Đang tải... (xem toàn văn)
(BQ) Part 1 book Human anatomy physiology presentation of content: Introduction to anatomy and physiology, introduction to the organ systems, the microscope, the integumentary system, introduction to the skeletal system, the axial skeleton, the appendicular skeleton, gross anatomy of the muscular system,...and other contents.
Brief Contents UNIT Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology 2 Introduction to the Organ Systems 15 3 Chemistry 29 4 The Microscope 47 5 The Cell 61 6 Histology 81 7 The Integumentary System 103 8 Introduction to the Skeletal System 119 9 The Axial Skeleton 137 The Appendicular Skeleton 171 1 Joints 199 Introduction to the Muscular System: Anatomy of Blood Vessels 459 Circulatory Pathways and the Physiology of Blood Vessels 487 3 3 The Lymphatic System 505 Anatomy of the Respiratory System 523 Physiology of the Respiratory System 539 Anatomy of the Digestive System 557 Physiology of the Digestive System 585 Anatomy of the Urinary System 599 Physiology of the Urinary System 617 The Reproductive System 635 Embryonic Development and Heredity 661 Muscle Tissue 217 Gross Anatomy of the Muscular System 241 Introduction to the Nervous System 281 The Central Nervous System: Brain and Spinal Cord 301 The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System 331 2 2 General Senses 355 Special Senses 365 The Endocrine System 389 Blood 409 Anatomy of the Heart 427 INDEX I-1 Physiology of the Heart 443 CAT DISSECTION EXERCISES Exploring the Muscular System of the Cat Exploring the Spinal Nerves of the Cat Exploring the Respiratory System of the Cat Exploring the Digestive System of the Cat Exploring the Cardiovascular System of the Cat Exploring the Urinary System of the Cat Exploring the Reproductive System of the Cat C-1 C-21 C-27 C-33 C-41 C-49 C-53 Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual MAKING CONNECTIONS C AT V E R S I O N Catharine C Whiting University of North Georgia With contributions by Karen L Keller Frostburg State University Editor-in-Chief: Serina Beauparlant Senior Acquisitions Editor: Gretchen Puttkamer Roethle Project Manager: Caroline Ayres Project Editor: Kari Hopperstead Development Editor: Alan Titche Art Development Editors: Kelly Murphy and Elisheva Marcus Editorial Assistant: Arielle Grant Director of Development: Barbara Yien Art Development Manager: Laura Southworth Program Management Team Lead: Mike Early Project Management Team Lead: Nancy Tabor Production Management: S4Carlisle Publishing Services Copyeditor: Lorretta Palaji Compositor: S4Carlisle Publishing Services Design Manager: Marilyn Perry Interior Designer: tani hasegawa Cover Designer: Side By Side Design Illustrators: Imagineering Rights & Permissions Project Manager: Donna Kalal Rights & Permissions Management: Rachel Youdelman Photo Researcher: Maureen Spuhler Senior Manufacturing Buyer: Stacey Weinberger Senior Marketing Manager: Allison Rona Senior Anatomy & Physiology Specialist: Derek Perrigo Media Content Producer: Nicole Tache Cover Photo Credit: Peathegee, Inc./Blend Images/Corbis Copyright ©2016 Pearson Education, Inc All Rights Reserved Printed in the United States of America This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/ Acknowledgements of third party content appear on page inside back cover, which constitutes an extension of this copyright page ® PEARSON, ALWAYS LEARNING, MasteringA&P , A&P Flix™, Practice Anatomy Lab™ (PAL™), and Interactive Physiology are exclusive trademarks in the U.S and/or other countries owned by Pearson Education, Inc or its affiliates ® Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos or other trade dress are for demonstrative or descriptive purposes only Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization, or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson Education, Inc or its affiliates, authors, licensees or distributors Library of Congress Control Number Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available upon request 10—V364—18 17 16 15 14 www.pearsonhighered.com 0-321-78700-5 (Student edition) 978-0-321-78700-2 (Student edition) 0-13-397580-0 (Instructor’s Review Copy) 978-013-397580-2 (Instructor’s Review Copy) About the Author Catharine C Whiting, University of North Georgia Cathy Whiting began her college career at Waycross Junior College before transferring to the University of Georgia and earning a B.S in biology She earned both an M.S.T and a Ph.D at the University of Florida, training under an extraordinary mentor, Dr Louis J Guillette, a brilliant researcher, author, and educator who taught her how to science and, more importantly, how to teach With 20 years of college teaching experience, Whiting seeks to engage her students through active learning in order to facilitate the development of critical-thinking and problem-solving skills She has discovered that passionate teaching leads to passionate learning The recipient of several teaching awards including Faculty Member of the Year, Advisor of the Year, and Master Teacher, she considers her greatest reward to be the privilege of teaching and impacting the lives of students Contributor Karen L Keller, Frostburg State University Karen Keller earned both her B.S and M.S degrees in biology from Frostburg State University and her Ph.D in physiology from the University of Georgia, College of Veterinary Medicine She has taught at community college and four-year college levels and has extensive experience teaching introductory biology, anatomy and physiology, musculoskeletal anatomy, microbiology, comparative vertebrate anatomy, histology, and parasitology courses In addition, she advises students interested in pursuing careers in the health professions and is a member of the American Association of Anatomists, the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society, and the Northeast Association of Advisors for the Health Professions iii This page intentionally left blank Preface Why Did I Write This Lab Manual? I have been teaching in a wide variety of settings since I graduated from the University of Georgia—as a laboratory assistant, as a high school teacher, as a graduate assistant, as a tutor/ mentor for college athletes, as an assistant professor of biology at a small liberal arts university, and, currently, as a professor of biology at the University of North Georgia Regardless of the setting, I have always regarded teaching as an incredible opportunity and a great privilege Through the years, I have learned that effective teaching requires much hard work, dedication, and enthusiasm It involves a life-long pursuit of both content knowledge and understanding how students learn It involves challenging students to develop critical-thinking and problemsolving skills Most importantly, it involves building relationships with students and investing in their lives As a matter of fact, it was a late afternoon conversation with a group of students after lab in the fall of 2009 that inspired me to pursue writing a lab manual I set out to write a lab manual that was first and foremost a tool of engagement In my experience, engaging students in an active learning environment is the key to student success in both the lecture and laboratory settings When students are engaged, exciting things happen Attendance improves Students enjoy being in class Grades soar! Students begin to focus on learning instead of worrying about what is going to be on the test My hope is that instructors will be able to use and adapt the activities in this manual to cultivate their own active learning environment and to experience the joy of watching students fully engage in the learning process Imagine having to run students out of the lab so that the next lab can get started You will be amazed at what your students can accomplish when they are engaged, challenged, and inspired! How Is This Lab Manual Different? Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual: Making Connections distinguishes itself from other A&P lab manuals by focusing heavily on addressing the three biggest teaching challenges for A&P lab instructors: getting students to engage in the lab, to prepare for the lab, and to apply concepts in the lab Getting Students Engaged in the Lab For many instructors this is the #1 teaching problem in the lab course The whole active-learning approach of Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual: Making Connections is centered around getting students engaged in the lab and asking questions We achieve this by including a rich variety of hands-on activities that use different learning modes including labeling, sketching, touching, dissecting, observing, conducting experiments, interacting with groups, and making predictions This lab manual includes many tried and true lab activities but also has some unique activities to help facilitate active learning, including those listed in the table below Examples of Active Learning in This Lab Manual Unit Activity How it facilitates active learning Unit Introduction to Organ Systems Activity 3—Studying Homeostasis and Organ System Interactions Students work together to research and explain how organ systems interact during the patellar reflex; high engagement factor; challenging task that requires students to think critically and discuss their ideas with lab group members Unit Histology Activity 4—Tissue Identification Concept Map Students must interact (discuss, question, argue, etc.) to determine the best set of questions to identify the assigned tissue types; encourages students to think about tissues rather than to just memorize them; high engagement and high energy; demands critical-thinking and problemsolving skills Unit 10 The Appendicular Skeleton Activity 2—Identifying Bones-in-a-Bag Students identify bones and their features by touch only; high engagement and interaction as students discuss and review the assigned features of each bone as it is pulled out of the bag Unit 13 Gross Anatomy of the Muscular System Activity 1—Determining How Skeletal Muscles Are Named Students complete an interactive overview activity that helps them understand how skeletal muscles are named; this activity teaches students a very useful approach to learning specific skeletal muscles (origin, insertion, innervation, and action) and prepares them for the remaining activities in the unit; actively engages students as they perform various muscle actions and locate muscles on different anatomical models throughout the lab (continued) v vi P r e fA C e Examples of Active Learning in This Lab Manual (continued) Unit Activity How it facilitates active learning Unit 15 The Central Nervous System: Brain and Spinal Cord Activity 3—Identifying the Meninges/Ventricles and Tracing the flow of Cerebrospinal fluid Students engage in a high-energy, interactive cerebrospinal fluid “dance” as they learn about the production, flow, and return of CSf to venous circulation Unit 19 The endocrine System Activity 3—Investigating endocrine Case Studies: Clinician’s Corner Mini case studies encourage students to apply the information that they have learned in Activity and Activity 2; builds critical-thinking and problem-solving skills Unit 24 Blood Vessel Physiology Activity 1—Tracing Blood flow—General Systemic Pathways Students use their knowledge of heart and blood vessel anatomy obtained in previous units along with anatomical models to trace the pathway of blood from the left ventricle to four peripheral sites (eye, forearm, abdomen, and leg) and back to the right atrium; they work together to diagram, label, and explain the exchange of materials at the capillary bed Unit 25 The Lymphatic System Activity 4—Using a Pregnancy Test to Demonstrate Antigen– Antibody reactions An interactive “wet lab” that engages students as they perform an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (eLISA) to detect the presence of an antigen (human chorionic gonadotropin) in unknown samples Unit 28 Anatomy of the Digestive System Activity 3—examining the Histology of Selected Digestive Organs Interactive question set encourages student engagement and challenges students to make predictions and draw conclusions concerning the relationship between structure and function at the histological level Unit 31 Physiology of the Urinary System Activity 2—Simulating the events of Urine Production and Urine Concentration Hands-on activity using beads to simulate renal function; a question set takes students through a step-by-step process with increasingly challenging questions to help them better understand the role of the kidneys in maintaining homeostasis, as well as to further identify structure/ function relationships Key features of Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual: Making Connections that help facilitate active learning include: • Lab Boosts invite students to hands-on demonstrations of key concepts • Quick Tips provide hints for performing activities or mnemonics for remembering key terms LabBOOST Anatomy of the Renal Corpuscle Understanding the anatomy of the renal corpuscle can be confusing Here is a trick to help you learn the anatomy of the visceral layer of the glomerular capsule Draw or tape a “nucleus” to the back of each of your hands Your hands represent podocytes Now, wiggle your fingers Your fingers represent pedicels which are foot-like processes of the podocytes Bring your fingers together so that they interdigitate (palms facing you) Note the slit-like openings between your fingers These openings represent filtration slits This visceral layer of the glomerular capsule overlies the glomerulus and its fenestrations to form the renal corpuscle • Making Connections charts within activities encourage students to apply previously learned concepts • Guided questions within activities help students think about the relevant concepts and how they apply to the activity • Clinical Connection boxes highlight relevant dis- eases or conditions and help reinforce learning of key concepts P r e fA C e vii Getting Students to Prepare for Lab Getting Students to Apply Concepts This manual helps address this problem by providing extensive pre-lab assignments that include pre-lab activity questions for each activity in the unit These pre-lab questions are intended to get the student to peruse the lab activities before lab Assignable pre-lab assessments are also available in MasteringA&P A third challenge and goal in the lab course is to get students to see the connections between concepts learned in lecture and their application in the lab This manual fosters students’ ability to make these connections with unique Think About It questions that begin each unit and Making Connections charts within activities Post-lab Assignments also include Bloom’s Level II Review Questions and Concept Mapping PRE-LAB ASSIGNMENTS Pre-lab quizzes are also assignable in To maximize learning, BEFORE your lab period carefu carefully read this entire lab unit te and complete these pre-lab assignments using your textbook, lecture notes, and prior knowledge P R E - L A B Activity 1: Identifying the Structural Components of a Skeletal Muscle Use the list of terms provided to label the accompanying illustration of a skeletal muscle; check off each term as you label it □ endomysium □ fascicle □ muscle □ epimysium □ perimysium □ muscle fiber a b c Tendon B Concept Mapping Bone d outlining the white blood cell types Fill in the blanks to complete this concept map f e eosinophil lymphocyte 22 Use the list of terms provided to label the accompanying illustration ustration of a skeletal muscle fiber fiber; check off each term as you label it □ mitochondrion □ sarcolemma □ terminal cisternae □ myofibrils □ sarcoplasmic reticulum um □ triad □ nucleus □ T-tubule macrophage mast cell neutrophil WHITE BLOOD CELL TYPES Granulocytes d Agranulocyte e a f b g Basophil Also called polymorphonuclear leukocyte Monocyte Moves into tissues and becomes Moves into tissues and becomes h c 218 Construct a unit concept map to show the relationships among the following set of terms Include all of the terms in your diagram Your instructor may choose to assign additional terms agglutination eosinophil mast cell antibody hemoglobin neutrophil antigen hormone plasma anucleate diapedesis lymphocyte macrophage plasma membrane spectrin viii P r e fA C e Other Key Features Superb Art from Amerman Textbook Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual: Making Connections features a rich and varied art program and integration of key media and equipment used in the lab The art from the Amerman textbook includes anatomical illustrations, photos, histology photomicrographs, and physiology sequence figures Companion Lab Manual to Erin Amerman’s Human Anatomy & Physiology This lab manual reflects the terminology and explanations found in the Amerman textbook Table 13-1 Action(s) Origin/Insertion/Nerve(s) Concept Figures Frontalis Raises eyebrows; wrinkles skin of forehead horizontally O: Epicranial aponeurosis I: Skin of eyebrows N: Facial nerve Frontalis Occipitalis Pulls scalp posteriorly O: Occipital bone I: Epicranial aponeurosis N: Facial nerve Corrugator supercilii Pulls eyebrows inferiorly and medially (as in squinting) O: Medial supraorbital margin of frontal bone I: Skin of medial eyebrows N: Facial nerve Orbicularis oculi Closes eye; pulls skin around the eyes, as in blinking and winking O: Orbital portions of the frontal bone and maxilla I: Skin of the orbital area and eyelids N: Facial nerve Levator labii superioris Elevates the upper lip; everts and furrows upper lip (as in sneering) O: Zygomatic and upper maxilla near orbit I: Skin and muscle of the upper lip N: Facial nerve Zygomaticus minor Raises lateral portion of the upper lip to expose upper teeth (as in smiling) O: Zygomatic I: Skin and muscle of the lateral upper lip N: Facial nerve Zygomaticus major Pulls the angle of the mouth superiorly and laterally (as in smiling or laughing) O: Zygomatic I: Lateral muscle fibers of corner/angle of mouth N: Facial nerve Risorius Glomerulus (glomerular capillaries covered by podocytes) Orbicularis oris Depressor anguli oris Depressor labii inferioris Proximal tubule Muscles of Facial Expression Muscle Mentalis Buccinator (a) The renal corpuscle Figure 30-9 The renal corpuscle Platysma Occipitalis Corrugator supercilii Levator labii superioris Zygomaticus minor Zygomaticus major Risorius O: Connective tissue anterior to the ear Pulls the angle of the Glomerular I: Modiolus* mouth laterally to makecapsule: Podocyte Filtration slits Capillary Pedicels Squamous epithelium N: Facial nerve a closed-mouth smile (parietal layer) O: Maxilla and mandible Closes and protrudes Capsular space I: Skin and connective tissue of the lips lips (as in puckering the N: Facial nerve lips for a kiss) Podocyte (visceral layer) Orbicularis oris O: Lower body of mandible Draws corners of the I: Modiolus* mouth inferiorly N: Facial nerve (unhappy face) Efferent O: Medial mandible near mental foramen arteriole I: Skin and connective tissue of lower lip Afferent N: Facial nerve arteriole O: Anterior mandible Protrudes the lower lip I: Skin of the chin near lower lip and chin for drinking and N: Facial nerve “doubtful” expression Orbicularis oculi Depressor anguli oris Protrudes lower lip (sad or pouting expressions) alis Depressor Mentalis labii inferioris SEM (92,000×) Helps manipulate food during chewing and expels air through pursed lips (as in blowing a trumpet) O: Molar regions of maxilla and mandible SEM capillary surrounded by podocytes I: Orbicularis(b) oris andofconnective tissue of cheek/lips N: Facial nerve Lowers lower lip and opens mouth by depressing the mandible O: Connective tissue of deltoid and pectoralis major I: Mandible; skin and connective tissue below mouth N: Facial nerve Note: Colors of actions and/or directions of action in Action(s) column match colors of directional arrow(s) in Concept Figures *Mix of muscle and connective tissue at the corners of the mouth Platysma Buccinator 340 U NI T | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System Optional Activity ™ Practice labeling cranial nerves on human brains at > > Study Area > Practice Anatomy Lab > Human Cadaver: Nervous System > Peripheral Nervous System > images thru shoulders The clinician then instructs the subject to move the shoulders upward while the clinician applies resistance with the hands Observations: Cranial nerve(s) evaluated: _ Abnormal response: _ ACTIVITY Evaluating the Function of the Cranial Nerves Learning Outcomes Evaluate cranial nerve function by performing some common cranial nerve tests Materials Needed □ Snellen eye examination chart □ Small vial containing vanilla extract □ Small vial containing cinnamon □ Small vial containing coffee □ Blindfold □ Tuning fork Instructions In this activity, you and a lab partner will evaluate the function of the cranial nerves by performing eight tests For some of the tests you will be the “clinician,” and for some you will be the “subject.” For each test, record both your observations and the cranial nerve(s) that were evaluated Then, use your textbook to describe the abnormal response you would expect to observe if the evaluated nerve(s) was (were) damaged The clinician asks the subject to protrude and retract the tongue Observations: Cranial nerve(s) evaluated: _ Abnormal response: _ The clinician asks the subject to stand 20 feet away from a Snellen eye examination chart and then cover one eye at a time with a hand The subject then reads the chart, starting with the big letter “E” and continuing to the smallest line that can be read correctly Record the number of the last line that was identified correctly for each eye Observations: Right eye: _ Left eye: _ Cranial nerve(s) evaluated: _ Abnormal response: _ The clinician stands behind the subject and firmly places her or his hands on the tops of the subject’s The clinician blindfolds the subject, places one of the three vials (containing “unknown substance A”) under the subject’s nose, and asks the subject to identify the substance Repeat this procedure with the other vials (containing “unknown substance B” and “unknown substance C”) Observations: “Unknown substance A” “Unknown substance B” _ “Unknown substance C” _ Cranial nerve(s) evaluated: _ Abnormal response: _ The clinician instructs the subject to follow the clinician’s finger with the eyes while keeping the head still The clinician then slowly draws a large “Z” in the air in front of the subject Observations: Cranial nerve(s) evaluated: _ Abnormal response: _ The clinician palpates the subject’s masseter muscle and then instructs the subject to clench his or her teeth Observations: Cranial nerve(s) evaluated: _ Abnormal response: _ The clinician instructs the subject to perform each of the following actions one at a time: smiling, frowning, whistling, and raising the eyebrows Observations: Cranial nerve(s) evaluated: _ Abnormal response: _ After blindfolding the subject, the clinician gently strikes a tuning fork on the lab bench and holds it near first one of the subject’s ears, and then the other ear In each case the clinician asks if the subject hears anything Observations: Cranial nerve(s) evaluated: _ Abnormal response: _ UNIT 16 | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System Spinal Nerves In the human body, 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord (Figure 16-5): pairs of cervical nerves, 12 pairs of thoracic nerves, pairs of lumbar nerves, pairs of sacral nerves, and pair of coccygeal nerves The name of each spinal nerve is based on its location of origin Note, however, that there are eight cervical nerves but only seven cervical vertebrae The first seven pairs of cervical nerves emerge superior to the vertebra for which they are named, but the eighth pair emerges inferior to the seventh cervical vertebra The remaining pairs of spinal nerves emerge inferior to the vertebra for which they are named Spinal nerves are formed from the uniting of the posterior and anterior roots of the spinal cord (Figure 16-6) Spinal nerves are mixed nerves because the posterior roots contain sensory neurons entering the spinal cord, and the anterior roots contain the myelinated axons of motor (efferent) neurons whose cell bodies are located in the spinal cord With the exception of the first pair, all spinal nerves leave the vertebral canal via the intervertebral foramina Soon after passing through the intervertebral foramina, each spinal nerve divides into several branches, or rami (singular = ramus) The posterior rami (see Figure 16-6) innervate the skin and muscles of the back The anterior rami of all spinal nerves except T2–T12 form complicated branching networks called nerve plexuses (discussed shortly), which supply both sensory and motor fibers to the skin and muscles of the upper and lower appendages Spinal nerves Cervical plexus (C1–C5) 341 Cervical nerves (C1–C8) Brachial plexus (C5–T1) Thoracic nerves (T1–T12) Lumbar plexus (L1–L4) Lumbar nerves (L1–L5) Sacral plexus (L4–S4) Sacral nerves (S1–S5) Coccygeal nerve (Co1) Figure 16-5 The spinal nerves (at right) and nerve plexuses (at left) Anterior Ramus communicans: carries visceral motor signals from the ANS to organs of the ventral body cavity Anterior root: carries somatic and visceral motor signals from the CNS to skeletal muscles and gland cells Visceral motor neuron Somatic motor neuron Spinal nerve: carries visceral motor, somatic motor, and sensory signals to and from the spinal cord Posterior root: carries sensory signals from the PNS to the spinal cord Posterior Sensory neuron Figure 16-6 Structure and function of spinal cord roots, spinal nerves, and rami Anterior and posterior rami: carry somatic motor signals from the CNS to skeletal muscles, and sensory signals from sensory receptors in the PNS to the spinal cord 342 U NI T | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System T2–T12 travel anteriorly as the intercostal nerves, which innervate both the intercostal and abdominal muscles and relay sensory information from the lateral and anterior trunk Rami communicantes (see Figure 16-6) are branches in some parts of the spinal cord that innervate the sympathetic ganglia of the autonomic nervous system Finally, the meningeal rami pass back into the vertebral canal to innervate the vertebrae and meninges Nerve Plexuses Nerve plexuses are interlacing nerve networks, located lateral to the vertebral column, that are formed from the joining of anterior rami from all vertebrae except T2–T12 The four major nerve plexuses are the cervical plexus, the brachial plexus, the lumbar plexus, and the sacral plexus (see Figure 16-5) The cervical plexus (Figure 16-7) arises from the anterior rami of C1–C4 and parts of C5, and it is located deep to the sternocleidomastoid muscle The major motor branch of this plexus is the phrenic nerve, which arises from C3, C4, and parts of C5 The phrenic nerve supplies sensory and motor nerve fibers to the diaphragm Other nerves arising from this plexus serve the scalp, neck, shoulders, and chest C1 Hypoglossal nerve C2 Nerve root C3 Lesser occipital nerve Greater auricular nerve C4 Ansa cervicalis nerve Transverse cervical nerve QUICK TIP Supraclavicular nerves C5 The large and complicated brachial plexus (Figure 16-8) arises from the ventral rami of C5–C8 and T1 It successively splits into trunks, then into cords, and finally into five major nerves that serve the shoulders and upper limbs The lateral cord gives rise to the musculocutaneous nerve, which supplies the forearm flexors and the skin of the lateral aspect of the forearm The median nerve—formed from a branch of the lateral cord and a branch of the medial cord—supplies the forearm flexor muscles, several hand muscles, and the skin over the anterior and lateral hand The medial cord also gives rise to the ulnar nerve, which supplies the flexor muscles in the anterior forearm, most intrinsic muscles of the hand, and the skin over the medial hand The posterior cord gives rise to the axillary nerve, which innervates the shoulder, and the radial nerve, which innervates the triceps brachii muscle, the extensor muscles of the forearm and hand, and the skin in these regions The lumbar plexus (Figure 16-9), which arises from L1–L4, serves the lower abdominopelvic region and the anterior thigh The largest nerves that arise from the lumbar plexus Phrenic nerve Figure 16-7 The cervical plexus are the femoral nerve, which innervates the muscles of the anterior thigh, and the obturator nerve, which innervates the adductor muscles of the medial thigh Additionally, a cutaneous branch of the femoral nerve, the saphenous nerve (not shown), innervates the skin of the anteromedial surface of the thigh and leg The sacral plexus (Figure 16-10) arises from L4–S4 It serves the buttocks and posterior thigh, and gives rise to most of the sensory and motor fibers of the leg and foot The largest nerve arising from the sacral plexus—the sciatic nerve—is the largest nerve in the body It travels along the posterior thigh and divides in the popliteal region to form the common fibular nerve and the tibial nerve UNIT 16 | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System Superior trunk Middle trunk C5 Inferior trunk C6 Lateral cord C7 C8 T1 L1 Iliohypogastric nerve L2 Ilioinguinal nerve L3 Genitofemoral nerve Medial cord L4 Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve Musculocutaneous nerve L5 Posterior cord Long thoracic nerve Median nerve Lateral pectoral nerve Axillary nerve Thoracodorsal nerve Radial nerve Femoral nerve Obturator nerve (a) Lumbar plexus, anterior view Ulnar nerve (a) Brachial plexus, anterior view Clavicle Lateral cord Posterior cord Medial cord Iliohypogastric nerve Axillary nerve Ilioinguinal nerve Radial nerve Genitofemoral nerve Scapula Musculocutaneous nerve Humerus Femoral nerve Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve Median nerve Obturator nerve Ulna 343 Ulnar nerve Radius (b) Nerves of brachial plexus, anterior view (b) Nerves of lumbar plexus, anterior view Figure 16-8 The brachial plexus Figure 16-9 The lumbar plexus 344 U NI T | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System ACTIVITY L4 Superior gluteal nerve L5 S1 S2 S3 S4 Inferior gluteal nerve Sciatic nerve: Tibial division Common fibular division Pudendal nerve Posterior femoral cutaneous nerve Identifying the Spinal Nerves and Nerve Plexuses Learning Outcomes Identify the four plexuses on an anatomical chart Locate the major nerves arising from each plexus on an anatomical model and describe the function of each nerve Materials Needed □ Anatomical models □ Anatomical charts Instructions CHART Locate each of the following nerves on an anatomical model Then, using your textbook, write in the following chart each nerve’s plexus of origin and function (a) Sacral plexus, posterior view Superior gluteal nerve Nerve Plexus from Which It Arises Function Phrenic cervical innervates the diaphragm Axillary Inferior gluteal nerve Pudendal nerve Musculocutaneous Posterior femoral cutaneous nerve Sciatic nerve Common fibular nerve Median Tibial nerve Radial Ulnar (b) Nerves of sacral plexus, posterior view Figure 16-10 The sacral plexus UNIT 16 | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System Plexus from Which It Arises Nerve Function Femoral 345 The Autonomic Nervous System Recall that the peripheral nervous system consists of the sensory (afferent) division and the motor (efferent) division, and that the motor division is further divided into the somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) (see Figure 14-1) Whereas the somatic nervous system is the voluntary nervous system that innervates skeletal muscles, the autonomic nervous system is involuntary and innervates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into the parasympathetic (“resting and digesting”) branch and the sympathetic (“fight or flight”) branch In general, the sympathetic branch prepares the body for increased activity Most visceral organs have dual innervation—that is, they are innervated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers Both branches work together to maintain homeostasis Typically one branch stimulates an effector while the other branch inhibits the same effector Saphenous Obturator Sciatic QUICK TIP Tibial Common fibular Optional Activity ™ Practice labeling nerves and plexuses on human cadavers at > > Study Area > Practice Anatomy Lab > Human Cadaver: Nervous System > Peripheral Nervous System > images thru 13 An autonomic motor pathway consists of two neurons— a preganglionic fiber and a postganglionic fiber—that synapse in a ganglion (a collection of nerve cell bodies in the PNS) Sympathetic preganglionic fibers arise from cell bodies of preganglionic neurons in spinal cord segments T1–L2 and are therefore considered part of the thoracolumbar division These preganglionic fibers exit the spinal cord via the anterior root, pass into a spinal nerve, and then synapse with a postganglionic fiber in a sympathetic chain ganglion, which is part of the sympathetic chain flanking either side of the vertebral column The axon of the postganglionic neuron then travels to its target organ Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons originate in the brainstem and sacral spinal cord, and thus the parasympathetic branch is also called the craniosacral division These preganglionic neurons extend from the CNS almost all the way to the structures they innervate They synapse with postganglionic fibers in ganglia that are very close to or within their target organs Autonomic reflexes are mediated by the ANS An autonomic reflex arc contains the same five components as a somatic reflex arc: a receptor, a sensory neuron, an integration center, a motor neuron, and an effector The integration centers for most autonomic reflexes are located in the 346 U NI T | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System hypothalamus and brainstem (these are cranial reflexes), but the reflex arcs that control urination, defecation, erection, and ejaculation have integration centers located in the spinal cord (these are spinal reflexes) Unlike somatic reflex arcs, autonomic reflex arcs contain two motor neurons—a preganglionic fiber and a postganglionic fiber—that synapse in a ganglion An example of an autonomic reflex is the pupillary light reflex Light hitting a photoreceptor (receptor) in the retina of the eye stimulates the receptor, leading to the transmission of electrical impulses via the optic nerve (sensory neuron) to the brain There an interneuron (integration center) transmits the impulses to the preganglionic fiber (motor neuron #1) in the midbrain The axon of the preganglionic fiber travels along the oculomotor nerve (CN III) to the ciliary ganglion, where it synapses with the postganglionic fiber (motor neuron #2), which then targets the smooth muscle (effector) in the iris of the eye, causing the muscle to contract and the pupil to constrict ACTIVITY Exploring the Autonomic Nervous System Learning Outcomes Describe a typical autonomic pathway Describe the general effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic branches of the ANS Distinguish between a somatic reflex arc and an autonomic reflex arc Demonstrate and explain the pupillary light reflex Demonstrate the effects of exercise on sympathetic nervous system activity Materials Needed □ Penlight □ Millimeter ruler □ Stethoscope □ Sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff) Instructions A Comparing Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Effects CHART Using your textbook as a reference, compare sympathetic and parasympathetic effects by completing the following chart Sympathetic Function Division Neurotransmitter(s) Effect on: • Iris of the eye Effect on: • Heart Effect on: • Bronchioles of the lungs Effect on: • Digestive tract activity Effect on: • Metabolic rate Effect on: • Adrenal medulla Effect on: • Sweat glands Parasympathetic UNIT 16 | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System 347 b State two differences between a somatic reflex and an autonomic reflex: _ c What conclusions can you draw from your data for this activity? _ _ Figure 16-11 Measuring the diameter of the pupil B Testing the Pupillary Light Reflex Obtain a penlight and a millimeter ruler, and designate one of your lab partners to be the test subject Measure the diameter of the subject’s pupils using the ruler (see Figure 16-11), and record the measurements in the first row in the following table Instruct the subject to cover his or her right eye with a hand Using the penlight, shine light into the subject’s left eye What happens to the pupil? _ While the light is still shining into the subject’s eye, measure the left pupil and record the measurement in the table Now, uncover the right eye and measure the right pupil Record the measurement in the table Repeat steps 3–6, but this time have the subject cover the left eye and then shine the light into the right eye Right Pupil (diameter in mm) C Observing the Effects of Exercise on the Sympathetic Nervous System Obtain a stethoscope and a sphygmomanometer, and designate someone in your lab group to be the test subject Instruct the subject to sit quietly for minutes and then measure the subject’s resting heart rate Place your index and middle fingers on the subject’s pulse point over the radial artery, count the number of beats for 30 seconds, and then multiply that number by to determine the number of beats per minute (bpm) Resting heart rate: bpm Obtain a sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope, and clean the earpiece and diaphragm of the stethoscope Have your lab partner sit quietly in a chair for five minutes and then perform the following procedure to measure his/her resting blood pressure (BP): a Wrap the cuff around your lab partner’s right arm as shown in Figure 16-12 so that its lower edge is just superior to the antecubital region of the arm Left Pupil (diameter in mm) Initial measurement Light in left eye Light in right eye Answer the following questions based on your results: a Name each component of the reflex arc in the pupillary reflex Receptor: _ Sensory neuron: _ Integration center: Motor neuron: _ Effector: Figure 16-12 Placement of sphygmomanometer and stethoscope for measuring blood pressure 348 U NI T | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System b Position the diaphragm of the stethoscope over the brachial artery distal to the cuff c Close the valve on the cuff and squeeze the rubber bulb to inflate the cuff to a pressure of approximately 160 mm Hg Do not overinflate the cuff or leave the cuff inflated for more than minute because it interrupts blood flow to the forearm and could cause fainting d Turn the knob at the base of the bulb to slowly reduce the pressure in the cuff, deflating it at a rate of about or mm Hg per second During this time listen to the brachial artery through the stethoscope e When the cuff pressure drops below arterial pressure, blood resumes flowing through the artery This turbulent blood flow makes characteristic sounds called Korotkoff ’s sounds, which can be heard through the stethoscope Make a mental note of the pressure at which you begin to hear Korotkoff ’s sounds That pressure corresponds to the systolic pressure f Continue deflating the cuff The thumping Korotkoff ’s sounds will become faint and will eventually disappear Note the pressure at which the last sound is heard; this is the diastolic pressure g Release all of the pressure from the cuff, and record the results b Which branch of the autonomic nervous system was most active following the 6-minute rest period? How you know? _ _ c What effect does the sympathetic nervous system have on the digestive system? _ d Sketch the motor pathway that functions in the sympathetic nervous system, and label the preganglionic fiber, ganglion, postganglionic fiber, and effector Resting BP: mm Hg Instruct the subject to engage in vigorous exercise for minutes and then immediately measure the subject’s heart rate and BP again Heart rate immediately after exercising: bpm BP immediately after exercising: mm Hg Instruct the subject to rest Repeat the heart rate and BP measurements after minutes and minutes of rest Heart rate following: 3-minute rest bpm e Which receptor types are found on sympathetic target organs? _ _ D Optional Activity 6-minute rest bpm BP following: 3-minute rest mm Hg 6-minute rest mm Hg Answer the following questions based on your results: a Which branch of the autonomic nervous system was most active immediately following exercise? How you know? _ _ ™ Practice labeling structures of the autonomic nervous system on human cadavers at > Study Area > Practice Anatomy Lab > Human Cadaver: Nervous System > Autonomic Nervous System POST-LAB ASSIGNMENTS Post-lab quizzes are also assignable in Name: Date: Lab Section: PART I Check Your Understanding Activity 1: Learning the Cranial Nerves Identify the cranial nerves on the accompanying photograph of a human brain a _ b _ c _ d _ e _ f _ g _ a h _ f i _ j _ k _ b c d e g h i j k Activity 2: Evaluating the Function of the Cranial Nerves Which of the following cranial nerves is classified as a sensory nerve? a hypoglossal nerve d olfactory nerve b vagus nerve e More than one of these answers is correct c oculomotor nerve Which of the following cranial nerves is classified as a mixed nerve? a optic nerve d accessory nerve b trigeminal nerve e trochlear nerve c vestibulocochlear nerve 349 350 U NI T | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System In an automobile accident, a woman suffers a crushing hip injury Which nerve might be damaged if she is unable to flex her leg? a saphenous nerve d obturator nerve b sciatic nerve e median nerve c femoral nerve Which cranial nerve is the only cranial nerve to extend beyond the head and neck to the thorax and abdomen? a trigeminal nerve d accessory nerve b glossopharyngeal nerve e abducens nerve c vagus nerve Predict the cranial nerve(s) that might be damaged if someone could not: a shrug the shoulders b see c move the zygomaticus muscle d maintain equilibrium e raise the eyebrows f track objects with the eyes Activity 3: Identifying the Spinal Nerves and Nerve Plexuses Identify the spinal nerves and nerve plexuses on the accompanying illustration a b a c d e b e f g h f i c g d h i UNIT 16 | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System Which of the following statements is false? a There are eight pairs of cervical nerves b The lumbar plexus gives rise to the obturator nerve c The brachial plexus is deep to the sternocleidomastoid muscle d The sacral plexus serves the posterior surface of the thigh e The cervical plexus gives rise to the phrenic nerve In the popliteal region, the sciatic nerve splits to form the nerve and the nerve Name the five major nerves that arise from the brachial plexus _ Activity 4: Exploring the Autonomic Nervous System Using the following list of terms, fill in the blanks to complete an outline of the organization of the nervous system: □ sympathetic branch □ parasympathetic branch □ somatic nervous system □ CNS □ PNS □ ANS □ motor (efferent) division □ sensory (afferent) division ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM b a d c e f g h 351 352 U NI T | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System Which of the following reflexes is mediated by the spinal cord? a patellar reflex b micturition (urination) reflex c ejaculation reflex d erection reflex e All of these reflexes are mediated by the spinal cord In the light pupillary reflex, a which type of receptor is stimulated? b which nerve transmits sensory information to the brain? c which brain region serves as the integration center? _ d which nerve transmits motor information to the effector? e preganglionic and postganglionic fibers synapse in which ganglion? _ f what is the motor response? _ Are sympathetic effects on the heart similar to or different from sympathetic effects on the activity of the digestive tract? Explain the physiological significance of this relationship PART II Putting It All Together A Review Questions Answer the following questions using your lecture notes, your textbook, and your lab notes A dentist desensitizes the teeth by injecting a local anesthetic into the alveolar branches of which two divisions of the trigeminal nerve? _ _ For each of the following skeletal muscles, (1) name the cranial nerve that innervates it and (2) state one of its major actions: a Sternocleidomastoid (1) _ (2) _ b Zygomaticus major (1) _ (2) _ c Lateral rectus (1) _ (2) _ d Masseter (1) _ (2) _ UNIT 16 | The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves and Autonomic Nervous System e Hyoglossus 353 (1) _ (2) _ Which cerebral lobe receives impulses from the vestibular branch of CN VIII? _ Which cerebral lobe receives impulses from CN I? _ From which two brain regions the cranial nerves classified as “eye-movers” emerge? B Concept Mapping Fill in the blanks to complete this concept map outlining the anatomy of a spinal nerve anterior rami anterior roots plexuses posterior roots spinal nerves Arising from the Which fuse to form SPINAL CORD Are the Which branch to form Posterior rami Many of which fuse to form complex networks of nerves called Meningeal rami Rami communicantes Construct a unit concept map to show the relationships among the following set of terms Include all of the terms in your diagram Your instructor may choose to assign additional terms accessory nerve foramina posterior roots anterior rami hypoglossal nerve radial nerve anterior roots axillary nerve median nerve plexuses skeletal muscle spinal nerves brainstem posterior rami trochlear nerve This page intentionally left blank ... Endocrine System Blood Anatomy of the Heart Physiology of the Heart 15 29 47 61 81 103 11 9 13 7 17 1 19 9 217 2 41 2 81 3 01 3 31 355 365 389 409 427 443 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 Anatomy of Blood... Darrellyn Williams, Pulaski Technical College Brief Contents UNIT 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Introduction to the Organ Systems Chemistry The Microscope... available upon request 10 —V364 18 17 16 15 14 www.pearsonhighered.com 0-3 21- 78700-5 (Student edition) 978-0-3 21- 78700-2 (Student edition) 0 -13 -397580-0 (Instructor’s Review Copy) 978- 013 -397580-2 (Instructor’s