charge Carriers, Part II: Macroscopic Approaches 138 Chapter Quantum Transport Theory of Charge Carriers 188 Chapter Carrier Transport in Low-Dimensional Semiconductors (LDSs) 274 Chapter Carrier Transport in Nanotubes and Nanowires 334 Chapter Phonon Transport and Heat Flow 379 Chapter Photon Transport 450 Chapter Electronic Spin Transport 530   Chapter 10 Plasmons, Polarons, and Polaritons Transport 587 Chapter 11 Carrier Transport in Organic Semiconductors and Insulators 617 Index 676 vii Preface During the last decade, rapid development of electronics has produced new high-speed devices at nanoscale dimensions These nanodevices have tremendous applications in modern communication systems and computers This book, Transport of Information-Carriers in Semiconductors and Nanodevices, is intended to be the first in a series of volumes titled Semiconductor Nanodevices: Physics, Modeling, and Simulation Techniques The main purpose of this course is to develop an appreciation and a deep understanding for the conceptual foundations underlying the operation of emerging nanoelectronic devices I’ve decided to dedicate the first volume to talk about transport modelling, which can serve both academicians and professionals The next book will cover the Modeling and Simulation Techniques, and will be rather dedicated for professionals and postgraduate students in device simulation The third book is about Physics and Operation of Modern Nanodevices However, for the matter of completeness in each book, I squeeze other volumes in a single chapter or as illustrative case studies In this book, we study the transport models of information carriers (e.g., electrons and photons) in semiconductors and nanodevices It contains a comprehensive discussion about carrier transport phenomena and includes some topics not previously assembled, altogether, in a single book I mean by information carriers, the particles or particle characteristics that carry and transport signals in semiconductor materials and solid-state devices For instance, the electronic charge in conventional semiconductor devices, the electronic spin in spintronic devices and photons in optoelectronic devices In fact, the characteristic of any particle may be utilized for information transport For example, a quantum bit (or qubit) of information can be manipulated and encoded in any of several degrees of freedom, notably the photon polarization In addition, other quasi particles, such as phonons (lattice vibration waves) may be considered as information carriers, because they are capable of transporting thermal energy from point to another in solid-state devices In fact, some or all of these information carriers may interact in the same device Indeed, electrons and phonons interact in all semiconductors devices They also intervene, together with photons in photonic devices, like laser diodes In the so-called spin light emitting diode (spin LED), the electron spin plays a basic role with all the aforementioned types of information carriers The main subject of this book is, therefore, focused around the transport equations, which govern the transport of information carriers These transport equations form the physical device models of all semiconductor devices, including the emerging nanodevices The TCAD (Technology Computer-Aided Design) tools make use of these transport models to simulate the behavior of solid-state devices and circuits, in terms of the device structure and external boundary conditions of bias voltage or current  Preface The utilization of TCAD tools is essential because they accelerate the R&D cycle and nowadays, they become essential more than ever In fact, the device simulation has three main purposes; to understand the underlying physics of a device, to depict the device characteristics and to predict the behavior of new devices Actually, the advent of new nanodevices has been an everyday occurrence For example, some versions of the 6th generation of Intel Core processors, is manufactured using a 14nm process Projecting the advance of semiconductor industry for the next few years, we expect to see nanodevices approaching the size of a few atoms (1nm) The devices at such nanoscale display special quantum properties which are completely different from the case of bulk systems Therefore, the availability of powerful transport models, which account for the underlying quantum effects, is very important for the simulation of such nanodevices Everybody working in the field of modeling and simulation of state-of-the-art devices feels that current TCAD tools should be pushed beyond their present limits Almost all scientists in the field of semiconductors, agrees that a rigorous study of carrier transport in nanodevices needs a many-body quantum description Such a description requires the solution of a huge number of equations describing each carrier of the system Actually, the description of transport in a real device should include the real number of carriers in both the device and its contacts to the external world, and this is beyond the ability of typical computing platforms Therefore, many levels of approximation that sacrifice some vital information about the physics of transport process are necessary The figure below illustrates the hierarchy of main transport approaches, which are used in describing carrier transport in semiconductors and nanodevices Many authors distinguish between three classes of transport models, namely; • • • Quantum models, Kinetic models, and Macroscopic (fluid dynamics) models The quantum approach lies at the top level of transport theories, for many-body problems To treat quantum problems, a mean-field (e.g., the Hartee-Fock potential) approximation is usually adopted to Figure ­ viii Preface transform the many-body system into one-electron problem The Non-equilibrium Green function (NEGF) method is very popular as a quantum approaches Above this are quantum kinetic approaches such as the Liouville-von Neumann equation of motion for the density matrix, or Wigner distribution that contain quantum correlations but retain the form of semiclassical approaches When we move from quantum to classical description of carrier transport, information concerning the phase of the electron and its nonlocal behavior are lost, and electronic transport is treated in terms of a localized particle framework The semiclassical transport theory is based on the Boltzmann transport equation (BTE), which represents a kinetic equation describing the time evolution of the distribution function of particle The BTE has been the primary framework for describing transport in semiconductors and semiconductor devices with micro-scale dimensions There are then approximations to the BTE, given by moment expansions of the BTE which lead to the hydrodynamic, the drift-diffusion, and relaxation time approximation approaches to transport Finally, the so-called compact models come at an empirical level as circuit models for circuit simulation This book consists of 11 chapters, which are organized as follows Chapter 1: Introduction to Information-Carriers and Transport Models Chapter 2: Semiclassical Transport Theory of Charge Carriers (Part I: Microscopic Approaches) Chapter 3: Semiclassical Transport Theory of Charge Carriers (Part II: Macroscopic Approaches) Chapter 4: Quantum Transport Theory of Charge Carriers Chapter 5: Carrier Transport in LDS and Nanostructures Chapter 6: Carrier Transport in Nanotubes and Nanowires Chapter 7: Phonon Transport and Heat Flow Chapter 8: Photon Transport Chapter 9: Spin Transport and Spintronic Devices Chapter 10: Polarons, Plasamons, and Polaritons Transport Chapter 11: Carrier Transport in Organic Semiconductors and Insulators Figure ­ ix  Carrier Transport in Organic Semiconductors and Insulators Figure 45 Hole concentration distribution and Current flow lines in the OFET After Kymissis, Dimitrakopoulos & Purushothaman (2001) Figure 46 A molecular device of OPV rings, between gold contacts via sulfur atoms 663  Carrier Transport in Organic Semiconductors and Insulators The device is composed of a five oligopolyvinylene (OPV) chains anchored to metallic (gold) contacts The contact between the molecule and the Au electrodes is established by covalent S-Au bonds, which is often done experimentally The electronic transport characteristics of the OPV molecules are governed by the available electronic states in the molecular chain These states can be described by the local density of states (LDOS), which represents the equilibrium density of states in the molecular device broken down into the contributions of single atoms or ensembles of atoms in the structure Using an appropriate many simulation tool, we can calculate the LDOS of each atom by projecting the density of states of the total structure on the molecular orbitals of this atom There are so many simulation tools that perform the band structure calculation and conductance modeling of molecular devices Among these tools, one can cite: TURBOMOLE (Ahlrichs et al, 1989), SIESTA (Ordejón et al, 1996), NEMO (Klimeck et al, 2008) and NextNano (Hackenbuchner, 2002; Andlauer, 2009) SIESTA is based on the DFT method and has been extended to compute the molecular conductance via Green’s functions in another package called: TranSIESTA (Brandbyge et al, 2002) The so-called NEMO simulator can calculate the atomic structure from semi-empirical TB model and makes use of the NEGF to calculate the terminal current Also, Nextnano is a famous quantum simulator that analyzes the physical properties of semiconductor nanostructures, for virtually any geometry and combination of materials The combination DFT-NEGF has been utilized by many authors to simulate the behavior of molecular wires, (Stokbro, 2008) The advantage of the DFT-NEGF approach is that it can include the interaction effects between electrons with phonons and photons, which are important in phononic and photonic devices Figure 47 shows the LDOS for OPVs wires of different lengths, according to Schuster et al., (2008) The broadening of the molecular levels (with respect to the sharp peaks of isolated molecules) is a result of the covalent bond between the molecular device and the contacts or the adjacent sulfur atoms The charge density and terminal current can be calculated from the local density of states (LDOS), by a variety of methods, such as the CBR (Briner, 2011) Figure 47 Local DOS of four unfunctionalized OPV molecules The Fermi level (Ef) of the gold contacts at equilibrium is shown After Schuster et al., (2008) 664  Carrier Transport in Organic Semiconductors and Insulators The Figure 48 shows the I–V characteristics of OPV chains with different lengths (OPV5–OPV8) All chains display higher currents in the resonance regime as opposed to the tunneling mechanism The threshold voltage does not change (about 1.7V) as the transmission gap of all wires is almost constant However, the current decreases with wire length The observed shift of the transmission peaks is also due linear potential drop on the chain 11 SUMMARY The term organic semiconductors is used to describe organic materials which possess the ability of conducting electric current In fact, it was shown that certain organic materials (plastics) can conduct electricity Organic materials are well-suited to certain electronics applications due to their low cost, low weight, and flexibility, but are less desirable for other applications due to poor conduction of electricity and heat In order for organic semiconductors to be widely spread in electronic devices, the mobility of charge carriers should be improved Compared to inorganic semiconductors (like Si), the carrier mobility in organic semiconductors is very low, the highest value on the order of cm2/V⋅s The improvement of the conduction properties requires more advanced models of charge transport in disordered organic semiconductors Organic semiconductors can be broadly classified into two groups on the basis of their molecular weight: conjugated polycyclic compounds of molecular weight less than 1000, and heterocyclic polymers with molecular weight greater than 1000 Polymers are useful materials for semiconductors because of the ease with which they form thin films with large surface area In organic semiconductors the molecules are held together by weak van der Waals bonds (π-bonding) The properties of organic semiconductors have much in common with amorphous materials Some organic semiconductor crystals, such as polyacenes and fullerenes, have attractive characteristics for Figure 48 I-V characteristics of the OPV molecular device After Schuster et al., (2008) 665  Carrier Transport in Organic Semiconductors and Insulators electronic and optoelectronic devices For instance, pentacene has the smallest bandgap among the linear polyacenes, and the highest effective mobility in polycrystalline organic thin film FETs, with μ= 0.3-1.5 cm2/V.s This value is comparable to that of amorphous Si The organic semiconductors have, therefore, very poor mobility at room temperature However, the mobility of such materials is improved at low temperature and may even show superconductivity Charge transport in organic semiconductors occurs through hopping Charges hop between localized sites that are disordered in position and energy The charges are called polarons and can interact and form e–h pairs, excitons and bipolarons The current in a typical organic device is limited by space charge, resulting in typical J(V) characteristics The transport modeling of charge carriers across organic semiconductors is sometimes treated in much the same way as insulators The DC conductivity of organic semiconductors has the form: σ = σo exp (-ΔE/kB T) where ΔE is the activation energy and σo is the conductivity at high temperature, due to localized states The role of disorder, that is inevitably present in organic semiconductors, is not completely understood In fact, charge carriers in organic semiconductors are spatially localized due to several reasons Any mechanism that can destroy the periodicity of lattice field V(r) to the level of critical randomness over a certain interval can cause Anderson localization For example, a large concentration of crystal imperfections (e.g., impurities, grain boundaries, dangling bonds) destroys the periodicity of a crystal For a localized carrier, external energy is needed to escape the localized state A theoretical description for the charge carrier tunneling process is hopping transport Many traditional hopping transport models have been developed when organic semiconductors being studied were primarily amorphous, and the assumption of strong localization fit the experimental data However, this assumption of strong localization has failed recently in several organic semiconductors with high crystallinity, and the nature of carrier localization in these crystalline organic semiconductors is now under academic debate Nevertheless, one can argue the nature of carrier localization in crystalline organic semiconductors as follows The thermal energy at room temperature is comparable to the weak van der Waals bonding energy, and therefore a dynamic disorder can exist in an organic semiconductor, regardless of its crystallinity, which causes Anderson localization In conclusion, our understanding of the charge transport mechanism of organic materials is at a rudimentary phase, very similar to the phase of “cat’s whisker diode” in semiconductor research Apparently we have some understanding of the macroscopic transport process of charge carriers in disordered organic solids However, 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two vibrational wavefunctions overlap more significantly The Arrhenius equation is a formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates k = A exp(Ea/kBT) This relation, which is also known as Einstein–Sutherland-Smoluchowski relation, is actually an early example of a fluctuation-dissipation relation According to Ishi et al, (2004), the band bending used in metal-inorganic semiconductor interfaces is still valid for doped organic semiconductors (OSC) although much thicker films are often necessary to achieve bulk Fermi level alignment However, for thin OSC layers the situation is different 1− This formula was originally developed for AC conductivity, where ω is the applied field frequency 675 676 Index B band structure 3, 8, 14-15, 33, 42, 51-52, 80, 93, 97, 100, 113, 117-118, 120, 142, 144-145, 153, 158, 161, 163, 166, 189-190, 204-205, 208, 235, 240241, 243-246, 253-256, 260, 284, 306-307, 309, 326, 340, 342-343, 345, 347-348, 350, 353-354, 357, 367, 371, 406, 425, 430, 450, 484, 534, 539, 542, 544-545, 550, 564-565, 570, 572, 618-620, 624, 629, 635, 662, 664 Boltzmann equation 75, 79, 129, 208, 219, 221, 223, 233, 259, 355, 404-406, 410-411, 492, 548 Boltzmann transport equation 3, 7, 73-74, 76, 101, 122, 128, 138-139, 175, 189, 205, 258, 285, 349, 400-402, 478, 491, 553, 590, 635 BTE 3, 7, 73-77, 96, 100-101, 103-104, 106-107, 113-115, 117-118, 120-122, 124-126, 128-130, 138-141, 148-149, 151, 158, 170, 172-173, 175, 177-178, 188, 190, 204-205, 207-209, 218, 238, 257, 284, 289, 349, 354-355, 372, 380, 400-406, 408-410, 412, 434-435, 438-439, 491, 553-554, 578, 590, 635 C carbon nanotubes 240, 312, 334-336, 339-340, 342, 344-345, 349-350, 354, 357, 359, 361, 370, 425, 438, 483, 570, 597 D dielectric function 66, 474, 511, 588-591, 594-595, 604-605, 608, 612 distribution function 7, 11, 13, 24, 72-77, 79, 87, 94, 97, 101, 103-108, 113-117, 120, 122-123, 126-129, 140, 143, 145, 149, 151, 154, 157-160, 166, 170-171, 189, 201, 204, 206-208, 227-228, 258-259, 280, 289, 293-294, 311-312, 355, 401, 403-404, 406-407, 409-410, 479, 491, 548, 552,   578, 626, 629, 644, 657 drift-diffusion model (DDM) 2, 7, 40, 64, 111, 118, 126, 144, 174, 556, 659 F free path 7, 29, 50, 72, 107-108, 111, 158, 160-166, 334, 347, 350, 372, 379, 390, 393, 396-398, 411412, 423, 425, 439, 493, 596 H heat conduction 5, 110, 382, 388, 390-391, 395-397, 399-400, 412, 414, 420-422, 430, 433-435, 438 L low frequencies 594, 610 M Maxwell equations 451, 478, 497, 514 molecular dynamics 97, 253-254, 380, 412, 414, 427429, 435, 439, 648 momentum 6, 56, 64, 72-73, 75, 78-79, 97-98, 129, 140-141, 143-144, 148, 150-152, 156, 167, 191192, 203, 206, 211, 285, 311-312, 322-323, 341, 343, 384-385, 390-392, 397, 400-403, 409-410, 415-416, 461, 464, 467, 486, 488, 518, 530-531, 533, 535, 539-541, 544, 550-551, 557-558, 578, 600-602, 608, 657 Monte Carlo 2, 38, 64, 94, 103, 105, 117-118, 120121, 124, 129, 138-139, 145-146, 148, 152, 177, 190, 205, 209-210, 215, 260, 406-407, 434, 439, 494-496, 521, 548, 557-558, 569, 602-603, 641, 643, 646-648 Monte Carlo simulation 64, 117, 120, 139, 145, 148, 152, 210, 494, 557-558, 569, 602-603 Mott–Gurney law 631, 653 Index N nonequilibrium Green’s functions (NEGF) 349, 451, 488, 521, 635 O optoelectronic device 521 organic semiconductors 566, 568, 598, 617-621, 630-635, 638, 641, 643-648, 650-655, 657-659, 665-666 P photonic devices 4, 450-453, 478, 482, 488, 497, 505, 510, 521, 566, 609, 664 Q quantum dot 275-277, 317-324, 327, 541 quasi-one-dimensional (Q1D) 277, 311, 334, 363 S semiclassical 2-3, 6-7, 52, 72-73, 75-76, 78, 100, 118, 127-128, 138-139, 165, 175, 178, 190, 194, 204-205, 208-209, 211-213, 231, 233, 285-286, 288-289, 296, 349, 354-355, 372, 380, 399-401, 403-404, 411-412, 414, 428, 433, 439, 460, 478480, 482, 491, 507-509, 521, 532, 548-549, 554, 578, 620, 635, 638, 643, 662 silicon-on-insulator (SOI) 172, 400, 421, 433 spin transport 354, 530-532, 546, 548-549, 553-554, 556-558, 567, 570-572, 575, 578 spintronic devices 1, 4, 531-532, 537, 539, 551, 558560, 564, 566, 571, 576-577 T thermal conductivity 30, 40-43, 46, 53, 66, 110, 127, 149, 190, 380, 390, 393-394, 396-400, 406, 411414, 420-430, 432-433, 435-436, 438-439, 505 transport models 1-3, 6-8, 65, 139, 144, 188-190, 233, 237, 257, 334, 380, 395, 401, 403, 409, 434, 439, 450, 478-479, 486, 497, 521, 548, 554, 587, 617, 620-621, 634, 637, 640, 645, 662, 666 W wave vector 56, 73, 75-76, 78, 84, 88, 98, 115, 119, 124, 126, 140, 192, 236, 289, 384-385, 401, 407, 453, 457, 484, 498, 553, 608, 610 677 ... students will  Introduction to Information- Carriers and Transport Models • • • • • • Understand the concept of transport modeling and information carriers in semiconductors and nanodevices Be... understanding the transport mechanisms of such information carriers in semiconductors and nanostructures The transport theory of information carriers forms the basis of any physical device model The transport. . .Transport of Information- Carriers in Semiconductors and Nanodevices Muhammad El-Saba Ain-Shams University, Egypt A volume in the Advances in Computer and Electrical Engineering (ACEE)