Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com www.Ebook777.com Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com A History of Science in Society www.Ebook777.com This page intentionally left blank A HISTORY of SCIENCE in SOCIETY From Philosophy to Utility Second Edition Andrew Ede and Lesley B Cormack Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Copyright © University of Toronto Press Incorporated 2012 Higher Education Division www.utppublishing.com All rights reserved The use of any part of this publication reproduced, transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, or stored in a retrieval system, without prior written consent of the publisher—or in the case of photocopying, a licence from Access Copyright (Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency), One Yonge Street, Suite 1900, Toronto, Ontario M5E 1E5—is an infringement of the copyright law Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Ede, Andrew A history of science in society : from philosophy to utility / by Andrew Ede and Lesley B Cormack.—2nd ed Includes bibliographical references and index Also issued in electronic formats ISBN 978-1-4426-0446-9 Science—History Science—Social aspects—History I Cormack, Lesley B., 1957– II Title Q125.E33 2012 509 C2011-908552-6 We welcome comments and suggestions regarding any aspect of our publications— please feel free to contact us at news@utphighereducation.com or visit our Internet site at www.utppublishing.com North America 5201 Dufferin Street North York, Ontario, Canada, M3H 5T8 2250 Military Road Tonawanda, New York, USA, 14150 UK, Ireland, and continental Europe NBN International Estover Road, Plymouth, PL6 7PY, UK orders phone: 44 (0) 1752 202301 orders fax: 44 (0) 1752 202333 orders e-mail: enquiries@nbninternational.com orders phone: 1–800–565–9523 orders fax: 1–800–221–9985 orders e-mail: utpbooks@utpress.utoronto.ca Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders; in the event of an error or omission, please notify the publisher The University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial support for its publishing activities of the Government of Canada through the Canada Book Fund Typesetting: Em Dash Design Printed in Canada www.Ebook777.com Contents acknowledgements vii introduction ix The Origins of Natural Philosophy The Roman Era and the Rise of Islam 29 The Revival of Natural Philosophy in Western Europe 65 Science in the Renaissance: The Courtly Philosophers 91 The Scientific Revolution: Contested Territory The Enlightenment and Enterprise Science and Empire 165 203 Entering the Atomic Age Science and War 129 241 271 10 The Death of Certainty 295 11 1957: The Year the World Became a Planet 323 12 Man on the Moon, Microwave in the Kitchen 349 13 New Frontiers: Science and Choice in the New Millennium further reading 397 index 409 379 This page intentionally left blank Acknowledgements To Graham and Quin, who teach us about life—and who put up with two authors working in the house at the same time We would also like to thank those people who helped make this book possible: our editor and publisher; friends and colleagues who read early drafts and gave advice; reviewers and users who have offered helpful criticism and forced us to defend our position; and all the amazing historians of science on whose shoulders (or toes) we stand This page intentionally left blank Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Introduction Science has transformed human history It has changed how we see the universe, how we interact with nature and each other, and how we live our lives It may, in the future, even change what it means to be human The history of such a powerful force deserves a full and multifaceted examination Yet a history of science is unlike a history of monarchs, generals, steam engines, or wars because science isn’t a person, an object, or an event It is an idea, the idea that humans can understand the physical world This is a history of what happens when a legion of thinkers, at different times and from different backgrounds, turned their minds and hands to the investigation of nature In the process, they transformed the world The history of science is such a vast subject that no single book about it can really be comprehensive, and so the story we tell examines science from a particular point of view Some histories of science have focused on the intellectual development of ideas, while others have traced the course of particular subjects such as astronomy or physics In this book, we have chosen to look at science from two related perspectives that we believe offer a window onto the historical processes that shaped the study of nature First, we have examined the link between the philosophical pursuit of knowledge and the desire of both the researchers and their supporters to make that knowledge useful There has always been a tension between the intellectual aspects of science and the application of scientific knowledge The ancient Greek philosophers struggled with this problem, and it is www.Ebook777.com Index International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU ), 324, 326 International Geophysical Year (IGY ), 324, 326, 328–29 International Polar Year, 326 international trade, 204 International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, 328 Internet, 360 Introduction to Aristotle’s Logic (Porphyry), 42 inventor, era of the, 247 Ionian philosophy, 8, 12–14 “Ionoscope,” 344 ions, 249 iron, 207 Isaacs, John, 388 Islamic alchemy, 51–52, 76, 81 Islamic astronomers, 56 Islamic law, 61 Islamic natural philosophy European access to, 66–67 Islamic Renaissance, 46–49, 51, 60–62 Islamic scholars, 47 Islamic scholarship, 44 Islamic theology, 45 Islamic world, 44, 48 Abassids, 46 courtly behaviour, 47 craft skills, 47 interest in education, 46 natural philosophers educated as physicians, 47 natural philosophy, 45, 47–48, 58, 72 psychological superiority, 61 scholarship, 45, 47 surgery, 48 technically advanced, 47 wealth, 45 Ism’ilya (Muslim sect), 53 Israel, 325 Istanbul, 70 Italian city-states, 67, 88 Italian merchants, 88 Italy, 88, 92, 183, 304, 307 created national research council, 288 unification, 204 voting rights for women, 295 IUD (intrauterine device), 362 ivory, 70, 88 Jābir ibn Hayyn, 5254 Al-Jabr wal muqabalah (Algebra), 50, 72 Jacob, Franỗois, 369 Jacquard, Joseph-Marie, 354 jailed scientists and engineers, 337 James I , King, 131 Jami (Averroes), 60 Jansky ( Jy), 331 Jansky, Karl, 331 Jansoon, Willem, 103 Japan, 307 consumer electronics industry, 360 surrender (1945), 311 Jardin de Roi, 183 Jeanneret, Charles-Édouard See Le Corbusier Jefferson, Thomas, 170–71, 200 Jerusalem, 69–70 Jesuit order, 120 Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL ), 308, 339, 342 Jewish cabala, 94 Jewish scholars, 73 jihad (holy war), 44 job specialization, 57 John Moore v The Regents of the University of California, 373–74 Joliot, Jean, 305 Joliot-Curie, Frederic, 314 Joliot-Curie, Irene, 305 Joule, James Prescott, 251, 276 Journal de physique, 198, 248 Journal des Sỗavans, 155 Joyce, James, Finnegans Wake, 365 Jupiter, 8, 32 four moons of, 112 satellites, 272 Jupiter rockets, 339 Justinian, Emperor, 43 Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes, 278, 285, 305 Kanada, 58 Kandinsky, Wassily, 295 kaon, 365 Kapitsa, Pjotr Leonidovich, 345 Karlsruhe Congress, 249 Kathodenstrahlen See cathode rays Katyusha (rocket), 337 Kekulé, Friedrich August, 233–34 Kelvin, Lord, 221, 227, 246, 250–53 Kennedy, John F., 342–43, 346 Kennedy Space Center, 346 Kepler, Johannes, 101, 150–51, 156, 177 assistant to Tycho Brahe, 114 as Copernican, 112–13 as court astronomer, 117 horoscopes, 117 as Imperial Mathematician, 112, 114–15 life of, 112–13 Mysterium Cosmographicum, 114 New Astronomy, 114 Kepler’s three laws, 115–16 Kew Gardens, 185 Khan, Hulegu, 55 khem, 50 Khrushchev, Nikita, 337, 346 al-Khwarazmi, Muhammad ibn Musa, 49–50 Algebra, 50, 72 Astronomical Tables, 72 Liber Ysagogarum Alchorismi, 72 Zij al-Sindh, 55 Kibalchich, Nikolai, 333 Kiev Polytechnic Institute, 337 Kilby, Jack, 359 al-kimiya, 51 al-Kindi, 73 De aspectibus, 75 kinetic theory of gases, 252–53, 333 Kirch, Gottfried, 159 Kirchoff, Gustav, 266, 345 Kitab al-Hawi fi al-tibb (The Comprehensive Book on Medicine), 53 Kitāb Al-jāmi li mufrādat aladwiya wa al-aghchiya, 48 421 422 Index Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics), 49 Kitab al-Shifa’ (The Book of Healing), 49 Kitab fi Jawani (A Compendium of the Science of the Stars), 55 Kleist, Ewald Jürgen, 173 Kleistiche flache See Leyden jar knowledge, 130, 159 certain, 132 control of, 66 as open to all, 18 practical applications, 122 as sacred, 45 scientific, 178 of truth, 60 utility of, x, xi, 121 knowledge as power, 131 Koch, Robert, 226 Ko-Hung, 59 Kolmya gold mines, 337 Konstantinov, Konstantin, 333 Korean War, 324 Korolev, Sergei P., 342 Kroto, Harold, 386 Kublai Khan, 59 Kuhn, Thomas, 101 Kühne, Wilhelm Friedrich, 304 Kyoto Protocol, 394 La Pộrouse, Jean-Franỗois de Galaup, Comte de, 185 laboratory manuals, 53 Lagrange, Joseph, 198 astrophysics, 176 Mécanique analytique, 176 Lagrange points, 176 laissez-faire economics, 218 Lalande, Jerome de, 178 Lamarck, Jean Baptiste de, 212–13 lambda, 365 lambda particles, 364 lambda virus, 370 Langemak, Georgy, 337 Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 341 languages (study of ), 50 Laplace, Pierre Simon, 176, 196–97, 223 caloric, 250 laser-supersonic cluster beam apparatus, 386 Lasser, David, 334 Latin (lingua franca), 68 Latin scholars, 66–67, 75, 89 latitude, 326 Laue, Max von, 257 Laurent, Auguste, 249 “Nucleus theory,” 232 Lavoisier, Antoine, 177, 181, 191, 195–96, 250 Elements of Chemistry, 228, 230 execution, 198 interest in reform, 195 Méthode de nomenclature chimique, 197 nomenclature, 227 Reflections on Phlogiston, 196 Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elements of Chemistry), 198 Lavoisier, Marie Anne Pierrette (Paulze), 195, 197 law, 50, 71 law of independent assortment, 281 “The Law of Octaves and the Causes of Numerical Relations Between Atomic Weights” (Newlands), 229 Law of Parsimony, 85 law of segregation, 281 Lawrence, Ernest O., 310, 364 Le Chatelier, Henri, 254 Le Corbusier, 295 Le Gentil, Guillaume, A Voyage in the Indian Ocean, 178 Le Rossignol, Robert, 286 lead poisoning, 41–42 Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment, 110 legal knowledge, 130 Legendre, Adrien Marie, 223 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 133, 156–57, 159, 167 calculus, 133 Lemtre, Georges F., 330, 345 Lenard, Philipp, 267 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 336 Lenin Academy of the Agricultural Sciences, 301 Leonardo da Vinci, 108 “Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina” (Galileo), 119 levers, 24 Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory, 341 Leyden jar, 173–74 Li, Choh Hao, 392 Liber Aggregationis (The Book of Secrets), 53–54, 76–77, 94 Liber de Compositione Alchemie (Book of the Composition of Alchemy), 73 Liber Regalis (Haly Abba), 72 Liber Ysagogarum Alchorismi (al-Khwarizmi), 72 liberal arts, 68, 71 Lichtenfels, Canon, 106 Liebug, Justus von, 235 Life magazine, 339–40 light, 75, 83, 136, 151–52, 245, 259, 272 wave theory of, 176, 247, 254 lighthouses, 176 lingua franca See Latin Linnaean Society, 217 Linnaeus, Carolus, 183, 188, 204–5 classification of humans, 205 Philosophia Botanica, 190 Systema Natura, 198 Lippes, Jack, 362 Lippes loop, 362 “liquid-drop” model of the nucleus, 305 liquid-fuel rockets, 333–35, 346 Lit and Phils See scientific organizations and societies literacy, 42–43, 48, 72, 122, 170, 375 under Charlemagne, 68 Germany, 285 Islamic world, 45 Little Boy (bomb), 311 Le Livre du Ciel et Monde (Oresme), 87 Locke, John, Two Treatises of Government, 167 locomotion, 18 Lodge, Sir Oliver, 331 logarithms, 353–54 logic, 15, 20, 68–69, 92 longitude, 36, 174–75, 178, 326 Index long-range aircraft, 289 Lorentz, Hendrik, 274 Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction theory, 274 Loschmidt, Joseph, 252 Louis XVI , King, 200 Love Canal, 368 Lucretius, 141 lunar calendar, 55 lunar month, 32 Lunar Society, 186, 213 “Lunatics.” See Lunar Society Lunik series, 342 Luther, Martin, 118, 122 luxury items, 88 Lyceum (Aristotle’s school), 16, 22, 43 Lyell, Charles, 207, 217 non-progressionist stance, 210–11 Principles of Geology, 209, 214, 327 Lysenko, Trofin Denisovich, 302–3 Lysenkoism, 302–3 Mach, Ernst, 253 machine intelligence, 357 MacLeod, Colin, 316 Macquer, Pierre Joseph, 196 Dictionnaire de Chymie, 191 Elémens de Chymie Pratique, 191 macrobiology of natural selection, 278 macromolecule, 263 Magdeburg hemispheres, 145–46 magic and philosophy, 77 magnetic field, 245, 364 magnetic separation, 310 magnetic storms, 326 magnetism, 221, 242 magnetite, 328 magnetron tubes, 352 Mahmud, 50 Maimonides, Moses, 85 Dalālat al-Ha‘irīn (Guide to the Perplexed), 73 Makin, Bethsua, An Essay to Revive the Ancient Education of Gentlewoman, 157 maktab (mosque schools), 45 Malacca (Malaysia), 102 malaria, 205, 236 Malpighi, Marcello, 145, 149–50 Malthus, Thomas, 215, 218 An Essay on the Principle of Population, 214 mammals, 190 mammoths, 208 al-Mamun, 46, 55 man in space, 345–46 man on the Moon, 345 Manchester Automatic Digital Machine, 357 Manchester College, 194 Manchester Literary and Philosophical society, 186, 188 Manhattan Project, 308–11, 356 Mannheim, Victor Amédée, 353 Mansur, Nuh ibn, 48 al-Mansur, Caliph, 46 manufacturing and trade, 104, 186, 188 manuscripts, 68, 70, 72, 94, 96 mapping, 103, 134, 178 mapping the human genome, 371 Maragha, 55 Marc, Franz, 295 Marco Polo, 96 Marcus Aurelius, Emperor, 38 Mariner 10, 363 Mariner II , 363 Mariotte, Edmé, 146 “Mariotte’s law,” 146 marketplace, 5, 167 marriage, Mars, 8, 32–33, 114–15, 363 Marsden, Ernest, 265 Martel, Charles, 69 Martius, Carl Alexander, 237 mass printing technology, 95 mass production, 247 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 308 Mästlin, Michael, 101 mastodons, 208 materia medica, 59 material philosophy, material world, 51 Aristotle’s interest in, 16 Socrates’ rejection of, 14–15 materials science, 223, 386 mathematical models, 246 mathematical physics, 176–77 mathematical practitioners, 134–35 Mathematical Syntaxis (Ptolemy) See Almagest (Ptolemy) mathematics, 3, 22, 50, 57–58, 69, 76, 107, 121 importance to study of universe, 117 as language of natural philosophy, 132–34 patronage and, 111 of probability, 135 mathematization of nature, 162 matter, 18, 254, 261 Aristotle on, 17 electrical charge, 249 study of, 191, 242 matter theory, 58, 191, 252 Mauchly, John, 356 Maupertuis, Pierre de, 175–76 Maxwell, James Clerk, 245, 248, 253, 255, 272 mathematical models, 246 Maxwellian electric waves, 249 McClung, Clarence, 300 McCormick, Katherine Dexter, 361 McLuhan, Marshall, 95 measurement, 3, 198, 200 new systems of, 174–75 path to true knowledge, 174 Mécanique analytique (Lagrange), 176 Mecca, 44–45 mechanical philosophy, 138, 142, 158, 179 mechanics Archimedes, 25–26 Galileo’s achievements in, 110 patronage and, 111 media attention, 383 medical chemistry, 105, 192 Medici, Cosimo I de, Grand Duke, 112 Medici, Cosimo de, 93 Medici, court, 111 Medici family, 93, 107 423 424 Index medicine, xi, 31, 43, 46, 48–50, 53, 58, 122 anatomy, 40, 143 higher education in, 71 Hippocrates of Cos, 38–39 philosophy of, 39 treatment of men vs women, 39 medieval Aristotelianism, 61 medieval scholarship, 75 Mediterranean trade, 71 Mehmut, 70 Mechta (Dream), 342 Meitner, Lise, 295, 305, 307 “Mémoire sur la théorie mathématique des phénomènes électrodynamique …” (Ampère), 243 Mendel, Johann Gregor, 280–81, 300, 315 plant breeding experiments, 280, 282 Mendeleev, Dmitri Ivanovitch, 229 medals and awards, 231 periodic table, 230 Mendelians, 300 Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Paul, 237 mental illness, 49 Menzies, Archibald, 185 mercantile culture, 104 mercantilism, 134 Mercator, Gerard, 103, 175 mercury, 82, 106, 146, 148, 174, 194 Mercury (planet), 8, 32, 97–99, 177, 363 Mercury’s motion, 56 Merian, Maria, 158–59 Mersenne, Father Marin, 155–56 Mesa, Bernardo de, 104 Meselson, Matthew, 369 messenger RNA (MRNA ), 369 Metallurgical Laboratory at University of Chicago, 308 metallurgy, 47 metals, 52–53 Metaphysics (Aristotle), 75 Meteorologica (Aristotle), 52, 72, 75 meteorology, 326–27 A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes (Goddard), 333 Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Lavoisier), 197 metric system of measurement, 200 Meyer, Julius Lothar, 228–30 medals and awards, 231 Michelson, Albert, 273 Michelson-Morley experiment, 275 microbiology, 278 microchip revolution, 360 Micrographia (Hooke), 150 microprocessors, 360 microscopes, 145, 149–50, 278 microwave ovens, 351–52 Middle East, 70, 204 midwives, 39, 78, 158 Miescher, Friedrich, 315 “Might is right,” 218 military, 2, 223 under Charlemagne, 67 relation to Social Darwinism, 218 Milky Way, 55, 331 Millikan, Robert Andrew, 259 mimicry, 220 Mind, 357 minima naturalia, 53 mining, 51, 105 Minuteman missile, 339 Miriam, sister of Moses, 52 Mirifici logarithmorum canons descriptio (Napier), 353 miscarriage, 368 missile defence, 303 “missile gap,” 340 “missing links,” 221 Mittelwerk factory, 335–36 “modern alchemy,” 265 modern liberalism, 295 Mohammad al-Fazari, 55 molecule creation, 233 molecules, 365 moles, 248 Moluccas (Spice Islands), 102 “monads,” 157 monastery schools, 68 Monck, Christopher, Duke of Albemarle, 183 Monet, Claude, 295 Monge, Gaspard, 223 Mongol Empire, 59 Montaigne, Michel de, 104 Montesquieu, baron de, Charles de Secondat, 171 Moon, 8, 138 Lunik series, 342 man on the moon, 343 motion of, 56–57 rocket to, 337 Moon landing national pride, 346 Moore, Gordon E., 360 Moore School of Electrical Engineering, 356 “Moore’s Law,” 360 moral philosophy, 130 Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 300–301, 315 Morse, Samuel, 247 motion, 12, 18, 112, 138, 142 of acceleration, 133 Aristotelian theories, 18–19 Galileo on, 109–10 of the stars, 330 of the Sun and the Moon, 56–57 Mount Etna, 209 Mount Holyoke, 350 Mount Palomar, 330 Mount Wilson Observatory, 330 Mouton, Gabrial, 200 Muhammad, 44–45 Muller, Hermann Joseph, 301–2, 314–15 “multipliers” (alchemists), 140 muon, 364–65 Muqtadari Hospital, 53 Murchison, Roderick I., 211 Murray, Matthew, 204 Muses, 22 museum collecting, 182–85 museums, 33, 183 Alexandria, 22–23 Museum of Mankind in Paris, 206 Natural History Museum in Paris, 206 private, 160 music, 49, 68 musical harmony, Pythagorean demonstration of, Musschenbroek, Pieter van, 173 Index Mussolini, 304 mustard gas, 289 mutation, 283, 300–301 Die Mutationshtheorie (De Vries), 283 Mysterium Cosmographicum (The Mystery of the Universe), 114 mystical aspects of number system, 8, 10 mystical aspects of Paracelsus’s work, 107 mystical Christianity (mysticism), 87 mysticism, 61 Nagasaki, 311–12 Nägeli, Karl Wilhelm von, 282 nanofactories, 389–90 nanotechnology, 386–89 nanotubes, 387 naphthalidine, 236 Napier, John, 353 Napoleon, 203, 207, 223–24 NASA, 341–42, 344, 346–47, 366 NASA’s Institute for Advanced Concepts, 388 Nasir al-Din Tusi, 55 National Academy of Sciences, Italy (The Forty), 169 National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 341 National Defense Education Act (NDEA ), 340 National Environmental Policy Act, 368 national governments research agendas established by, 320 National Institutes of Health (NIH ), 372 national interest integrating with research interests, 319 and science policy, 285 national interest, industry, research intersection, 286 National Museum of Natural History in Paris, 206 national security, 227 and science policy, 227, 312–14 Natural History (Pliny), 31 natural history collecting, 220 Natural History Museum in Paris, 206 Natural Law Party, 379–80 natural magic, 158 natural motion, 18 natural philosophy, xi, 46–47, 49, 73 China, 57–60 court patronage’s impact on, 117 effect of printing press, 95–96 Epicurean, 18 foundations of, Greek, 1, 8, 16–23, 25–26, 75, 93 India, 57–60 Islamic world, 45, 47–48, 72 plague’s effect on, 87 revival in Western Europe, 65–68, 70–76, 78, 80–86, 88 in Roman era, 31–33, 35–36, 38–39, 41 “third way” of worshipping God, 122 as tool for reform, 165–69 natural resources, 166, 179, 203, 268, 284 Natural Sciences Tripos, 246 natural selection See evolution by natural selection natural theology, 221 natural vs supernatural, 3, 7, 66, 86, 89 nature as exploitable, 158–59 power over, 191 Nature, 305, 318, 385 Naval Research Laboratory, 341 navigation, 3, 33, 36, 78, 121, 134, 175, 353–54 Nazi Party, 304 Needham, Joseph, Science and Civilization in China, 58 Ne’eman, Yuval, 365 neo-Lamarkian form of evolution, 302 neo-Lamarkians, 213 Neptunism, 180 Nesmeianov, A.N., 337 Nestorian Christians, 46 neutrinos, 365 neutron bombardment, 305 neutron chain reaction, 307 neutrons, 363 The New Astronomy (Kepler), 114 “A New Class of Faults and Their Bearing on Continental Drift” (Wilson), 328 New England Journal of Medicine, 385 New Experiments PhysicoMechanical Touching the Spring of the Air and its Effects, 145 New Science, 121, 166 “New Science School,” 225 new synthesis, 278, 303 New System of Chemical Philosophy (Dalton), 228 New Theory of the Earth (Whiston), 179 New World peoples, 103–4 New World race (Americans), 205 New World trading networks, 104 Newcastle, Margaret See Cavendish, Margaret Newlands, Alexander Reina, 229 newspapers See information dissemination Newton, Sir Isaac, 101, 109–10, 116–17, 132, 156, 166–67, 191–92, 273 annus mirabilis, 136, 150 calculus, 133, 136 claim for universality of forces, 210 conquering of nature and, 161 experimental method, 150–51 interest in alchemy, 140 Master of the Mint, 140 mathematical model of motion, 135 Opticks, 150, 152, 176 personal theology, 136 Principia, 137–38, 140, 142, 209 state funeral, 140, 165 universal gravitation, 135, 137–38 Newtonian certainty, 271, 276 Newtonian corpuscularianism, 265 425 426 Index Newtonian mechanics, 167, 176, 259 Newtonian world view, 241 Newtonianismo per le dame (Algarotti), 171 Newton’s theory of gravity, 175 Newton’s universal laws, 135, 139 Niceaen Creed, 43 Nicolay, Nicolas de, 103 Niépe, Nicéphore, 256 Nile, Nilson, L.F., 231 Nipkow, Paul, 344 nitric oxide, 194 Nixon, Richard, 342 Nobel, Alfred Bernhard, 257 Nobel Prizes, 257–58, 260, 286, 308, 318, 329, 345, 385 national prowess and, 323 noble savage, 104, 185 nominalism, 86 non-disclosure agreements or “gag orders,” 384 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO ), 325 Notgemeinschaft der Deutsche Wissenschaft, 263 Noyce, Robert, 359 nuclear Armageddon, 362 nuclear arms race See arms race nuclear bombs, 312 nuclear physics, 296 nuclear power, 296, 308 nuclear weapons, 296, 346, 356 computing and, 357 manifesto against, 314 secrecy of, 313, 332 nucleic acid, 315–16 “nucleus theory,” 232, 265 number theory, 22 Oberth, Hermann, 335 observation, 2–3, 145, 177 See also experiments and experimentation Aristotelian, 82 changes the thing observed, 299 limits to, 298 “occult forces,” 117 oceanography, 326, 328 Ockham’s Razor, 85–86 Oedipus Rex story, Oersted, Hans Christian, 242–43 Office of Health and Environmental Research (OHER ), 371 Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD ), 308, 338 Ohm, Georg Simon, Die galvanische Kette, 243 Oken, Lorenz, 224 Old Testament, 78 Oldenburg, Henry, 155 Olivieri, Nancy, 384 Olympics, Olympos, On Being and Essence (Aquinas), 79 “On Computable Numbers with an Application to the Entscheidungs-problem” (Turing), 357 On the Beach (Shute), 323, 329 “On the calorific effects of magneto-electricity and on the mechanical value of Heat” ( Joule), 251 On the Consolation of Philosophy (Boethius), 42 On the Dynamical Theory of Heat (Kelvin), 222 On the Formation of the Egg and the Chick (Fabrici), 145 “On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat” ( Joule), 252 On the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals (Harvey), 143 On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (Darwin), 217–18, 220 “On the Possibility of Technical Energy Production From Uranium Splitting” (Heisenberg), 307 On the Unity of the Intellect, Against the Averroists (Aquinas), 79 oncomouse, 374 Operation “Alsos,” 312 opium, 53 Oppau and Leuna Ammonia Works, 286 Oppenheimer, Robert, 309–10, 314 Optica (Euclid), 75 Opticks (Newton), 150, 152, 176 optics, 47–48, 75, 83, 136, 150, 152, 176 Optics (Ptolemy), 72 Opus Majus (Bacon), 78 oral contraceptives, 361 Oresme, Nicolas, Le Livre du Ciel et Monde, 87 organic chemistry, 232–33, 237, 278 quest for artificial quinine, 205 organic synthesis, 238 Ortelius, Abraham, 103 Osiander, Andreas, 98 Ostwald, Wilhelm, 254 Otto III , Holy Roman Emperor, 69 Oughtred, William, 353 ova, 145 Oxford University, 72, 75 oxygen, 194 oxygen theory, 197 oxygène, 196 pacemakers, 360 Pacific theatre, 311 Palestine, 44 Paley, William, 221 pangens See genes papal authority, 85 paper, 57 Paracelsus, 105–6, 158 parallax, 98 Parallel Lives (Plutarch), 25 Paris Observatory, 174, 178 Parks, Mungo, 185 Parmenides of Elea, 12, 14 particles, 258, 265, 363–65 parts manufacturing, 239 Pascal, Blaise, 134, 148–49, 353 Pascal’s Wager, 134 Pasteur, Louis, 226–27 Pasteur Institutes, 226 pasteurization, 226 Patents and Trademarks Office (USPTO ), 373 Index patronage, 22, 81, 101, 106–9, 131, 134, 153–54, 170, 185, 194 Aristotle, 16 of the arts, 88 and biased results, 82 effect on natural philosophy, 108, 117 Galileo, 111–12, 118 Kepler, 112, 114 Medicis, 93 in merchant halls, 91 Otto III of Saxony, 69 princely courts, 91–92, 107, 117 replaced by institutional funding, 242 Paul V , Pope, 119 Pauling, Linus, 261, 314, 317 Paulze, Marie Anne Pierrette, 195, 197 Paxton, Joseph, 225 Pearl Harbor, 308, 311 Peel, Sir Robert, 235 peer review system, 384–85 pelvic inflammatory disease, 362 Penrose, Roger, 366 Penzias, Arno, 345 Nobel Prize, 345 “People of the Book,” 67 perfectibility of man, 194 perfume, 70, 88 periodic table of elements, 229–31 Perkin, William, 236–328 Perkin Medal, 237 Perkin’s indigo, 278 Perrin, Jean-Baptiste, 264 Persia, 41, 44 pessimism, 67 pesticide use, 367–68 Peter the Great, 169 Peterson, Chase, 382 Petrarch, 92 Petty, Sir William, 194 phage geneticists, 317 Phage School, 316 Phaleron, Demetrius, 22 pharmaceutical business interference with scientific inquiry, 384 pharmacology (iatrochemistry), 51 Philco, 359 “the Philosopher.” See Aristotle philosopher, image of, 14, 16, 25–26 Philosopher’s stone, 52, 81, 106, 140 Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica See Principia (Newton) philosophical demonstrations, 170–71 philosophical instruments, 149–50 Philosophical Letters on the English (Voltaire), 165 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 155, 174 Philosophie Zoologique (Lamarck), 212 philosophy, 14–15, 46, 50, 60–61 relation to theology, 78, 86 and utility, xi philosophy and theology, 88–89, 92 phlogiston theory, 192–97 phosgene, 289 phosphorescence, 259 phosphorous, 315 photography, 247, 256 photons, 267, 363 physical chemistry, 254 physicians, 47–48 Physicists’ War, 319 physics, 10, 50–51, 135, 296, 315, 363, 365–66 importance during 1920s and 1930s, 290 male-dominated field, 351 quantitative orientation, 245 replaced chemistry as premier science, 319 Physics (Aristotle), 75 pi, 24 the Pill, 361 See also oral contraceptives Pincus, Gregory, 361 pion, 364 Pioneer 4, 342 Pioneer 10, 363 Pioneer 11, 363 pitch, 191, 227 pitchblende, 260 place-holder mathematics, 49, 57 plague See Black Death Planck, Max, 266–67, 295, 345 Planck’s constant, 298 planets See astronomy plate tectonics, 329 Plato, 16, 31, 40–41, 80, 82, 93 Latin translations, 94 rediscovery of, 92 The Republic, 15 Timaeus, 15, 43, 65, 73 on utility of knowledge, xi Platonic Academy, 93 Platonic idealism, 16 accordance with Christian theology, 73 Pleistocene Age, 209 Pliny the Elder, 31 Plücker, Julius, 255 “plum pudding” or “raisin bun” model of atom, 264 Plutarch, Parallel Lives, 25 plutonium, 310 pneumatic chemistry, 191 pneumococcus bacteria, 316 “point contacts,” 359 Poitiers, 69 Polaris missile, 339 political expediency, 302–3 Pollution Probe, 369 polonium, 260 Pons, Stanley, 382–83 popularization of scientific study, 169–70 population genetics, 303 population studies in studying evolution, 300 Porphyry, Introduction to Aristotle’s Logic, 42 Portugal, 101, 284 Posidonius, 31 positivism, 253 positron, 364 Posterior Analytics (Aristotle), 20, 75 Postman, Neil, 394 postwar prosperity, 359 Potsdam Declaration, 311 Potteries, 188 Pouchet, Felix, 227 Powell, Baden, 221 Powell, Cecil, 314 practical skills, 78 427 428 Index precision fabrication, 353 prenatal genetic tests, 390 Price, James, 199 Priestley, Joseph, 172, 196 Experiments and Observation on the Different Kinds of Air, 194 radical political and religious views, 194 Priestley Riots, 194 priests, 2, prime matter, 52 princely courts See under patronage Principia (Newton), 137–38, 140, 142, 209 Principles of Geology (Lyell), 209, 327 Principles of Psychology (Spencer), 218 printing press, 88, 94–96, 98, 107 Prior Analytics (Aristotle), 20 prisons, 195 private laboratories, 160 private museums of natural history, 160 probability, 132, 134, 267, 271, 297 probes (in space exploration), 362 professionalization, 95, 155, 222–25, 242, 290 Germany, 285–86 progestin, 361 programming, 354, 360 progress, 125, 166–70, 188, 217 See also evolution culture of, 179 non-progressionist stance, 210–11 perfectibility, 194 of species in fossil record, 209 Project Vanguard, 339 projectile motion, 110 “proletariat,” 268 propaganda campaigns, 337, 342 proportional compass, 112 pro-science groups, 368 Protestant Reformation, 91, 117–18, 121, 124 impetus to education and literacy, 122 Protestantism, 153–54 seen as more conducive to science, 120 proton, 365 psychology, 49 women in, 350 “ptero-dactyle,” 209 Ptolemaic system, 33, 46, 59–60 Ptolemy, 22, 31, 34, 87, 97 Almagest, 32, 35–36, 46, 50, 72, 96 astronomy, 32–33, 36, 43, 49, 55–56 distinction between “geography” and “chorography,” 36 Geographia, 36, 102 mathematical geography, 36 Optics, 72 “Table of Important Cities,” 36 public works, 67, 88 public’s lack of faith in “objective” scientific answers, 368 punched cards, 354 punctuated equilibrium, 303 Punic Wars, 25, 29 pure research, 239 pure vs applied science See also utility Puritanism, 121, 153–54 Pythagoras, 8–10, 14, 82 Pythagorean idea of matter, 18 Pythagorean relationship, 58 Pythagorean theorem, 10, 57 Pythagoreans, 12–13 Q’ran, 45, 48, 55 quadrivium, 68 Quakers, 170, 188 quantitative analysis, 191, 199 quantum mechanics, 359 quantum physics, 297, 299–300 quantum theory, 266–67, 296, 298 “quarks,” 365 Questiones Naturales (Adelard of Bath), 72 quinine, 205, 236 Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, 56 R-7 rocket, 337 race Blumenbach’s race distribution, 206 racial theorists, 206 Social Darwinism and, 218 race to space, 320, 332–33 battle between scientific styles, 332 fight for international prestige, 341 secrecy, nationalism, and partisanship, 324 radar detection equipment, 351, 361–62 “Radarange,” 352 radiation, 256, 260, 268, 345 radiation contamination, 304 Radiation Laboratories, 308 radicals, 232 radio, 346 radio astronomy, 331, 345 “radio brightness,” 331 radio broadcasts, 343 radio interferometer, 331 radio waves, 255 radioactive isotopes, 305 radioactive tracers, 315–16 radioactivity, 259–61, 264, 276 radioactivity research, 304 radium, 260 rainbow, 83–84 Raketnoe Zavedenie (Rocket Enterprise), 333 Rankine, William Macquorn, 250 rasavādam, 58 rationality, 194 rationality of science, 209 Raymond, Archbishop of Toledo, 72 Raytheon Corporation, 352 al-Razi See Rhazes RCA, 344, 359 reason and faith, 61 Reber, Grote, 331–32 recombinant DNA , 371 used in therapy, 391 recombinant genetics, 373 record-keeping, red dwarfs, 386 Red Star (Bogdanov), 336 Redstone rocket, 339 Reflections on Phlogiston (Lavoisier), 196 Index Reflections on the Decline of Science in England (Babbage), 224 Réflexions sur la puissance motrice de feu (Carnot), 251 reform, 186 reform movements, 195 connection to reform of natural philosophy, 170 refraction and reflection, 83 Regiomontanus, Johannes, 96 Renaissance, 92, 95, 107 renewed interest in classical texts, 91 Renaissance magic, 94 replicability of experiments, 148–49, 384 reproduction, 51, 281, 361 proportion of contribution in, 283 reproduction (or sexual reproduction), 158, 283 The Republic (Plato), 15 research agendas established by national governments, 320 research and development under NASA, 342 Research Board for National Security, 338 research centres (American), 308 “research for its own sake,” x research institutions (Russian), 336 respiration, 196 Restoration, 154 retrograde motion, 32–33, 97 revolution, 211 Rhazes, 53–54, 73, 81 Rheticus, Georg Joachim, 98 rhetoric, 40, 68, 92 rhinos, 208 rhododendrons, 185 Rifkin, Jeremy, 393 river cultures, 2–4 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 369 Robert de Courỗon, 74 Robert of Chester, 7273 Roche, 374 Rock, John, 361 Rockefeller Foundation, 295 Rockefeller Institute, 316 rocketry, 326, 332, 334, 337 German interest in, 333 Russian interest in, 333–34 Rodet, Marie Therese See Geoffrin, Marie Therese (Rodet) Roebuck, John, 186 Roemer, Olaus, 272 Rohrer, Heinrich, 388 Roman architecture, 31 Roman Empire, 36 astronomy, 32 Christianization, 42 engineering accomplishments, 31 medicine, 31 natural philosophy in, 31–33, 35–36, 38–39, 41 practical knowledge, 29 public demonstrations of power, 30 regard for Greek philosophy, 29 “Table of Important Cities,” 36 Roman road system, 31, 41 Rome decline of, 41 lead poisoning, 41–42 Röntgen, Wilhelm Konrad, 256–57, 260 Nobel Prize, 257 röntgenograms See X-rays Roosevelt, Franklin D., 307, 311, 338, 344 science policy advisors, 308 Rosalind Franklin and DNA (Sayre), 317 Rotblat, Joseph, 314 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 104, 185 Royal Academy of Sciences in Berlin, 159 Royal College of Chemistry, 236 attempt to revive British leadership in science, 235 Royal Danish Academy of Science, 169 Royal Geological Society, 214 Royal Gunpowder and Saltpeter Administration, 196 Royal Hospital at Ray, 53 Royal Library, 48 Royal Navy, 185 Royal Observatory at Greenwich, 174 Royal School of Mines, 225 Royal Society, 149, 152–53, 157, 159, 169, 183, 186, 199, 211, 221 Baconian philosophy of research, 154 exclusion of women, 154 as exclusive social club, 224 foreign members, 231 gate-keeping function, 155 gentlemanly profile, 161, 175 History of the Trades project, 156–57 Newton and, 137, 139–40 Robert Boyle and, 145, 160 search for “third way,” 292 Royal Society statements comparison to modern grant applications, 380 rubidium, 228 Rudolph II, Emperor, 108, 112, 114–15, 117 Rudolphine Tables, 115 Rumford, Count (Benjamin Thompson), 251 Russell, Bertrand, 314 Russia See USSR Russian Academy of Science, 169 Russian Revolution (1917), 289, 295 Russian Society for Physics and Chemistry, 333 rusting, 191 Rutherford, Ernest, 264–65, 304 Ryle, Martin, 331–32 Sacred Theory of the Earth (Burnet), 179 Sagan, Carl, 366 salon culture, 170–71, 195, 197 popularization of natural philosophy, 170 saltation, 303 salvation, 66, 121 Earth as focal point for, 98 Sanger, Fred, 371 “Satellite Elongation into a True Sky-Hook” (Bachus), 388 429 430 Index satellite trajectories and orbits, 356 satellites in orbit, 337 American capacity, 340 Saturn, 8, 32, 363 Saturn rocket series, 346 Saturn’s rings, 363 Savannah (steam-powered ship), 204 Saxton, Christopher, 103 Sayre, Anne, Rosalind Franklin and DNA, 317 scandium, 231 scanning tunnelling microscope (STM ), 388–89 Schickard, Wilhelm, 353 scholars in new, secular, noncourt settings, 157 scholastic natural philosophers, 83 scholasticism, 66, 78–80, 85, 89 Scholastics, 61 Schrödinger, Erwin, 295, 297–98 What is Life?, 317 Schrödinger’s cat, 298–99 science, 57, 107, 289, 352, 383 applying to problems with political and economic implications, 394 autonomy from philosophy or religion, 78, 211 bad science, 384–85 Big Science, 329, 380 codes of behaviour, 161 cooperative nature, 156 cultural expectations and, 317 dangerous side, 290, 292 definitions, 381 disciplines splitting, 349 fear of, 380–81 fraudulent claims, 379 funding, 319 (See also patronage) and gender relations, 361 gentlemanly pursuit (See gentlemen scientists) good scientific practice, 318–19 ideological tension facing, x, 324 institutionalization of, 153 interference with, 384 linked to a proof of God’s existence, 221 mastering the world, 239 mistakes, 395 national pride and, 323 New Science, 121, 166 occupation or employment choice, 349 power of, 380–81 problems of informed choice (See informed choices) professionalization, 155, 222–25, 242, 285–86, 290 Protestant Reformation’s effect, 118 public commodity, 318, 323, 329 as public endeavour, 156 public fear and disenchantment with, 368 relationship with state, 166, 227–29, 290–92, 304–20, 329, 332, 336, 381 self-regulation, 383–85 shift of scientific work to Protestant areas, 120 social expectations of, xi, 379 specialization, 242 teams (not individuals), 349 utility of (See utility) and war, 271–92 women (See women in science) Science, 385, 388 Science and Civilization in China (Needham), 58 science and religion, 61, 279 science and technology social unease with, 362 science education, 122, 170, 200, 222–25, 235, 242, 285, 290–91, 332, 339–40, 350, 380 at dissenter colleges, 170 for women, 350 German interest in, 236 scholarships to women, 351 secular interest in, 122 utility of subject and, 123 science fiction, 157, 330, 334, 363, 375 science in the national interest, 290–92 Science Museum of London, 354 science of climate change battleground for different interest groups, 393 scientific elite, 213 scientific evidence in legal matters, 362 scientific expeditions See voyages and expeditions scientific “fact” established by consensus, 394 established through witnessing of a few gentlemen, 161 establishing by community agreement, 100 scientific ideology, 160 exploitation and superiority toward nature, 159 scientific journals, 156, 349, 385 See also names of individual journal titles scientific knowledge, 186, 188 “scientific method,” 130 scientific methodology, 121 scientific organizations and societies, 152–58, 161, 169–70 restrictive for women, 159 specialized, 222 scientific point of view, 375 scientific research, 236, 332, 340 consumer goods, 352 secrecy, 384 useful products for average person, 351 utilitarian ends, 242 Scientific Revolution, 101, 135, 145, 166 definition, 129 scientific satellites, 329 scientific societies (new), 285–86 scientific teams, 319 scientists competing loyalties, 315 expected to work for the state, 312 German scientists, 304, 312 international contacts, 295 Index jailed scientists and engineers, 337 national interest vs international community of science, 314 opposition to super bombs, 314 ties to military, 362 Scopes Monkey Trial, 279 scriptoria, 68 Scrope, George Poulett, 209 scurvy, 175, 178, 184, 194 Seaborg, Glenn, 310 second-wave feminism, 351 secrecy in research, 384 secret knowledge, 52 Secret of Secrets See The Book of Secrets secular managerial class, 72 Sedgwick, Adam, 211, 214 segregation (racial), 218 seismograph, 327 seismology, 326 self-help books, 122 Seljuk Turks, 70 Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, 342 Seneca, 73, 92 “seven sisters” (women’s colleges), 350 sex-linked characteristics, 300–301 sexual reproduction See reproduction sexual revolution, 361–62 sexuality and procreation, scientific theories of, 158 Shadows, 50 Shahadah, 45 sharashkas (prison design bureaus), 337 Shepard, Allan, 346 Sherlock Holmes, 222 shipping fleets, 88 shipwrights, 107 Shockley, William, 359 Shovell, Cloudsley, 175 Shute, Nevil, On the Beach, 323, 329 S.I (Système Internationale), 200 Sic et non (Yes and No), 80 Sidereus Nuncius (The Starry Messenger), 112 Siedentopf, H., 262 Siegbahn, Karl Manne Georg, 257 Sierra Club, 369 Siger of Brabant, 79 sigma, 365 Silent Spring (Carson), 367 silk, 70, 88 Silk Road, 45, 80 Silurian system, 211 silver, 82, 104, 198 sine law of refraction, 150 Sinsheimer, Robert, 371 The Skeptical Chymist (Boyle), 145, 191 skepticism, 131 Skylab, 362 slavery, slide rule, 353 Sloane, Hans, 183, 205 slums, 179, 268 Small, William, 186 Smalley, Richard, 386 smelting, 51, 191, 247 Smith, Hamilton, 370 Smith, William, 209 Smith College, 350 smiths, 78 Smithsonian Institution, 244, 333 Snell, Willebrord, 150 “Soapy Sam.” See Wilberforce, Samuel Social Darwinism, 217–18 Social Statics (Spencer), 218 social unease with science and technology, 362 socialism, rise of, 302 Société d’Arcueil, 223 Society of Chemical Industry, 237 Socrates, 14–15, 80 rejection of nature, 14–15 Socratic method, 14–15 Soddy, Frederick, 264–65 Soho House, 186 Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Satellite, 177 solar and lunar calendars, 57, 59 solar and lunar eclipses, 59 solid state transistor, 352, 358–59 “Solomon’s House,” 130 somatostatin, 371 song birds, 367 Sony, 359–60 Sorbonne University, 73 Soviet Academy of Sciences, 337 Soviet International Exhibition of Rocket Technology in Moscow, 336 Soviet Union See USSR space elevator, 388 space exploration, 324, 362–63 probes, 362 space race See race to space space travel, 346 Spain, 44, 61, 69, 183 spark of life, 146 “special relativity,” 277 species definition of, 216 origin of, 212 stability, 211 Spencer, Herbert, 217 Principles of Psychology, 218 Social Statics, 218 Spencer, Percy, 351, 361–62 Spenserianism, 218 sperm counts, 368 Speusippas, 16 spices, 70, 88 spinning wheel, 57 spiritualism, 220 spontaneous generation, 7, 227 Sprat, Thomas, 154 Sputnik, 323, 329–30, 332, 337, 339, 351 fascinated world’s populations, 325 national outcry over (American), 342 psychological impact, 324 Sputnik II , 325 St Petersburg Technological Institute, 333 Stahl, Georg Ernst, 192 Stalin, Josef, 334, 353 purging of scientists and engineers, 336 sharashkas (prison design bureaus), 337 support for science and technology, 336 431 432 Index statistical methods, 278, 300 statistical theory (Mendel’s), 282 statistics of biometry, 303 Staudinger, Hermann, 262–63 Steady State, 210, 214, 330–31, 345 steam engine, 179, 186, 203 steam engine tramway locomotives, 204 steam power, 247 steam-driven presses, 247 steam-powered ships, 204 steel production, 239 Stefansson, Kari, 374 stellar parallax, 330 Steno, Nicolaus, 180 Stephen of Antioch, 72 Stevin, Simon, 134 STM See scanning tunnelling microscope Stoics, 40 Stoney, George Johnstone, 250 Strabo, De situ orbis, 36 Strassmann, Fritz, 305, 307 strontium-90, 314 structuralist ideas, 233 struggle and competition (of evolution) imperialist struggle for resources and, 216 Strutt, John William, Baron Rayleigh, 246 studia humanitatis, 92 studiolo, 182 Sturtevant, Alfred H., 301 Su Song, 59 subatomic particles, 365 subatomic physics, 360 Suess, Eduard, 327 Suez Canal, 325 suffrage, 350 suicide, 358 sulphur dioxide, 194 Summa Perfectionis, 53 Sun, 8, 99 as centre, 97, 101 magnetic force of, 114 rotating spots of, 112 Sunto di un corso de filosofia chimica (Epitome of a Course of Chemical Philosophy), 249 supernatural forces, 51 supernatural intervention, 16, 81 supernatural world, supralunar realm, 36 Supreme Court, 279, 373 on genetic patents, 373 Supreme Court of California, 374 Sur la figure de la Terre (On the Shape of the Earth), 175 surveying, 3, 134 surveyors, 107 “survival of the fittest,” 218 Sutton, Walter, Chromosomes Theory of Heredity, 283 Svedberg, The, 262 Swammerdam, Jan, 149–50 syllogisms, 20 Sylvester II , Pope raised profile of natural philosophy, 69 synchrotrons, 365 synthesis of organic compounds, 232 syphilis, 106 Systema Naturae (Linnaeus), 188 Szilard, Leo, 295, 307, 311–12 “Table of Important Cities” (Ptolemy), 36 Tafsir (Averroes), 60 Tahiti, 178, 185 Talkhis (Averroes), 60 Tang dynasty, 59 Tanganyika, 284 Taoism, 57–59 Tay-Sachs, 390 telecommunications sector workers who were part engineer, part scientist, part technician, 352 telegraph, 203–4, 221, 243 Wheatstone and Cooke’s, 247 telegraphy, 242 telescope, 32, 111, 330 television, 258, 345 demand for, 344 effect on scientists’ place in society, 344 for electoral purposes, 342 microcosm of modern science, 343 Moon landing, 346 used to introduce products of modern science, 344 Teller, Edward, 313 Telstar, 345 Tennyson, Alfred, baron, 216 terra pinguis, 193 terrestrial or sublunar realm, 36 Tesla, Nikola, 352 Texas Instruments, 359 textile industry, 354 Thabit ibn Qurra, 73 Thales of Miletus, 7, 14 theatre lighting, 176 Theoderic the Great, 42 Theodoric of Freiberg, 83 Theodorus of Cyrene, 15 Theodosius I , Emperor, 41–42 theology, 4, 65, 73, 88, 136 higher education in, 71 Theoria Philosophiae Naturalis (Boscovich), 177 theory and practice, x theory of ozone creation and depletion, 326 theory of relativity, 330 The Theory of the Earth (Hutton), 181 thermodynamics, 241, 254, 268 laws of, 252–53 thermometer, 174 Thirty Years’ War, 115 Thomas Aquinas, Saint, 61, 78–79, 88, 119 Thomistic natural philosophy, 79 Thomson, J.J., 258 Thomson, William, 221 Thor rocket, 339 thorium, 260 Tigris–Euphrates river system, 2, Timaeus (Plato), 15, 43, 65, 73 timekeeping, 2, 55 Timpinambas of Brazil, 104 tinctures, 53 Titan rocket, 339 Toledo, 48, 69 Christian, Jewish and Islamic scholars, 72 school of translation, 72 tolerance, 46 Torricelli, Evangelista, 148 “Torricellian space,” 148 Index torture, 131, 142 trade with the Middle East and Asia, 101 tradespeople exclusion from Royal Society, 154 “träger theory,” 262 Traité élémentaire de chimie (Elements of Chemistry), 198 Traités de l’équilibre des liqueurs et de la pesanteur de la mass de l’air (Pascal), 149 trans-Atlantic television broadcasts, 345 Transcendental Meditation, 379 transfer RNA or TRNA , 369 transistor radios, 359 transistor technology, 360 transit of Mercury, 177 transit of Venus, 177–78 translations, 72, 74 Arabic, 45–46, 93 Greek and Syriac texts, 46 Greek into Latin, 42, 69, 94 Greek texts, 93 transmigration of souls, transmutation, 51–52, 54, 59, 82 base metals into gold, 53 as doctrine of Church, 81 transportation revolution, 204 treason, 131 The Treasure of Treasures, 82 Treatise on Man (Descartes), 141 Treatise on Smallpox and Measles, 53 Treaty of Versailles, 290, 333 Trevithick, Richard, 204 trigonometry, 353 Trinity Test, 310, 312 trivium, 68, 92 Truman, Harry authorized use of atomic bombs, 311 truth and facts established by consensus, 394 established through witnessing of a few gentlemen, 161 establishing by community agreement, 100 truth claims authority over, 66 trypsin, 304 Tsan-tung-chi, 59 Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin, 388 “Exploration of Cosmic Space with Reactive Devices,” 333 Tuchman, Barbara, 87 Tupolev, Sergei, 337 Turing, Alan, 356–57 “Computing Machinery and Intelligence,” 357 “On Computable Numbers with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem,” 357 suicide, 358 “Turing machine,” 357 “Turing test,” 357 Turkish empire, 101 Tuscan Academy of Sciences and Letters, 169 Tusi, 56 Tusi-couple, 55 The Two New Sciences (Galileo), 120 Tyuratam launch facility, 343 Tyuratam test facility, 337 U-2 spy plane, 343 Uffenbach, Johann Friedrich, 182 Ulam, Stanislaw M., 313 Ultra program, 356–57 ultracentrifuge, 263 ultramicroscope, 262 uncertainty principle See indeterminacy Understanding Our Genetic Inheritance, 372 UNESCO, 372 uniform system of law, 68 Uniformitarianism, 207, 209–11, 214 Unitarianism, 136, 170 United States, 320 behind Soviet Union in technological development, 339–40 capacity to build nuclear weapons, 312 “civilian” space program, 339 created national research council, 288 entrance into WWI , 291 federal money for universities, 308 fusion bomb, 324 government funding for science, 291, 295 hydrogen bomb at Bikini Atoll, 325 international position, 291 launched Echo, 345 military spending (during Cold War), 339 need to lead in space, 341 political suppression (Depression-era), 301 private funding for science, 295 rocket development, 338, 353 science and engineering training during space war, 339 social unease with science and technology, 362 space race, 337–40 spending on education, 340 status of science, 290 takeover of German rocket program, 335–36 testing of fusion bombs, 314 voting rights for women, 295 Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights, 372 universal human rights, 166 universal knowledge, 168 universal laws, 166 universities, 45, 71, 80, 122 See also names of individual universities anti-nepotism regulations, 351 expansion of, 92 federal money, 308 German, 285 legitimation of natural philosophy, 72 new university structure, 123 Ph.D requirement for faculty, 351 relation to Church, 66, 74 433 434 Index as site of intellectual activity, 73 University of Bologna, 72 University of Göttingen, 236 University of Naples, 73 University of Padua, 73, 123, 143 University of Paris, 71–72, 74, 76, 87 University of Rome, 73 University of Toulouse, 73 unmoved mover, 19, 21, 46 uranium, 260, 307 uranium bomb, 310 uranium bombardment, 305 uranium supply issue, 309–10, 312 Uranos, Uranus, 363 urban centres, 121, 154 urban civilizations, urban elite, 153 Urban II , Pope, 70 Urban VIII , Pope, 119 urban populations, 71 urbanization, 57, 268 urea, 232 USSR, 182, 236, 284, 287, 311, 313, 320, 329, 333, 357 agricultural system, 302–3 capacity to build nuclear weapons, 312 development of ICBM s, 340 fusion bomb tests, 324 jailed scientists and engineers, 337 Lunik experiments, 342 overflights by U -2 spy planes, 343 rocket development, 334, 336–37 Suez Canal and, 325 testing of fusion bombs, 314 women scientists, 351 utility, 121, 123, 131, 239, 324, 381 natural philosophy, 66, 78 and practicality, 66 utility of knowledge, xi, 134, 156, 170, 186, 200 of mathematics, 134 utility of science, 120, 186, 238, 242, 375, 394 after the atomic bomb, 319 consumer goods, 361–62 part of American dream, 347 recognized by post-war governments, 319 V-2 rockets, 336 vacuum, 142, 147, 258 vacuum tube, 255, 355 valence, 229, 231 Van Allen, James A., 329, 340 Van Allen radiation belts, 340 Van Leeuwenhoek, Antoni, 149 Vandals, 41 Vanguard I , 339 Vasco da Gama, 102 Vassar College, 350 Vavilov, Nikolai Ivanovitch, 301–2 Vedānga Jyotişa, 58 Vedic texts, 57 veins, structure of, 143 velocity, 133 of light, 272–74, 276 Venera 4, 363 Venera 9, 363 “Vengeance Weapon,” 335 Venice, 88 Venus, 32, 98–99, 177, 363 phases, 112 vernacular, 87, 122 vernacular Bible, 122 vernalization, 302 Vesalius, Andreas, 123, 143 dissection, 123–24 method, 125 Vestiges of Creation (Chambers), 213 Victor Emmanuel II, King, 204 Victoria, Queen, 237 Viốte, Franỗois, 133 Vietnam war, 362, 368 Viking I , 363 Viking II , 363 Vine, Allyn C., 388 “virtual witnessing,” 156 Visigoths, 41 vision, extramission theory, 49 “vitalism,” 146, 232 vivisection, 143 Voltaire, 140 Candide, 167 Elements of Philosophy of Newton, 165 Philosophical Letters on the English, 165 Von Braun, Wernher, 335, 338, 342 Von Guericke, Otto, 171 hemisphere experiment, 160 Magdeburg experiments, 145 Von Liebig, Justus, 236 Von Neumann, John, 356–57 anti-communist political views, 357 cancer, 358 “First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC ,” 357 vortex atom, 250 vortex model, 253 voting rights for women, 295 A Voyage in the Indian Ocean (Le Gentil), 178 voyage of the Beagle, 214 Voyager I , 363 Voyager II , 363 voyages and expeditions, 177–78, 182–85, 205 collecting voyages, 214 Cook’s voyages, 178, 183–84, 205 public attention, 178 voyage of the Beagle, 214 Vulcanism, 180–81 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 220 Darwinism, 217 Walton, Ernest, 364 Wang Ling, 58 war chemicals See chemical weapons war machines, 25 warfare, 110, 268 Warsaw Pact, 324 Washington, George, 170 water, 195 Watson, James, 317, 319, 369, 371–72 The Double Helix, 317 Nobel Prize, 318 Watt, James, 186 condensing steam engine, 179 wave mechanics, 297 wave theory of light, 151 Free ebooks ==> www.Ebook777.com Index wave/particle dilemma, 258–61, 272–74, 297 wealth, 4, 91 wealth of industrial barons, 179 weather forecasting, 356 Weber, Wilhelm, 247 Wedgwood, Emma, 214 Wedgwood, Josiah, 214 Wegener, Alfred Lothar, 329 weightlessness, 345 Weismann, August, 283, 315 welfare programs (Germany), 284 welfare state, 218 Social Darwinism and, 218 Wellcome Trust, 372 Wellesley College, 350 Werner, Abraham Gottlob, 180–81 Wernerian theory See Neptunism Weskott, J., 237 West Indies, 185 What is Life? (Schrödinger), 317 Whewell, William, 223 Whiston, William, 180 New Theory of the Earth, 179 “white eye” mutant, 301 White Sands Proving Grounds, 336 Wien, Wilhelm, 266 Wilberforce, Samuel, 220 Wilcox, Kent, 370 Wilhelm IV , Landgraf of Hesse, 108 Wilkins, Maurice, 317–18 William of Ockham, 85–86 Willoughby, Francis, History of Fishes, 139 Wilson, Charles, 363 Wilson, John Tuzo, “A New Class of Faults and Their Bearing on Continental Drift,” 328 Wilson, Robert, 345 Nobel Prize, 345 Winkelmann, Maria, 158–59 Wireless World, 343 witchcraft, 77, 82, 113, 115, 117, 158 Wittenberg, scholarly community of, 101 Wöhler, Friedrich, 232 women in anthropology, 350 losing socio-economic status (early modern Europe), 158 wages, 350 women humanists, 92 women in regular universities, 350 women in science, 350–51 Ada Byron, 354 alchemical research, 52 behind the scenes, 195 exclusion from Royal Society, 154 Hippocratic doctors and, 39 Lise Meitner, 305 male-only world of university and laboratory, 317 midwives, 39, 78, 158 misogynist attitudes (18th century scientific community), 159 as natural history collectors, 220 Nobel Prizes, 261 philosophical demonstrations, 170 role in society and reproduction, 157 socio-economic status, 157 women’s colleges, 350 Woodstock generation, 362 Woodward, John, 180 Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology, 361 working classes, 211 World Data Centers, 326 World Health Organization, 369 World Meteorological Organization, 394 World War I , 287–88 World War I as “Chemists’ War,” 296 World War II , 307, 315, 361–62 Allied forces, 307, 311–13 Axis powers, 307 scientific teams after, 313 technical demands of, 355 women in science during, 350 Wren, Christopher, 137 Wright, Edward, 134 Wright, Sewall, 303 writing and accounting, xi, 365 X-ray crystallography, 317 X-ray spectroscopy, 257 X-rays, 256, 258, 260, 278, 289, 301, 315 Yathrib (later Medina), 44 Yellow River system, Yukawa, Hideki, 314 Zanzibar, 284 Zeitschrift für phusikalische Chemie ( Journal of Physical Chemistry), 254 Zeno, 12 Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, 41 Zeno’s paradox, 12–13 zero, 50 zero gravity, 333, 362 Zhang Heng, 59 Zij al-Sindh (al-Khwarazmi), 55 Zoonomia (Darwin), 213 Zosimos, Cheirokmeta, 52 Zsigmondy, Richard, 262 Zworykin, Vladimir, 344 www.Ebook777.com 435 ... cool/dry) in all matter, but were separate from the material A loose analogy would be to compare the bounce of a basketball and a bowling ball The degree of bounce of a basketball and a bowling ball are... system and the great image of change for Heraclitus, battled water and earth, each trying to destroy the others In a land of islands, water, and volcanoes, this had a certain pragmatic foundation... detail For instance, the limited amount of medical history we include looks primarily at examples from medicine that treated the body as an object of research and thus as part of a larger intellectual