Chemical engineering design principles, practice and economics of plant and process design 2nd ed g towler, r sinnott (BH, 2013)

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Chemical engineering design   principles, practice and economics of plant and process design 2nd ed   g  towler, r  sinnott (BH, 2013)

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Chemical Engineering Design Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design Second Edition Gavin Towler Ray Sinnott AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA © 2013 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein) Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Towler, Gavin P Chemical engineering design : principles, practice, and economics of plant and process design / Gavin Towler, Ray Sinnott2nd ed p cm ISBN 978-0-08-096659-5 (hardback) Chemical engineering I Sinnott, R K II Title TP155.T69 2012 660.068'5–dc23 2011044962 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at www.elsevierdirect.com Typeset by: diacriTech, Chennai, India Printed in the United States of America 12 13 14 15 10 Contents Preface to the Second Edition xi How to Use This Book xiii Acknowledgments xv PART PROCESS DESIGN CHAPTER Introduction to Design 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Introduction Nature of Design The Organization of a Chemical Engineering Project Project Documentation 12 Codes and Standards 18 Design Factors (Design Margins) 20 Systems of Units 20 Product Design 22 References 31 Nomenclature 31 Problems 31 CHAPTER Process Flowsheet Development 33 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Introduction 33 Flowsheet Presentation 34 The Anatomy of a Chemical Manufacturing Process 45 Selection, Modification, and Improvement of Commercially-Proven Processes 57 Revamps of Existing Plants 64 Synthesis of Novel Flowsheets 78 PFD Review 91 Overall Procedure for Flowsheet Development 95 References 96 Nomenclature 98 Problems 98 CHAPTER Utilities and Energy Efficient Design 103 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Introduction 103 Utilities 104 Energy Recovery 117 Waste Stream Combustion 123 Heat-exchanger Networks 126 Energy Management in Unsteady Processes 149 iii iv Contents References 155 Nomenclature 157 Problems 158 CHAPTER Process Simulation 161 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 Introduction 161 Process Simulation Programs 162 Specification of Components 165 Selection of Physical Property Models 169 Simulation of Unit Operations 184 User Models 219 Flowsheets With Recycle 223 Flowsheet Optimization 236 Dynamic Simulation 239 References 239 Nomenclature 241 Problems 243 CHAPTER Instrumentation and Process Control 251 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Introduction 251 The P&I Diagram 252 Process Instrumentation and Control 257 Conventional Control Schemes 261 Alarms, Safety Trips, and Interlocks 270 Batch Process Control 272 Computer Control Systems 272 References 275 Problems 276 CHAPTER Materials of Construction 279 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 Introduction 279 Material Properties 280 Mechanical Properties 280 Corrosion Resistance 283 Selection for Corrosion Resistance 288 Material Costs 289 Contamination 290 Commonly Used Materials of Construction 291 Plastics as Materials of Construction for Chemical Plant 297 Ceramic Materials (Silicate Materials) 300 Carbon 301 Protective Coatings 302 Contents v 6.13 Design for Corrosion Resistance 302 References 302 Nomenclature 304 Problems 304 CHAPTER Capital Cost Estimating 307 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 Introduction 307 Components of Capital Cost 308 Accuracy and Purpose of Capital Cost Estimates 311 Order of Magnitude Estimates 312 Estimating Purchased Equipment Costs 320 Estimating Installed Costs: The Factorial Method 328 Cost Escalation 335 Location Factors 338 Estimating Offsite Capital Costs 340 Computer Tools for Cost Estimating 341 Validity of Cost Estimates 348 References 349 Nomenclature 350 Problems 352 CHAPTER Estimating Revenues and Production Costs 355 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 Introduction 355 Costs, Revenues, and Profits 356 Product and Raw Material Prices 360 Estimating Variable Production Costs 373 Estimating Fixed Production Costs 376 Summarizing Revenues and Production Costs 380 References 385 Nomenclature 385 Problems 385 CHAPTER Economic Evaluation of Projects 389 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 Introduction 389 Cash Flows during a Project 389 Project Financing 393 Taxes and Depreciation 398 Simple Methods for Economic Analysis 403 Present Value Methods 406 Annualized Cost Methods 411 vi Contents 9.8 Sensitivity Analysis 414 9.9 Project Portfolio Selection 421 References 426 Nomenclature 426 Problems 427 CHAPTER 10 Safety and Loss Prevention 431 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 Introduction 431 Materials Hazards 436 Process Hazards 443 Analysis of Product and Process Safety 450 Failure-Mode Effect Analysis 454 Safety Indices 456 Hazard and Operability Studies 467 Quantitative Hazard Analysis 475 Pressure Relief 481 References 496 Nomenclature 501 Problems 502 CHAPTER 11 General Site Considerations 505 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Introduction 505 Plant Location and Site Selection 505 Site Layout 508 Plant Layout 509 Environmental Considerations 513 References 522 CHAPTER 12 Optimization in Design 525 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 Introduction 525 The Design Objective 526 Constraints and Degrees of Freedom 527 Trade-Offs 530 Problem Decomposition 531 Optimization of a Single Decision Variable 532 Search Methods 533 Optimization of Two or More Decision Variables 536 Linear Programming 539 Contents vii 12.10 Nonlinear Programming 540 12.11 Mixed Integer Programming 542 12.12 Optimization in Industrial Practice 544 References 549 Nomenclature 549 Problems 551 PART PLANT DESIGN CHAPTER 13 Equipment Selection, Specification, and Design 557 13.1 Introduction 557 13.2 Sources of Equipment Design Information 558 13.3 Guide to Equipment Selection and Design 560 References 562 CHAPTER 14 Design of Pressure Vessels 563 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15 Introduction 563 Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards 565 Fundamentals of Strength of Materials 567 General Design Considerations for Pressure Vessels 570 The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels Under Internal Pressure 575 Compensation for Openings and Branches 584 Design of Vessels Subject to External Pressure 584 Design of Vessels Subject to Combined Loading 585 Vessel Supports 598 Bolted Flanged Joints 606 Welded Joint Design 615 Fatigue Assessment of Vessels 617 Pressure Tests 618 High-Pressure Vessels 618 Liquid Storage Tanks 621 References 622 Nomenclature 624 Problems 627 CHAPTER 15 Design of Reactors and Mixers 631 15.1 Introduction 631 15.2 Reactor Design: General Procedure 632 15.3 Sources of Reaction Engineering Data 641 viii Contents 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 15.12 15.13 15.14 Choice of Reaction Conditions 653 Mixing 660 Heating and Cooling of Reacting Systems 669 Multiphase Reactors 678 Reactor Design for Catalytic Processes 689 Design of Bioreactors 712 Multifunctional Batch Reactors 733 Computer Simulation of Reactors 735 Determining Actual Reactor Performance 738 Safety Considerations in Reactor Design 740 Capital Cost of Reactors 744 References 744 Nomenclature 747 Problems 750 CHAPTER 16 Separation of Fluids 753 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Introduction 753 Gas-Gas Separations 754 Gas–Liquid Separators 768 Liquid-Liquid Separation 773 Separation of Dissolved Components 780 References 801 Nomenclature 803 Problems 805 CHAPTER 17 Separation Columns (Distillation, Absorption, and Extraction) 807 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 17.10 17.11 Introduction 807 Continuous Distillation: Process Description 808 Continuous Distillation: Basic Principles 811 Design Variables in Distillation 816 Design Methods for Binary Systems 817 Multicomponent Distillation: General Considerations 824 Multicomponent Distillation: Shortcut Methods for Stage and Reflux Requirements 833 Multicomponent Distillation: Rigorous Solution Procedures (Computer Methods) 839 Other Distillation Processes 841 Plate Efficiency 843 Approximate Column Sizing 853 Contents 17.12 17.13 17.14 17.15 17.16 17.17 ix Plate Contactors 854 Plate Hydraulic Design 863 Packed Columns 886 Column Auxiliaries 916 Solvent Extraction (Liquid–Liquid Extraction) 917 Capital Cost of Separation Columns 923 References 924 Nomenclature 928 Problems 932 CHAPTER 18 Specification and Design of Solids-Handling Equipment 937 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 18.8 18.9 18.10 18.11 Introduction 937 Properties of Granular Materials 938 Storage and Transport of Solids 952 Separation and Mixing of Solids 966 Gas-Solids Separations (Gas Cleaning) 975 Separation of Solids from Liquids 987 Separation of Liquids from Solids (Drying) 1008 Solids Formation, Shaping, and Size Enlargement Processes 1021 Particle Size Reduction (Comminution) 1026 Heat Transfer to Flowing Solid Particles 1034 Hazards of Solids Processing 1035 References 1037 Nomenclature 1042 Problems 1045 CHAPTER 19 Heat-Transfer Equipment 1047 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9 19.10 19.11 19.12 19.13 Introduction 1047 Basic Design Procedure and Theory 1048 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient 1050 Fouling Factors (Dirt Factors) 1053 Shell and Tube Exchangers: Construction Details 1054 Mean Temperature Difference (Temperature Driving Force) 1069 Shell and Tube Exchangers: General Design Considerations 1074 Tube-Side Heat-Transfer Coefficient and Pressure Drop (Single Phase) 1077 Shell-Side Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop (Single Phase) 1083 Condensers 1107 Reboilers and Vaporizers 1130 Plate Heat Exchangers 1156 Direct-Contact Heat Exchangers 1165 APPENDIX G EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION (DATA) SHEETS G-13 G-14 APPENDIX G EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION (DATA) SHEETS H TYPICAL SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER TUBE-SHEET LAYOUTS (a) Fixed tube-sheet exchanger (b) U-tube exchanger (c) Floating-head exchanger with split backing ring (d) Pull through floating-head exchanger Reproduced with permission from Heat Exchanger Design, E A D Saunders (Longman Group) H-1 H-2 APPENDIX H TYPICAL SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER TUBE-SHEET LAYOUTS (a) Typical tube layout for a fixed tubesheet exchanger 740 i/Dia shell, single pass, 780-tubes, 19.05 o/Dia on 23.8125 pitch, 308 angle APPENDIX H TYPICAL SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER TUBE-SHEET LAYOUTS H-3 (b) Typical tube layout for a U-tube exchanger 740 i/Dia shell, 2-pass, 246 U-tubes, 19.05 o/Dia on 25.4 pitch, 458 angle H-4 APPENDIX H TYPICAL SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER TUBE-SHEET LAYOUTS (c) Typical tube layout for a split backing ring floating-head exchanger 740 i/Dia shell, 6-pass, 580 tubes, 19.05 o/Dia on 25.4 pitch, 308 angle Denotes 13 Dia sealing bars APPENDIX H TYPICAL SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER TUBE-SHEET LAYOUTS H-5 (d) Typical tube layout for a pull-through floating-head exchanger 740 i/Dia shell, 4-pass, 370 tubes 19.05 o/Dia on 25.4 pitch, 908 angle Denotes 13 Dia sealing bars I MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET 1,2-DICHLOROETHANE, EXTRA DRY, WATER < 50 PPM ACC# 00220 Reproduced with permission of Fischer Acros Inc SECTION 1—CHEMICAL PRODUCT AND COMPANY IDENTIFICATION MSDS Name: 1,2-Dichloroethane, extra dry, water 99.9 203-458-1 Hazard Symbols: T F Risk Phrases: 11 22 36/37/38 45 I-1 I-2 APPENDIX I MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET SECTION 3—HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION EMERGENCY OVERVIEW Appearance: colorless liquid Flash Point: 56 deg F Warning! Flammable liquid and vapor May cause central nervous system depression May cause liver and kidney damage May cause cancer based on animal studies Causes eye and skin irritation Causes respiratory tract irritation Irritant May be harmful if swallowed Target Organs: Central nervous system, liver, eyes, skin Potential Health Effects Eye: Causes eye irritation Vapors may cause eye irritation May cause chemical conjunctivitis and corneal damage Skin: Causes skin irritation May be absorbed through the skin May cause irritation and dermatitis May cause cyanosis of the extremities Ingestion: May cause central nervous system depression, kidney damage, and liver damage May cause gastrointestinal irritation with nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea May cause effects similar to those for inhalation exposure May be harmful if swallowed Inhalation: Inhalation of high concentrations may cause central nervous system effects characterized by nausea, headache, dizziness, unconsciousness, and coma Causes respiratory tract irritation May cause liver and kidney damage Aspiration may lead to pulmonary edema Vapors may cause dizziness or suffocation Can produce delayed pulmonary edema Exposure to high concentrations may produce narcosis, nausea, and loss of consciousness May cause burning sensation in the chest Chronic: Possible cancer hazard based on tests with laboratory animals Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause dermatitis Prolonged or repeated eye contact may cause conjunctivitis May cause liver and kidney damage Effects may be delayed SECTION 4—FIRST AID MEASURES Eyes: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally lifting the upper and lower eyelids Get medical aid Skin: Get medical aid Flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes Wash clothing before reuse Ingestion: Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person Get medical aid Do NOT induce vomiting If conscious and alert, rinse mouth and drink 2–4 cupfuls of milk or water Inhalation: Remove from exposure and move to fresh air immediately If not breathing, give artificial respiration If breathing is difficult, give oxygen Get medical aid Do NOT use mouth-to-mouth resuscitation Notes to Physician: Treat symptomatically and supportively APPENDIX I MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET I-3 SECTION 5—FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES General Information: As in any fire, wear a self-contained breathing apparatus in pressure-demand, MSHA/NIOSH (approved or equivalent), and full protective gear Vapors may form an explosive mixture with air During a fire, irritating and highly toxic gases may be generated by thermal decomposition or combustion Use water spray to keep fire-exposed containers cool Flammable liquid and vapor Approach fire from upwind to avoid hazardous vapors and toxic decomposition products Vapors are heavier than air and may travel to a source of ignition and flash back Vapors can spread along the ground and collect in low or confined areas Extinguishing Media: For small fires, use dry chemical, carbon dioxide, water spray, or alcohol-resistant foam For large fires, use water spray, fog, or alcohol-resistant foam Water may be ineffective Do NOT use straight streams of water Flash Point: 56 deg F ( 13.33 deg C) Autoignition Temperature: 775 deg F ( 412.78 deg C) Explosion Limits, Lower: 6.2% Upper: 15.9% NFPA Rating: (estimated) Health: 2; Flammability: 3; Instability: SECTION 6—ACCIDENTAL RELEASE MEASURES General Information: Use proper personal protective equipment as indicated in Section Spills/Leaks: Absorb spill with inert material (e.g., vermiculite, sand, or earth), then place in suitable container Avoid runoff into storm sewers and ditches which lead to waterways Clean up spills immediately, observing precautions in the Protective Equipment section Remove all sources of ignition Use a spark-proof tool Provide ventilation A vapor-suppressing foam may be used to reduce vapors SECTION 7—HANDLING AND STORAGE Handling: Wash thoroughly after handling Remove contaminated clothing and wash before reuse Ground and bond containers when transferring material Use sparkproof tools and explosion-proof equipment Avoid contact with eyes, skin, and clothing Empty containers retain product residue (liquid and/or vapor) and can be dangerous Keep container tightly closed Do not pressurize, cut, weld, braze, solder, drill, grind, or expose empty containers to heat, sparks, or open flames Use only with adequate ventilation Keep away from heat, sparks, and flame Avoid breathing vapor or mist Storage: Keep away from heat, sparks, and flame Keep away from sources of ignition Store in a tightly closed container Keep from contact with oxidizing materials Store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from incompatible I-4 APPENDIX I MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET substances Flammables-area Storage under a nitrogen blanket has been recommended SECTION 8—EXPOSURE CONTROLS, PERSONAL PROTECTION Engineering Controls: Facilities storing or utilizing this material should be equipped with an eyewash facility and a safety shower Use adequate general or local explosion-proof ventilation to keep airborne levels to acceptable levels Exposure Limits Chemical Name ACGIH NIOSH OSHA—Final PELs 1,2-Dichloroethane 10 ppm TWA ppm TWA; mg/m3 TWA 50 ppm IDLH 50 ppm TWA; 100 ppm Ceiling OSHA Vacated PELs: 1,2-Dichloroethane: ppm TWA; mg/m3 TWA Personal Protective Equipment Eyes: Wear chemical goggles Skin: Wear appropriate protective gloves to prevent skin exposure Clothing: Wear appropriate protective clothing to prevent skin exposure Respirators: A respiratory protection program that meets OSHA’s 29 CFR 1910.134 and ANSI Z88.2 requirements or European Standard EN 149 must be followed whenever workplace conditions warrant a respirator’s use SECTION 9—PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Physical State: Liquid Appearance: colorless Odor: chloroform-like pH: Not available Vapor Pressure: 100 mm Hg @29 deg C Vapor Density: 3.4 (Air¼1) Evaporation Rate:6.5 (Butyl acetate¼1) Viscosity: Not available Boiling Point: 81–85 deg C Freezing/Melting Point: À35 deg C Decomposition Temperature: Not available Solubility: Insoluble Specific Gravity/Density:1.25 (Water¼1) Molecular Formula: C2H4Cl2 Molecular Weight: 98.96 APPENDIX I MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET I-5 SECTION 10—STABILITY AND REACTIVITY Chemical Stability: Stable at room temperature in closed containers under normal storage and handling conditions Conditions to Avoid: Light, ignition sources, excess heat, electrical sparks Incompatibilities with Other Materials: Aluminum, bases, alkali metals, ketones, organic peroxides, nitric acid, strong oxidizing agents, strong reducing agents, liquid ammonia, amines Hazardous Decomposition Products: Hydrogen chloride, phosgene, carbon monoxide, irritating and toxic fumes and gases, carbon dioxide Hazardous Polymerization: Has not been reported SECTION 11—TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION RTECS#: CAS# 107-06-2: KI0525000 LD50/LC50: CAS# 107-06-2: Draize test, rabbit, eye: 63 mg Severe; Draize test, rabbit, eye: 500 mg/24H Mild; Draize test, rabbit, skin: 500 mg/24H Mild; Inhalation, rat: LC50 ¼ 1000 ppm/7H; Oral, mouse: LD50 ¼ 413 mg/kg; Oral, rabbit: LD50 ¼ 860 mg/kg; Oral, rat: LD50 ¼ 670 mg/kg; Skin, rabbit: LD50 ¼ 2800 mg/kg;

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  • Cover

  • Chemical Engineering Design: Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design, Second Edition

  • ISBN: 0-0809-6659-4

  • Table of Contents

  • Preface to the Second Edition

  • How to Use This Book

    • Part I: Process Design

    • Part II: Plant Design

    • Supplementary Material

  • Acknowledgments

  • Part 1: Process Design

    • 1: Introduction to Design

      • 1.1 Introduction

      • 1.2 Nature of Design

        • 1.2.1 The Design Objective (The Need)

        • 1.2.2 Setting the Design Basis

        • 1.2.3 Generation of Possible Design Concepts

        • 1.2.4 Fitness Testing

        • 1.2.5 Economic Evaluation, Optimization, and Selection

        • 1.2.6 Detailed Design and Equipment Selection

        • 1.2.7 Procurement, Construction, and Operation

      • 1.3 The Organization of a Chemical Engineering Project

      • 1.4 Project Documentation

        • 1.4.1 Design Documents

          • Calculation Sheets

          • Drawings

          • Specification Sheets

          • Process Manuals

          • Operating Manuals

        • 1.4.2 Design Reports

      • 1.5 Codes and Standards

      • 1.6 Design Factors (Design Margins)

      • 1.7 Systems of Units

      • 1.8 Product Design

        • 1.8.1 New Chemical Products

          • New Molecules

          • New Formulations

          • New Materials

          • New Equipment and Devices

        • 1.8.2 Understanding Customer Needs

        • 1.8.3 Developing Product Specifications

          • Quality Function Deployment

        • 1.8.4 Fitness Testing

          • Prototype Testing

          • Safety and Efficacy Testing

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 2: Process Flowsheet Development

      • 2.1 Introduction

      • 2.2 Flowsheet Presentation

        • 2.2.1 Block Diagrams

        • 2.2.2 PFD Symbols

        • 2.2.3 Presentation of Stream Flow Rates

        • 2.2.4 Information to be Included

          • Essential Information

          • Optional Information

        • 2.2.5 Layout

        • 2.2.6 Precision of Data

        • 2.2.7 Basis of the Calculation

        • 2.2.8 Batch Processes

        • 2.2.9 Utilities

        • 2.2.10 Equipment Identification

        • 2.2.11 Flowsheet Drafting Programs

      • 2.3 The Anatomy of a Chemical Manufacturing Process

        • 2.3.1 Components of a Chemical Process

          • Stage 1. Raw Material Storage

          • Stage 2. Feed Preparation

          • Stage 3. Reaction

          • Stage 4. Product Separation

          • Stage 5. Purification

          • Stage 6. Product Storage

          • Ancillary Processes

        • 2.3.2 Continuous and Batch Processes

          • Choice of Continuous versus Batch Production

        • 2.3.3 Effect of Reactor Conversion and Yield on Flowsheet Structure

          • Conversion

          • Selectivity

          • Yield

          • Effect of Conversion, Selectivity, and Yield on Flowsheet Structure

          • Use of Excess Reagent

          • Sources of Conversion, Selectivity, and Yield Data

        • 2.3.4 Recycles and Purges

          • Purge

          • Bypass

      • 2.4 Selection, Modification, and Improvement of Commercially-Proven Processes

        • 2.4.1 Sources of Information on Manufacturing Processes

          • Patents

          • Consultants

          • Vendors

        • 2.4.2 Factors Considered in Process Selection

          • Freedom to Practice

          • Safety and Environmental Performance

          • Government and International Restrictions

          • Experience and Reliability

        • 2.4.3 Modification and Improvement of Established Processes

          • Modifications to Improve Process Economics

          • Modifications to Improve Plant Safety

          • Modifications to Improve Plant Reliability

          • Modifications to Improve Environmental Impact

      • 2.5 Revamps of Existing Plants

        • 2.5.1 Flowsheet Development in Revamp Projects

        • 2.5.2 Major Equipment Debottlenecking

          • Reactor Debottlenecking

          • Separation Column Debottlenecking

        • 2.5.3 Revamp of Heat Exchange Networks

          • Heat Exchangers

          • Heaters and Coolers

        • 2.5.4 Revamp of Plant Hydraulics

          • Compressors

          • Pumps

          • Control Valves

      • 2.6 Synthesis of Novel Flowsheets

        • 2.6.1 Overall Procedure for Flowsheet Synthesis

          • Step 1. Initial Economics

          • Step 2. Set Yield Targets

          • Step 3. Preliminary Economic Assessment

          • Step 4. Refine Process Structure

          • Step 5. PFD Review

          • Step 6. Preliminary Process Hazard Analysis (PHA)

          • Step 7. Revise Economic Assessment

        • 2.6.2 Economic Analysis in Process Synthesis

        • 2.6.3 Use of Targets in Process Synthesis

        • 2.6.4 Use of Heuristic Rules in Process Synthesis

        • 2.6.5 Role of Optimization in Process Synthesis

      • 2.7 PFD Review

        • 2.7.1 PFD Review Procedure

        • 2.7.2 PFD Review Documentation and Issue Resolution

      • 2.8 Overall Procedure for Flowsheet Development

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 3: Utilities and Energy Efficient Design

      • 3.1 Introduction

      • 3.2 Utilities

        • 3.2.1 Electricity

        • 3.2.2 Fired Heat

        • 3.2.3 Steam

        • 3.2.4 Hot Oil and Heat Transfer Fluids

        • 3.2.5 Cooling Water

        • 3.2.6 Refrigeration

        • 3.2.7 Water

          • Demineralized Water

        • 3.2.8 Compressed Air

          • Cooling Air

        • 3.2.9 Nitrogen

      • 3.3 Energy Recovery

        • 3.3.1 Heat Exchange

        • 3.3.2 Waste-heat Boilers

        • 3.3.3 High-temperature Reactors

        • 3.3.4 High-pressure Process Streams

          • Gas Streams

          • Liquid Streams

        • 3.3.5 Heat Pumps

      • 3.4 Waste Stream Combustion

        • 3.4.1 Reactor Off-gases

        • 3.4.2 Liquid and Solid Wastes

      • 3.5 Heat-exchanger Networks

        • 3.5.1 Pinch Technology

          • Simple Two-stream Problem

          • Four-stream Problem

          • Thermodynamic Significance of the Pinch

        • 3.5.2 The Problem Table Method

          • Summary

        • 3.5.3 Heat-exchanger Network Design

          • Grid Representation

          • Network Design for Maximum Energy Recovery

          • Network Design Above the Pinch

          • Network Design Below the Pinch

          • Stream Splitting

          • Summary

        • 3.5.4 Minimum Number of Exchangers

        • 3.5.5 Threshold Problems

        • 3.5.6 Determining Utility Consumption

        • 3.5.7 Process Integration: Integration of Other Process Operations

        • 3.5.8 Computer Tools for Heat-exchanger Network Design

      • 3.6 Energy Management in Unsteady Processes

        • 3.6.1 Differential Energy Balances

        • 3.6.2 Energy Recovery in Batch and Cyclic Processes

          • Semi-continuous Operation

          • Sequencing Multiple Batches

          • Indirect Heat Recovery

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 4: Process Simulation

      • 4.1 Introduction

      • 4.2 Process Simulation Programs

      • 4.3 Specification of Components

        • 4.3.1 Pure Components

        • 4.3.2 Pseudocomponents

        • 4.3.3 Solids and Salts

        • 4.3.4 User Components

      • 4.4 Selection of Physical Property Models

        • 4.4.1 Sources of Physical Property Data

        • 4.4.2 Prediction of Physical Properties

          • Group Contribution Methods

          • Reduced Properties

        • 4.4.3 Phase-equilibrium Models

        • 4.4.4 Prediction of Phase-equilibrium Constants

          • Group Contribution Methods

          • Sour-water Systems

          • Electrolyte Systems

          • Vapor-liquid Equilibrium at High Pressures

          • Liquid-liquid Equilibrium

        • 4.4.5 Choice of Phase-equilibrium Model for Design Calculations

        • 4.4.6 Validation of Physical Property Models

      • 4.5 Simulation of Unit Operations

        • 4.5.1 Reactors

          • Conversion Reactor (Stoichiometric Reactor)

          • Equilibrium Reactor

          • Gibbs Reactor

          • Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR)

          • Plug-flow Reactor (PFR)

          • Yield Shift Reactor

          • Modeling Real Reactors

        • 4.5.2 Distillation

          • Shortcut Models

          • Rigorous Models

          • Column Convergence

          • Complex Columns for Fractionation

          • Column Sizing

        • 4.5.3 Other Separations

          • Component Splitter Models

        • 4.5.4 Heat Exchange

        • 4.5.5 Hydraulics

        • 4.5.6 Solids Handling

      • 4.6 User Models

        • 4.6.1 Spreadsheet Models

        • 4.6.2 User Subroutines

      • 4.7 Flowsheets With Recycle

        • 4.7.1 Tearing the Flowsheet

        • 4.7.2 Convergence Methods

          • Successive Substitution (Direct Substitution)

          • Bounded Wegstein

          • Newton and Quasi-Newton Methods

        • 4.7.3 Manual Calculations

        • 4.7.4 Convergence Problems

      • 4.8 Flowsheet Optimization

        • 4.8.1 Use of Controllers

        • 4.8.2 Optimization Using Process Simulation Software

      • 4.9 Dynamic Simulation

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 5: Instrumentation and Process Control

      • 5.1 Introduction

      • 5.2 The P&I Diagram

        • 5.2.1 Symbols and Layout

        • 5.2.2 Basic Symbols

          • Control Valves

          • Actuators

          • Instrument Lines

          • Failure Mode

          • General Instrument and Controller Symbols

          • Distributed Control—Shared Display Symbols

          • Other Common Symbols

          • Type of Instrument

      • 5.3 Process Instrumentation and Control

        • 5.3.1 Instruments

        • 5.3.2 Instrumentation and Control Objectives

        • 5.3.3 Automatic Control Schemes

          • Guide Rules

      • 5.4 Conventional Control Schemes

        • 5.4.1 Level Control

        • 5.4.2 Pressure Control

        • 5.4.3 Flow Control

        • 5.4.4 Heat Exchangers

          • Condenser Control

          • Reboiler and Vaporizer Control

        • 5.4.5 Cascade Control

        • 5.4.6 Ratio Control

        • 5.4.7 Distillation Column Control

        • 5.4.8 Reactor Control

      • 5.5 Alarms, Safety Trips, and Interlocks

        • 5.5.1 Interlocks

      • 5.6 Batch Process Control

      • 5.7 Computer Control Systems

      • References

      • Problems

    • 6: Materials of Construction

      • 6.1 Introduction

      • 6.2 Material Properties

      • 6.3 Mechanical Properties

        • 6.3.1 Tensile Strength

        • 6.3.2 Stiffness

        • 6.3.3 Toughness

        • 6.3.4 Hardness

        • 6.3.5 Fatigue

        • 6.3.6 Creep

        • 6.3.7 Effect of Temperature on the Mechanical Properties

      • 6.4 Corrosion Resistance

        • 6.4.1 Uniform Corrosion

        • 6.4.2 Galvanic Corrosion

        • 6.4.3 Pitting

        • 6.4.4 Intergranular Corrosion

        • 6.4.5 Effect of Stress

        • 6.4.6 Erosion-corrosion

        • 6.4.7 High-temperature Oxidation and Sulfidation

        • 6.4.8 Hydrogen Embrittlement

      • 6.5 Selection for Corrosion Resistance

        • 6.5.1 Corrosion Charts

      • 6.6 Material Costs

      • 6.7 Contamination

        • 6.7.1 Surface Finish

      • 6.8 Commonly Used Materials of Construction

        • 6.8.1 Iron and Steel

        • 6.8.2 Stainless Steel

          • Types

          • Mechanical Properties

          • General Corrosion Resistance

          • High Alloy Content Stainless Steels

        • 6.8.3 Nickel

        • 6.8.4 Monel

        • 6.8.5 Inconel and Incoloy

        • 6.8.6 The Hastelloys

        • 6.8.7 Copper and Copper Alloys

        • 6.8.8 Aluminum and its Alloys

        • 6.8.9 Lead

        • 6.8.10 Titanium

        • 6.8.11 Tantalum

        • 6.8.12 Zirconium

        • 6.8.13 Silver

        • 6.8.14 Gold

        • 6.8.15 Platinum

      • 6.9 Plastics as Materials of Construction for Chemical Plant

        • 6.9.1 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

        • 6.9.2 Polyolefins

        • 6.9.3 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

        • 6.9.4 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF)

        • 6.9.5 Glass-fiber Reinforced Plastics (GRP)

        • 6.9.6 Rubber

      • 6.10 Ceramic Materials (Silicate Materials)

        • 6.10.1 Glass

        • 6.10.2 Stoneware

        • 6.10.3 Acid-resistant Bricks and Tiles

        • 6.10.4 Refractory Materials (Refractories)

      • 6.11 Carbon

      • 6.12 Protective Coatings

      • 6.13 Design for Corrosion Resistance

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 7: Capital Cost Estimating

      • 7.1 Introduction

      • 7.2 Components of Capital Cost

        • 7.2.1 Fixed Capital Investment

          • ISBL Plant Costs

          • Offsite Costs

          • Engineering Costs

          • Contingency Charges

        • 7.2.2 Working Capital

      • 7.3 Accuracy and Purpose of Capital Cost Estimates

        • 7.3.1 AACE International Cost Estimate Classes

        • 7.3.2 Development of Cost Estimates

      • 7.4 Order of Magnitude Estimates

        • 7.4.1 Cost Curve Methods

          • Economy of Scale

        • 7.4.2 Step Count Method

        • 7.4.3 Reverse Engineering Methods

          • Pay-back Method

          • Turnover Ratio Method

          • TCOP Method

      • 7.5 Estimating Purchased Equipment Costs

        • 7.5.1 Sources of Equipment Cost Data

        • 7.5.2 Cost Curves for Purchased Equipment Costs

        • 7.5.3 Detailed Method of Cost Estimating

        • 7.5.4 Use of Vendor Data in Cost Estimating

      • 7.6 Estimating Installed Costs: The Factorial Method

        • 7.6.1 Lang Factors

        • 7.6.2 Detailed Factorial Estimates

        • 7.6.3 Materials Factors

        • 7.6.4 Summary of the Factorial Method

      • 7.7 Cost Escalation

      • 7.8 Location Factors

      • 7.9 Estimating Offsite Capital Costs

      • 7.10 Computer Tools for Cost Estimating

        • 7.10.1 Mapping Simulation Data

        • 7.10.2 Design Factors

        • 7.10.3 Pressure Vessels

        • 7.10.4 Nonstandard Components

      • 7.11 Validity of Cost Estimates

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 8: Estimating Revenues and Production Costs

      • 8.1 Introduction

      • 8.2 Costs, Revenues, and Profits

        • 8.2.1 Variable Costs of Production

        • 8.2.2 Fixed Costs of Production

        • 8.2.3 Revenues

          • By-product Revenues

        • 8.2.4 Margins and Profits

          • Margins

          • Profits

      • 8.3 Product and Raw Material Prices

        • 8.3.1 Pricing Fundamentals

        • 8.3.2 Sources of Price Data

          • Internal Company Forecasts

          • Trade Journals

          • Consultants

          • Online Brokers and Suppliers

          • Reference Books

        • 8.3.3 Forecasting Prices

        • 8.3.4 Transfer Pricing

      • 8.4 Estimating Variable Production Costs

        • 8.4.1 Raw Materials Costs

        • 8.4.2 Utilities Costs

        • 8.4.3 Consumables Costs

        • 8.4.4 Waste Disposal Costs

      • 8.5 Estimating Fixed Production Costs

        • 8.5.1 Labor Costs

        • 8.5.2 Maintenance Costs

        • 8.5.3 Land, Rent, and Local Property Taxes

        • 8.5.4 Insurance

        • 8.5.5 Interest Payments

        • 8.5.6 Corporate Overhead Charges

        • 8.5.7 License Fees and Royalties

      • 8.6 Summarizing Revenues and Production Costs

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 9: Economic Evaluation of Projects

      • 9.1 Introduction

      • 9.2 Cash Flows during a Project

        • 9.2.1 Cash-flow Diagrams

        • 9.2.2 Cash Outflows During Design and Construction

        • 9.2.3 Working Capital

        • 9.2.4 Cash Flows at the End of the Project

      • 9.3 Project Financing

        • 9.3.1 Basics of Corporate Accounting and Finance

          • Balance Sheet

          • Income Statement

          • Cash-flow Statement

          • Summary

        • 9.3.2 Debt Financing and Repayment

        • 9.3.3 Equity Financing

        • 9.3.4 Cost of Capital

      • 9.4 Taxes and Depreciation

        • 9.4.1 Taxes

        • 9.4.2 Investment Incentives

        • 9.4.3 Depreciation Charges

          • Straight-line Depreciation

          • Declining-balance Depreciation

          • Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS)

      • 9.5 Simple Methods for Economic Analysis

        • 9.5.1 Payback Time

        • 9.5.2 Return on Investment

      • 9.6 Present Value Methods

        • 9.6.1 Time Value of Money

          • Future Worth

          • Inflation

        • 9.6.2 Net Present Value

        • 9.6.3 Discounted Cash-flow Rate of Return (DCFROR)

      • 9.7 Annualized Cost Methods

        • 9.7.1 Amortization Charges

        • 9.7.2 Annualized Capital Cost and Total Annualized Cost

      • 9.8 Sensitivity Analysis

        • 9.8.1 Simple Sensitivity Analysis

        • 9.8.2 Parameters to Study

        • 9.8.3 Statistical Methods for Risk Analysis

        • 9.8.4 Contingency Costs

      • 9.9 Project Portfolio Selection

        • 9.9.1 Types of Projects

        • 9.9.2 Limits on the Project Portfolio

        • 9.9.3 Decision Criteria

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 10: Safety and Loss Prevention

      • 10.1 Introduction

        • 10.1.1 Safety Legislation

        • 10.1.2 Layers of Plant Safety

        • 10.1.3 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Safety

      • 10.2 Materials Hazards

        • 10.2.1 Toxicity

        • 10.2.2 Flammability

          • Flash Point

          • Autoignition Temperature

          • Flammability Limits

        • 10.2.3 Materials Incompatibility

        • 10.2.4 Ionizing Radiation

        • 10.2.5 Materials Safety Data Sheets

        • 10.2.6 Design for Materials Hazards

      • 10.3 Process Hazards

        • 10.3.1 Pressure

        • 10.3.2 Temperature Deviations

        • 10.3.3 Noise

        • 10.3.4 Loss of Containment

        • 10.3.5 Fires and Ignition Sources

          • Electrical Equipment

          • Static Electricity

          • Process Flames

          • Miscellaneous Sources

          • Flame Traps

          • Fire Protection

        • 10.3.6 Explosions

          • Confined Vapor Cloud Explosion (CVCE)

          • Unconfined Vapor Cloud Explosions (UCVCE)

          • Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVE)

          • Dust Explosions

          • Explosivity Properties

          • Design Implications

        • 10.3.7 Human Error

      • 10.4 Analysis of Product and Process Safety

        • 10.4.1 Safety Checklists

          • Design Safety Checklist

      • 10.5 Failure-Mode Effect Analysis

        • 10.5.1 FMEA Procedure

        • 10.5.2 FMEA Rating Scales

        • 10.5.3 Interpretation of FMEA Scores

        • 10.5.4 Tools for FMEA

      • 10.6 Safety Indices

        • 10.6.1 Calculation of the Dow F&EI

          • Material Factor

          • General Process Hazards

          • Special Process Hazards

        • 10.6.2 Potential Loss

        • 10.6.3 Basic Preventative and Protective Measures

        • 10.6.4 Mond Fire, Explosion, and Toxicity Index

          • Procedure

          • Preventative Measures

          • Implementation

        • 10.6.5 Summary

      • 10.7 Hazard and Operability Studies

        • 10.7.1 Basic Principles

        • 10.7.2 Explanation of Guide Words

        • 10.7.3 Procedure

      • 10.8 Quantitative Hazard Analysis

        • 10.8.1 Fault Trees

        • 10.8.2 Equipment Reliability

        • 10.8.3 Tolerable Risk and Safety Priorities

        • 10.8.4 Computer Software for Quantitative Risk Analysis

      • 10.9 Pressure Relief

        • 10.9.1 Pressure Relief Scenarios

        • 10.9.2 Pressure Relief Loads

        • 10.9.3 Design of Pressure Relief Valves

          • Spring-loaded Relief Valves

          • Pilot-operated Relief Valves

          • Sizing Relief Valves

        • 10.9.4 Design of Nonreclosing Pressure Relief Devices

        • 10.9.5 Design of Pressure Relief Discharge Systems

        • 10.9.6 Protection from Underpressure (Vacuum)

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 11: General Site Considerations

      • 11.1 Introduction

      • 11.2 Plant Location and Site Selection

        • 11.2.1 Plant Location and Site Selection Factors

          • Marketing Area

          • Raw Materials

          • Transport

          • Availability of Labor

          • Utilities (Services)

          • Land (Site Considerations)

          • Environmental Impact and Effluent Disposal

          • Local Community Considerations

          • Climate

          • Political and Strategic Considerations

      • 11.3 Site Layout

      • 11.4 Plant Layout

        • 11.4.1 Plant Layout Considerations

          • Costs

          • Process Requirements

          • Operation

          • Maintenance

          • Safety

          • Plant Expansion

          • Modular Construction

          • General Considerations

        • 11.4.2 Techniques Used in Site and Plant Layout

      • 11.5 Environmental Considerations

        • 11.5.1 Environmental Legislation

          • The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA)

          • The Clean Air Act (CAA, 1970)

          • The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (“The Clean Water Act,” 1972)

          • The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA, 1974)

          • The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA, 1976)

          • The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA or Superfund, 1980)

          • The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA, 1986)

          • The Pollution Prevention Act (PPA, 1990)

          • The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA, 1990)

          • The Department of the Environment Act (E-10)

          • The Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA, C-15.31, 1999)

          • The Canada Water Act (C-11)

        • 11.5.2 Waste Minimization

        • 11.5.3 Waste Management

          • Gaseous Wastes

          • Liquid Wastes

          • Solid Wastes

          • Aqueous Wastes

        • 11.5.4 Noise

        • 11.5.5 Visual Impact

        • 11.5.6 Environmental Auditing

          • Life Cycle Assessment

      • References

    • 12: Optimization in Design

      • 12.1 Introduction

      • 12.2 The Design Objective

      • 12.3 Constraints and Degrees of Freedom

        • 12.3.1 Constraints

        • 12.3.2 Degrees of Freedom

      • 12.4 Trade-Offs

      • 12.5 Problem Decomposition

      • 12.6 Optimization of a Single Decision Variable

      • 12.7 Search Methods

        • 12.7.1 Unrestricted Search

        • 12.7.2 Regular Search (Three-point Interval Search)

        • 12.7.3 Golden-section Search

        • 12.7.4 Quasi-Newton Method

      • 12.8 Optimization of Two or More Decision Variables

        • 12.8.1 Convexity

        • 12.8.2 Searching in Two Dimensions

        • 12.8.3 Problems in Multivariable Optimization

        • 12.8.4 Multivariable Optimization

      • 12.9 Linear Programming

      • 12.10 Nonlinear Programming

        • 12.10.1 Successive Linear Programming (SLP)

        • 12.10.2 Successive Quadratic Programming (SQP)

        • 12.10.3 Reduced Gradient Method

      • 12.11 Mixed Integer Programming

        • 12.11.1 Mixed-integer Programming Algorithms

        • 12.11.2 Superstructure Optimization

      • 12.12 Optimization in Industrial Practice

        • 12.12.1 Optimization of Process Operations

        • 12.12.2 Optimization of Batch and Semi-continuous Processes

        • 12.12.3 Optimization in Process Design

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

  • Part 2: Plant Design

    • 13: Equipment Selection, Specification, and Design

      • 13.1 Introduction

      • 13.2 Sources of Equipment Design Information

        • 13.2.1 Proprietary and Nonproprietary Equipment

        • 13.2.2 Published Information on Process Equipment

          • Technical Literature

          • Online Information

      • 13.3 Guide to Equipment Selection And Design

      • References

    • 14: Design of Pressure Vessels

      • 14.1 Introduction

        • 14.1.1 Classification of Pressure Vessels

      • 14.2 Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards

      • 14.3 Fundamentals of Strength of Materials

        • 14.3.1 Principal Stresses

        • 14.3.2 Theories of Failure

        • 14.3.3 Elastic Stability

        • 14.3.4 Secondary Stresses

      • 14.4 General Design Considerations for Pressure Vessels

        • 14.4.1 Design Pressure

        • 14.4.2 Design Temperature

        • 14.4.3 Materials

        • 14.4.4 Maximum Allowable Stress (Nominal Design Strength)

        • 14.4.5 Welded Joint Efficiency, and Construction Categories

        • 14.4.6 Corrosion Allowance

        • 14.4.7 Design Loads

          • Major Loads

          • Subsidiary Loads

        • 14.4.8 Minimum Practical Wall Thickness

      • 14.5 The Design of Thin-Walled Vessels Under Internal Pressure

        • 14.5.1 Cylinders and Spherical Shells

        • 14.5.2 Heads and Closures

          • Choice of Closure

        • 14.5.3 Design of Flat Ends

        • 14.5.4 Design of Domed Ends

          • Hemispherical Heads

          • Ellipsoidal Heads

          • Torispherical Heads

          • Flanges (Skirts) on Domed Heads

        • 14.5.5 Conical Sections and End Closures

      • 14.6 Compensation for Openings and Branches

      • 14.7 Design of Vessels Subject to External Pressure

      • 14.8 Design of Vessels Subject to Combined Loading

        • 14.8.1 Weight Loads

        • 14.8.2 Wind Loads (Tall Vessels)

          • Dynamic Wind Pressure

          • Deflection of Tall Columns

          • Wind-induced Vibrations

        • 14.8.3 Earthquake Loading

        • 14.8.4 Eccentric Loads (Tall Vessels)

        • 14.8.5 Torque

      • 14.9 Vessel Supports

        • 14.9.1 Saddle Supports

          • Design of Saddles

        • 14.9.2 Skirt Supports

          • Skirt Thickness

          • Base Ring and Anchor Bolt Design

        • 14.9.3 Bracket Supports

      • 14.10 Bolted Flanged Joints

        • 14.10.1 Types of Flange, and Selection

        • 14.10.2 Gaskets

        • 14.10.3 Flange Faces

        • 14.10.4 Flange Design

        • 14.10.5 Standard Flanges

      • 14.11 Welded Joint Design

      • 14.12 Fatigue Assessment of Vessels

      • 14.13 Pressure Tests

      • 14.14 High-Pressure Vessels

        • 14.14.1 Compound Vessels

          • Shrink-fitted Cylinders

          • Multilayer Vessels

          • Wound Vessels

        • 14.14.2 Autofrettage

      • 14.15 Liquid Storage Tanks

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 15: Design of Reactors and Mixers

      • 15.1 Introduction

      • 15.2 Reactor Design: General Procedure

        • 15.2.1 General Procedure for Reactor Design

          • Step 1: Collect Required Data

          • Step 2: Select Reaction Conditions

          • Step 3: Determine Materials of Construction

          • Step 4: Determine the Rate-limiting Step and Critical Sizing Parameters of the Reactor

          • Step 5: Preliminary Sizing, Layout, and Costing of Reactor

          • Step 6: Estimate Reactor Performance

          • Step 7: Optimize the Design

          • Step 8: Prepare Scale Drawings for Detailed Design

        • 15.2.2 Ideal and Real Reactors

          • Plug-flow Reactor (PFR)

          • Well-mixed Reactor (WMR)

          • Real Reactors

      • 15.3 Sources of Reaction Engineering Data

        • 15.3.1 Enthalpy of Reaction

          • Effect of Temperature on Heat of Reaction

          • Effect of Pressure on Heat of Reaction

          • Estimation of Heat of Reaction Using Process Simulation Programs

        • 15.3.2 Equilibrium Constant and Gibbs Free Energy

        • 15.3.3 Reaction Mechanisms, Rate Equations, and Rate Constants

        • 15.3.4 Transport Properties

          • Heat Transfer

          • Diffusivities

          • Mass Transfer Coefficients

      • 15.4 Choice of Reaction Conditions

        • 15.4.1 Chemical or Biochemical Reaction

        • 15.4.2 Catalyst

        • 15.4.3 Temperature

        • 15.4.4 Pressure

        • 15.4.5 Reaction Phase

        • 15.4.6 Solvent

        • 15.4.7 Concentrations

          • Feeds

          • By-products and Contaminants

          • Inerts

      • 15.5 Mixing

        • 15.5.1 Gas Mixing

        • 15.5.2 Liquid Mixing

          • Inline Mixing

          • Stirred Tanks

          • Agitator Power Consumption

          • Side-entering Agitators

        • 15.5.3 Gas-liquid Mixing

        • 15.5.4 Solid-liquid Mixing

      • 15.6 Heating and Cooling of Reacting Systems

        • 15.6.1 Heating and Cooling Reactors: Basic Principles

        • 15.6.2 Heating and Cooling Stirred Tank Reactors

          • Indirect Heat Transfer

          • Direct Heat Transfer: Heating Using Live Steam

          • Direct Heat Transfer: Evaporative Cooling

        • 15.6.3 Heating and Cooling Catalytic Reactors

          • Slurry Reactors

          • Fixed-bed Reactors

          • Fluidized-bed Reactors

        • 15.6.4 Heat-exchange Devices as Reactors

          • Homogeneous Reaction

          • Heterogeneous Reaction

      • 15.7 Multiphase Reactors

        • 15.7.1 Vapor-liquid Reactors

        • 15.7.2 Liquid-liquid Reactors

        • 15.7.3 Vapor-solid Reactors

          • Fixed-bed Reactors

          • Moving-bed Reactors

          • Fluidized-bed Reactors

        • 15.7.4 Liquid-solid Reactors

        • 15.7.5 Vapor-liquid-solid Reactors

          • Slurry Reactors

          • Trickle-bed Reactors

      • 15.8 Reactor Design for Catalytic Processes

        • 15.8.1 Design for Homogeneous Catalysis

        • 15.8.2 Design for Heterogeneous Catalysis

          • Liquid-liquid Catalysis

          • Fluid-solid Catalysis

        • 15.8.3 Design and Selection of Solid Catalysts

          • Structure and Formulation of Catalysts

          • Physical Properties of Catalysts

          • Catalyst Testing and Selection

        • 15.8.4 Design for Catalyst Deactivation and Regeneration

          • Catalyst Deactivation Mechanisms

          • Reactor Design for Catalyst Deactivation

          • Reactor Design for Catalyst Regeneration

      • 15.9 Design of Bioreactors

        • 15.9.1 Enzyme Catalysis

          • Enzyme Confinement and Immobilization

        • 15.9.2 Cell Cultivation

          • Cell Cultivation and Growth Cycle

          • Cell Immobilization

          • Tissue Culture

        • 15.9.3 Prevention of Contamination in Biological Systems

          • Chemical Contamination

          • Biological Contamination and Design for Sterile Operation

          • Cleaning

        • 15.9.4 Feed Preparation and Consumption

        • 15.9.5 Batch Fermentation

          • Fermenter Design

          • Scale-up Considerations

        • 15.9.6 Continuous Fermentation

          • Continuous Fermenter Design and Scale-up

        • 15.9.7 Bioreactor Instrumentation and Control

        • 15.9.8 Safety and Quality Control of Bioreactors

          • Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)

          • Containment

      • 15.10 Multifunctional Batch Reactors

        • 15.10.1 Design of Batch Reactors

        • 15.10.2 Multifunctional Batch Reactors

      • 15.11 Computer Simulation of Reactors

        • 15.11.1 Commercial Process Simulation Models

        • 15.11.2 Network Models

        • 15.11.3 Hydrodynamic Models

      • 15.12 Determining Actual Reactor Performance

        • 15.12.1 Measuring Experimental Reactor Output

        • 15.12.2 Measuring Commercial Reactor Behavior

          • Tracer Studies

          • Reactor Tomography

      • 15.13 Safety Considerations in Reactor Design

        • 15.13.1 Inherently Safer Design Principles Applied to Reactors

        • 15.13.2 Designing for Exothermic Reactions

        • 15.13.3 Venting and Relief of Reactive Systems

      • 15.14 Capital Cost of Reactors

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 16: Separation of Fluids

      • 16.1 Introduction

      • 16.2 Gas-Gas Separations

        • 16.2.1 Adsorption

          • Irreversible Adsorption

          • Reversible Adsorption

          • Pressure Swing Adsorption

          • Temperature Swing Adsorption

          • Adsorbent Selection

          • Adsorption Equipment Design

        • 16.2.2 Membrane Separation

          • Membrane Selection and Construction

          • Membrane Process Design

        • 16.2.3 Cryogenic Distillation

        • 16.2.4 Absorption and Stripping

        • 16.2.5 Condensation

      • 16.3 Gas–Liquid Separators

        • 16.3.1 Settling Velocity

        • 16.3.2 Vertical Separators

        • 16.3.3 Horizontal Separators

      • 16.4 Liquid-Liquid Separation

        • 16.4.1 Decanters (Settlers)

          • Decanter Design

        • 16.4.2 Plate Separators

        • 16.4.3 Coalescers

        • 16.4.4 Centrifugal Separators

          • Sedimentation Centrifuges

          • Hydrocyclones

      • 16.5 Separation of Dissolved Components

        • 16.5.1 Evaporators

          • Direct-Heated Evaporators

          • Long-Tube Evaporators (Figure 16.17)

          • Forced-Circulation Evaporators (Figure 16.18)

          • Wiped-Film Evaporators (Figure 16.19)

          • Short-Tube Evaporators

          • Evaporator Selection

          • Evaporator Design

          • Auxiliary Equipment

        • 16.5.2 Crystallization

          • Tank Crystallizers

          • Scraped-Surface Crystallizers

          • Circulating Magma Crystallizers (Figure 16.21)

          • Circulating Liquor Crystallizers (Figure 16.22)

          • Crystallizer Design

        • 16.5.3 Precipitation

        • 16.5.4 Membrane Separations

          • Reverse Osmosis

        • 16.5.5 Ion Exchange

        • 16.5.6 Solvent Extraction and Leaching

          • Solvent Extraction (Liquid-Liquid Extraction)

          • Leaching

        • 16.5.7 Adsorption

        • 16.5.8 Chromatography

          • Batch Chromatography

          • Gel Permeation Chromatography

          • Affinity Chromatography

          • Continuous Chromatography

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 17: Separation Columns (Distillation, Absorption, and Extraction)

      • 17.1 Introduction

      • 17.2 Continuous Distillation: Process Description

        • 17.2.1 Reflux Considerations

          • Total Reflux

          • Minimum Reflux

          • Optimum Reflux Ratio

        • 17.2.2 Feed-point Location

        • 17.2.3 Selection of Column Pressure

      • 17.3 Continuous Distillation: Basic Principles

        • 17.3.1 Stage Equations

        • 17.3.2 Dew Point and Bubble Point

        • 17.3.3 Equilibrium Flash Calculations

          • Adiabatic Flash

      • 17.4 Design Variables In Distillation

      • 17.5 Design Methods for Binary Systems

        • 17.5.1 Basic Equations

          • Lewis-Sorel Method (Equimolar Overflow)

        • 17.5.2 McCabe-Thiele Method

          • Procedure

      • 17.6 Multicomponent Distillation: General Considerations

        • 17.6.1 Key Components

        • 17.6.2 Product Specifications

        • 17.6.3 Number and Sequencing of Columns

          • Tall Columns

        • 17.6.4 Complex Columns

        • 17.6.5 Distillation Column Sequencing for Azeotropic Mixtures

      • 17.7 Multicomponent Distillation: Shortcut Methods for Stage and Reflux Requirements

        • 17.7.1 Minimum Number of Stages (Fenske Equation)

        • 17.7.2 Minimum Reflux Ratio

        • 17.7.3 Feed-point Location

      • 17.8 Multicomponent Distillation: Rigorous Solution Procedures (Computer Methods)

        • 17.8.1 Linear Algebra (Simultaneous) Methods

        • 17.8.2 Inside-out Algorithms

        • 17.8.3 Relaxation Methods

      • 17.9 Other Distillation Processes

        • 17.9.1 Batch Distillation

        • 17.9.2 Vacuum Distillation

        • 17.9.3 Steam Distillation

        • 17.9.4 Reactive Distillation

        • 17.9.5 Petroleum Fractionation

      • 17.10 Plate Efficiency

        • 17.10.1 Prediction of Plate Efficiency

          • Multicomponent Systems

        • 17.10.2 O’Connell’s Correlation

          • Absorbers

        • 17.10.3 Van Winkle’s Correlation

        • 17.10.4 AIChE Method

          • AIChE Method

          • Estimation of Physical Properties

          • Plate Design Parameters

          • Multicomponent Systems

        • 17.10.5 Entrainment

      • 17.11 Approximate Column Sizing

      • 17.12 Plate Contactors

        • 17.12.1 Selection of Plate Type

        • 17.12.2 Plate Construction

          • Sectional Construction

          • Stacked Plates (Cartridge Plates)

          • Downcomers

          • Side Stream and Feed Points

          • Structural Design

      • 17.13 Plate Hydraulic Design

        • 17.13.1 Plate-design Procedure

          • Procedure

        • 17.13.2 Plate Areas

        • 17.13.3 Diameter

        • 17.13.4 Liquid-flow Arrangement

        • 17.13.5 Entrainment

        • 17.13.6 Weep Point

        • 17.13.7 Weir Liquid Crest

        • 17.13.8 Weir Dimensions

          • Weir Height

          • Inlet Weirs

          • Weir Length

        • 17.13.9 Perforated Area

        • 17.13.10 Hole Size

        • 17.13.11 Hole Pitch

        • 17.13.12 Hydraulic Gradient

        • 17.13.13 Liquid Throw

        • 17.13.14 Plate Pressure Drop

          • Dry Plate Drop

          • Residual Head

          • Total Drop

        • 17.13.15 Downcomer Design [Backup]

          • Froth Height

          • Downcomer Residence Time

      • 17.14 Packed Columns

        • 17.14.1 Types of Packing

          • Random Packing

          • Packing Size

          • Structured Packing

        • 17.14.2 Packed-bed Height

          • Distillation

          • Absorption

          • Stripping

        • 17.14.3 Prediction of the Height of a Transfer Unit (HTU)

          • Cornell’s Method

          • Onda’s Method

        • 17.14.4 Column Diameter (Capacity)

        • 17.14.5 Column Internals

          • Packing Support

          • Liquid Distributors

          • Liquid Redistributors

          • Hold-down Plates

          • Installing Packing

          • Liquid Hold-up

        • 17.14.6 Wetting Rates

      • 17.15 Column Auxiliaries

      • 17.16 Solvent Extraction (Liquid–Liquid Extraction)

        • 17.16.1 Extraction Equipment

        • 17.16.2 Extractor Design

          • Number of Stages

          • Equilibrium Data

          • Number of Stages

          • Procedure

          • Construction

          • Immiscible Solvents

        • 17.16.3 Extraction Columns

          • Flooding

        • 17.16.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction

      • 17.17 Capital Cost of Separation Columns

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 18: Specification and Design of Solids-Handling Equipment

      • 18.1 Introduction

      • 18.2 Properties of Granular Materials

        • 18.2.1 Properties of Solid Particles

          • Particle Size and Shape

          • Density and Porosity

          • Particle Strength and Hardness

          • Particle Chemical Properties

        • 18.2.2 Bulk and Flow Properties of Particulate Materials

          • Particle Size Distribution

          • Voidage and Bulk Density

          • Cohesion

          • Flow Properties

          • Fluidization

      • 18.3 Storage and Transport of Solids

        • 18.3.1 Storage of Bulk Solids

        • 18.3.2 Discharge from Bins and Hoppers

          • Flow Patterns in Bins and Hoppers

          • Flow of Solids from an Unregulated Orifice

          • Volumetric and Gravimetric Feeders

        • 18.3.3 Packaging and Storage of Solid Products

        • 18.3.4 Conveying of Solids

          • Belt Conveyors

          • Screw Conveyors

          • Pneumatic and Hydraulic Conveying

          • Pipe Conveyors

          • Bucket Elevators

        • 18.3.5 Pressurization of Solid Feeds

      • 18.4 Separation and Mixing of Solids

        • 18.4.1 Screening (Sieving)

        • 18.4.2 Liquid-Solid Cyclones

        • 18.4.3 Hydroseparators and Sizers (Classifiers)

        • 18.4.4 Hydraulic Jigs

        • 18.4.5 Tables

        • 18.4.6 Classifying Centrifuges

        • 18.4.7 Dense-Medium Separators (Sink and Float Processes)

        • 18.4.8 Flotation Separators (Froth-Flotation)

        • 18.4.9 Magnetic Separators

        • 18.4.10 Electrostatic Separators

        • 18.4.11 Solids Blending and Mixing

          • Tumbling Drums

          • Internally-Agitated Mixers

          • Fluidized Mixers

          • Static Mixers

      • 18.5 Gas-Solids Separations (Gas Cleaning)

        • 18.5.1 Gravity Settlers (Settling Chambers)

        • 18.5.2 Impingement Separators

        • 18.5.3 Centrifugal Separators (Cyclones)

          • Cyclone Design

          • Pressure Drop

          • General Design Procedure

        • 18.5.4 Filters

          • Air Filters

        • 18.5.5 Wet Scrubbers (Washing)

        • 18.5.6 Electrostatic Precipitators

      • 18.6 Separation of Solids from Liquids

        • 18.6.1 Thickeners and Clarifiers

        • 18.6.2 Filtration

          • Nutsche (Gravity and Vacuum Operation)

          • Plate and Frame Press (Pressure Operation) (Figure 18.42)

          • Leaf Filters (Pressure and Vacuum Operation)

          • Rotary Drum Filters (Usually Vacuum Operation) (Figure 18.43)

          • Disc Filters (Pressure and Vacuum Operation)

          • Belt Filters (Vacuum Operation) (Figure 18.44)

          • Horizontal Pan Filters (Vacuum Operation) (Figure 18.45)

          • Centrifugal Filters

          • Cross-Flow Filters

        • 18.6.3 Centrifuges

          • Sedimentation Centrifuges

            • Tubular Bowl (Figure 18.49)

            • Disc Bowl (Figure 18.50)

            • Scroll Discharge

            • Solid Bowl Batch Centrifuge

          • Sigma Theory for Sedimentation Centrifuges

          • Filtration Centrifuges (Centrifugal Filters)

        • 18.6.4 Hydrocyclones (Liquid Cyclones)

        • 18.6.5 Pressing (Expression)

      • 18.7 Separation of Liquids from Solids (Drying)

        • 18.7.1 Theory of Drying

        • 18.7.2 Selection and Design of Dryers

          • Tray Dryers (Figure 18.59)

          • Conveyor Dryers (Continuous Circulation Band Dryers) (Figure 18.60)

          • Rotary Dryer (Figure 18.61)

          • Fluidized-Bed Dryers (Figure 18.62)

          • Pneumatic Dryers (Figure 18.63)

          • Spray Dryers (Figure 18.64)

          • Rotary Drum Dryers (Figure 18.65)

        • 18.7.3 Process Design and Safety Considerations

      • 18.8 Solids Formation, Shaping, and Size Enlargement Processes

        • 18.8.1 Mechanisms of Agglomeration

        • 18.8.2 Shaping, Forming, and Size Enlargement Processes

          • Tablet Presses and Roll Presses

          • Extrusion

          • Molding

          • Granulation

          • Spray Drying and Prilling

          • Crystallization

        • 18.8.3 Post-Forming Processes

      • 18.9 Particle Size Reduction (Comminution)

        • 18.9.1 Crushing and Grinding Theory

        • 18.9.2 Wet and Dry Grinding

        • 18.9.3 Crushing and Grinding (Comminution) Equipment

        • 18.9.4 Grinding Cellular Material

        • 18.9.5 Process Design and Safety Considerations in Crushing and Grinding

      • 18.10 Heat Transfer to Flowing Solid Particles

      • 18.11 Hazards of Solids Processing

        • 18.11.1 Health Impacts of Dust Inhalation

        • 18.11.2 Dust Explosions

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 19: Heat-Transfer Equipment

      • 19.1 Introduction

      • 19.2 Basic Design Procedure and Theory

        • 19.2.1 Heat Exchanger Analysis: The Effectiveness—NTU Method

      • 19.3 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient

      • 19.4 Fouling Factors (Dirt Factors)

      • 19.5 Shell and Tube Exchangers: Construction Details

        • 19.5.1 Heat-Exchanger Standards and Codes

        • 19.5.2 Tubes

          • Dimensions

          • Tube Arrangements

          • Tube-Side Passes

        • 19.5.3 Shells

          • Minimum Shell Thickness (mm)

        • 19.5.4 Tube-Sheet Layout (Tube Count)

        • 19.5.5 Shell Types (Passes)

        • 19.5.6 Shell and Tube Designation

        • 19.5.7 Baffles

        • 19.5.8 Support Plates and Tie Rods

        • 19.5.9 Tube Sheets (Plates)

        • 19.5.10 Shell and Header Nozzles (Branches)

        • 19.5.11 Flow-Induced Tube Vibrations

      • 19.6 Mean Temperature Difference (Temperature Driving Force)

      • 19.7 Shell and Tube Exchangers: General Design Considerations

        • 19.7.1 Fluid Allocation: Shell or Tubes

        • 19.7.2 Shell and Tube Fluid Velocities

          • Liquids

          • Vapors

        • 19.7.3 Stream Temperatures

        • 19.7.4 Pressure Drop

          • Liquids

          • Gas and Vapors

        • 19.7.5 Fluid Physical Properties

      • 19.8 Tube-Side Heat-Transfer Coefficient and Pressure Drop (Single Phase)

        • 19.8.1 Heat Transfer

          • Turbulent Flow

          • Hydraulic Mean Diameter

          • Laminar Flow

          • Transition Region

          • Heat-Transfer Factor, jh

          • Viscosity Correction Factor

          • Coefficients for Water

        • 19.8.2 Tube-side Pressure Drop

      • 19.9 Shell-Side Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop (Single Phase)

        • 19.9.1 Flow Pattern

        • 19.9.2 Design Methods

        • 19.9.3 Kern's Method

          • Procedure

          • Shell Nozzle Pressure Drop

        • 19.9.4 Commercial Software for Heat-Exchanger Design

      • 19.10 Condensers

        • 19.10.1 Heat-Transfer Fundamentals

          • Physical Properties

        • 19.10.2 Condensation Outside Horizontal Tubes

        • 19.10.3 Condensation Inside and Outside Vertical Tubes

          • Flooding in Vertical Tubes

        • 19.10.4 Condensation Inside Horizontal Tubes

        • 19.10.5 Condensation of Steam

        • 19.10.6 Mean Temperature Difference

        • 19.10.7 Desuperheating and Subcooling

          • Desuperheating

          • Subcooling of Condensate

        • 19.10.8 Condensation of Mixtures

          • Temperature Profile

          • Estimation of Heat-Transfer Coefficients

        • 19.10.9 Pressure Drop in Condensers

      • 19.11 Reboilers and Vaporizers

        • 19.11.1 Boiling Heat-Transfer Fundamentals

          • Estimation of Boiling Heat-Transfer Coefficients

        • 19.11.2 Pool Boiling

          • Critical Heat Flux

          • Film Boiling

        • 19.11.3 Convective Boiling

          • Chen's Method

        • 19.11.4 Design of Forced-Circulation Reboilers

        • 19.11.5 Design of Thermosiphon Reboilers

          • Limitations on the Use of Frank and Prickett's Method

          • Approximate Design Method for Mixtures

            • Procedure

          • Maximum Heat Flux

          • General Design Considerations

        • 19.11.6 Design of Kettle Reboilers

          • General Design Considerations

          • Mean Temperature Differences

          • Mixtures

      • 19.12 Plate Heat Exchangers

        • 19.12.1 Gasketed Plate Heat Exchangers

          • Selection

            • Advantages

            • Disadvantages

          • Plate Heat-Exchanger Design

            • Procedure

          • Flow Arrangements

          • Estimation of the Temperature Correction Factor

          • Heat Transfer Coefficient

          • Pressure Drop

        • 19.12.2 Welded Plate Exchangers

        • 19.12.3 Plate-Fin

        • 19.12.4 Spiral Heat Exchangers

      • 19.13 Direct-Contact Heat Exchangers

      • 19.14 Finned Tubes

      • 19.15 Double-Pipe Heat Exchangers

      • 19.16 Air-Cooled Exchangers

        • 19.16.1 Air Coolers: Construction Details

        • 19.16.2 Heat Transfer in Air Coolers

        • 19.16.3 Air-Cooler Design

        • 19.16.4 Air-Cooler Operation and Control

      • 19.17 Fired Heaters (Furnaces and Boilers)

        • 19.17.1 Basic Construction

        • 19.17.2 Design of Fired Heaters

        • 19.17.3 Heat Transfer in Fired Heaters

          • Radiant Section

          • Convection Section

        • 19.17.4 Pressure Drop

        • 19.17.5 Process-side Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop

        • 19.17.6 Stack Design

        • 19.17.7 Thermal Efficiency

        • 19.17.8 Fired Heater Emissions

      • 19.18 Heat Transfer to Vessels

        • 19.18.1 Jacketed Vessels

          • Conventional Jackets

          • Half-Pipe Jackets

          • Dimpled Jackets

          • Jacket Selection

          • Jacket Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop

        • 19.18.2 Internal Coils

          • Coil Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop

        • 19.18.3 Agitated Vessels

      • 19.19 Capital Cost of Heat Transfer Equipment

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

    • 20: Transport and Storage of Fluids

      • 20.1 Introduction

      • 20.2 Storage of Fluids

        • 20.2.1 Storage of Gases

        • 20.2.2 Storage of Liquids

      • 20.3 Transport of Gases and Liquids

        • 20.3.1 Gases

          • Vacuum Production

        • 20.3.2 Liquids

      • 20.4 Pressure Drop in Pipelines

        • 20.4.1 Pressure Drop in Pipes

          • Non-Newtonian Fluids

          • Gases

          • Two-Phase Mixtures

        • 20.4.2 Pressure Drop in Pipe Fittings

      • 20.5 Valves

      • 20.6 Compression and Expansion of Gases

        • 20.6.1 Compression of Gases

        • 20.6.2 Mollier Diagrams

        • 20.6.3 Polytropic Compression and Expansion

        • 20.6.4 Multistage Compressors

        • 20.6.5 Compressor Performance Curves

      • 20.7 Pumping of Liquids

        • 20.7.1 Centrifugal Pump Design

        • 20.7.2 Power Requirements for Pumping Liquids

          • Pump Shaft Power

        • 20.7.3 Characteristic Curves for Centrifugal Pumps

        • 20.7.4 Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

        • 20.7.5 System Curve (Operating Line)

        • 20.7.6 Pump and Other Shaft Seals

          • Packed Glands

          • Mechanical Seals

          • The Basic Mechanical Seal

          • Double Seals

          • Seal-less Pumps (Canned Pumps)

      • 20.8 Selection of Drivers for Rotating Equipment

        • 20.8.1 Electric Motors as Drivers

        • 20.8.2 Steam Turbines as Drivers

      • 20.9 Mechanical Design of Piping Systems

        • 20.9.1 Piping System Design Codes

        • 20.9.2 Wall Thickness: Pipe Schedule

        • 20.9.3 Pipe Supports

        • 20.9.4 Pipe Fittings

        • 20.9.5 Pipe Stressing

        • 20.9.6 Layout and Design

      • 20.10 Pipe Size Selection

      • 20.11 Sizing of Control Valves

      • References

      • Nomenclature

      • Problems

  • Appendices

    • Appendix A: Graphical Symbols for Piping Systems and Plant

    • Appendix B: Corrosion Charts

    • Appendix C: Physical Property Data Bank

    • Appendix D: Conversion Factors

    • Appendix E: Design Projects (Shorter Problem Statements)

    • Appendix F: Design Projects (Longer Problem Statements)

    • Appendix G: Equipment Specification (Data) Sheets

    • Appendix H: Typical Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Tube-sheet Layouts

    • Appendix I: Material Safety Data Sheet

  • Subject Index

    • A

    • B

    • C

    • D

    • E

    • F

    • G

    • H

    • I

    • J

    • K

    • L

    • M

    • N

    • O

    • P

    • Q

    • R

    • S

    • T

    • U

    • V

    • W

    • Y

    • Z

  • Appendices

    • A Graphical Symbols for Piping Systems and Plant

      • Symbols (or elements of Symbols) for Use in Conjunction with Other Symbols

      • Basic and Developed Symbols for Plant and Equipment

    • B Corrosion Chart

    • C Physical Property Data Bank

    • E Design Projects I

      • E.1. Commodity Chemicals and Polymers

        • E.1.1. Acetic Acid

        • E.1.2. Acrolein and Acrylic Acid

        • E.1.3. Cellulose Acetate

        • E.1.4. Chloroform and Methylene Chloride

        • E.1.5. Dicyclopentadiene

        • E.1.6. 2,6-Dimethylnaphthalene

        • E.1.7. Ethylene and Propylene by Steam Cracking

        • E.1.8. Ethylene by Oxidative Dehydrogenation

        • E.1.9. Ethylene from Ethanol

        • E.1.10. Lactic Acid by Fermentation

        • E.1.11. Linear Alkyl Benzenes

        • E.1.12. 2,6-Naphthalenedicarboxylic Acid

        • E.1.13. Nitrobenzene

        • E.1.14. Polylactic Acid

        • E.1.15. Phenol–Cyclohexanone

        • E.1.16. Propylene

        • E.1.17. Propylene Glycol by Fermentation

        • E.1.18. Propylene Oxide by Epoxidation

        • E.1.19. Phosgene

        • E.1.20. Pyridine

      • E.2. Devices and Sensors

        • E.2.1. Fuel Processor

        • E.2.2. Portable Oxygen Generator

      • E.3. Electronics and Electrochemical Processes

        • E.3.1. Argon Recovery from Silicon Furnace Off-Gas

        • E.3.2. Chlor-Alkali Manufacture

        • E.3.3. Potassium Permanganate

      • E.4. Food Processing and Formulated Products

        • E.4.1. Aspartame

        • E.4.2. Cocoa Processing

        • E.4.3. Dicalcium Phosphate and Phosphoric Acid

        • E.4.4. Erythorbic Acid

        • E.4.5. Folic Acid

        • E.4.6. Insect Repellant

        • E.4.7. Low-Fat Snacks

        • E.4.8. Mannitol

        • E.4.9. Margarine

        • E.4.10. Moisturizing Lotion

        • E.4.11. Monosodium Glutamate

        • E.4.12. Niacinamide (Nicotinamide)

        • E.4.13. Riboflavin

        • E.4.14. a-Tocopherol

      • E.5. Fuels

        • E.5.1. Benzene Reduction

        • E.5.2. Crude Oil Distillation

        • E.5.3. Ethanol by Fermentation

        • E.5.4. Hydrocracking

        • E.5.5. Isomerization

      • E.6. Gas Processing

        • E.6.1. Gas to Liquids (Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis)

        • E.6.2. Hydrogen Production

        • E.6.3. Krypton and Xenon Recovery

        • E.6.4. Methanol to Olefins

        • E.6.5. Natural Gas Liquefaction

        • E.6.6. Natural Gas Liquids Recovery

      • E.7. Inorganic Chemicals

        • E.7.1. Ammonia

        • E.7.2. Bromine

        • E.7.3. Fischer-Tropsch Catalyst

        • E.7.4. Nitric Acid

        • E.7.5. Urea

        • E.7.6. Zeolite Synthesis

      • E.8. Pharmaceuticals

        • E.8.1. Acetaminophen

        • E.8.2. Alendronate

        • E.8.3. Amlodipine Besylate

        • E.8.4. Aspirin

        • E.8.5. Aspirin (slow release)

        • E.8.7. Citalopram Hydrobromide

        • E.8.8. Clopidogrel

        • E.8.9. Cyclosporin A

        • E.8.10. Doxycyline

        • E.8.11. Fexofenadine

        • E.8.12. Fluconazole

        • E.8.13. Fluoxetine Hydrochloride

        • E.8.14. Fluticasone Propionate

        • E.8.15. Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor

        • E.8.16. Guaifenesin

        • E.8.17. Ibuprofen

        • E.8.18. Lansoprazole

        • E.8.19. Lisinopril

        • E.8.20. Loratadine

        • E.8.21. S-Ofloxacin

        • E.8.22. Omeprazole

        • E.8.23. Paroxetine

        • E.8.24. Pseudoephedrine

        • E.8.25. Risperidone

        • E.8.26. Sertraline Hydrochloride

        • E.8.27. Simvastatin

        • E.8.28. Sumatriptan

        • E.8.29. Venlafaxine

        • E.8.6. Ciprofloxacin

      • E.9. Pulp and Paper

        • E.9.1. Biopulping

        • E.9.2. Black Liquor Recovery

        • E.9.3. Chemimechanical Pulping

        • E.9.4. Chlorine-Free Bleaching

        • E.9.5. Kraft Pulping

      • E.10. Specialty Chemicals

        • E.10.1. Acetophenone

        • E.10.2. Carbon Nanotubes

        • E.10.3. 3-R Citronellol

        • E.10.4. Cleve’s Acid

        • E.10.5. Dextrins

        • E.10.6. D-Malic Acid

        • E.10.7. Salicylic Acid USP

      • E.11. Waste Treatment and Recovery

        • E.11.1. Nylon Recycling

        • E.11.2. Sulfur Dioxide Treatment

        • E.11.3. Sulfur Recovery

        • E.11.4. Toxic Waste Disposal

    • F Design Projects II

      • F.1 Ethylhexanol from Propylene and Synthesis Gas

        • The Project

        • The Process

        • Scope of Design Work Required

        • Data

        • References

      • F.2 Chlorobenzenes from Benzene and Chlorine

        • The Project

        • The Process

        • Data

        • References

      • F.3 Methyl Ethyl Ketone from Butyl Alcohol

        • The Project

        • The Process

        • Scope of Design Work Required

        • Data

        • References

      • F.4 Acrylonitrile from Propylene and Ammonia

        • The Project

        • The Process

        • References

      • F.5 Urea from Ammonia and Carbon Dioxide

        • The Project

        • The Process

        • Scope of Design Work Required

        • References

      • F.6 Hydrogen from Fuel Oil

        • The Project

        • The Process

        • Data

        • Scope of Design Work Required

        • References

      • F.7 Chlorine Recovery from Hydrogen Chloride

        • The Project

        • The Process

        • Data

        • References

      • F.8 Aniline from Nitrobenzene

        • The Project

        • The Process

        • Scope of Design Work Required

        • Data

        • References

    • G Equipment Specification (Data) Sheets

    • H Typical Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Tube-Sheet Layouts

    • I Material Safety Data Sheet

      • 1,2-Dichloroethane, Extra Dry, Water < 50 ppm

      • Section 1—Chemical Product and Company Identification

      • Section 2—Composition, Information on Ingredients

      • Section 3—Hazards Identification

        • Emergency Overview

        • Potential Health Effects

      • Section 4—First Aid Measures

      • Section 5—Fire Fighting Measures

      • Section 6—Accidental Release Measures

      • Section 7—Handling and Storage

      • Section 8—Exposure Controls, Personal Protection

      • Section 9—Physical and Chemical Properties

      • Section 10—Stability and Reactivity

      • Section 11—Toxicological Information

      • Section 12—Ecological Information

      • Section 13—Disposal Considerations

      • Section 14—Transport Information

      • Section 15—Regulatory Information

        • U.S. Federal

      • Section 16—Additional Information

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