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(BQ) Part 2 book An introduction to environmental chemistry and pollution has contents: Environmental cycling of pollutants, environmental monitoring strategies, ecological and health effects of chemical pollution, managing environmental quality.
CHAPTER Environmental Cycling of Pollutants ROY M HARRISON INTRODUCTION: BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLING The earlier chapters of this book have followed the traditional subdivision of the environment into compartments (e.g atmosphere, oceans, etc.) Whilst these sub-divisions accord with human perceptions and have certain scientific logic, they encourage the idea that each compartment is an entirely separate entity and that no exchanges occur between them This, of course, is far from the truth Important exchanges of mass and energy occur at the boundaries of the compartments and many processes of great scientific interest and environmental importance occur at these interfaces A physical example is that of transfer of heat between the ocean surfaces and the atmosphere, which has a major impact upon climate and a great influence upon the general circulation of the atmosphere A chemically based example is the oceanic release of dimethyl sulfide to the atmosphere, which may, through its decomposition products, act as a climate regulator (see Chapter 4) Pollutants emitted into one environmental compartment will, unless carefully controlled, enter others Figure illustrates the processes affecting a pollutant discharged into the atmosphere.1 As mixing processes dilute it, it may undergo chemical and physical transformations before depositing in rain or snow (wet deposition) or as dry gas or particles (dry deposition) The deposition processes cause pollution of land, freshwater, or the seas, according to where they occur Similarly, pollutants discharged into a river will, unless degraded, enter the seas Solid wastes are often disposed into a landfill Nowadays these are carefully designed to avoid leaching by rain and dissemination of pollutants into groundwaters, which might subsequently be used for potable supply In the past, however, instances have come to light where W H Schroeder and D A Lane, Environ Sci TechnoL, 1988, 22, 240 Dry transformations Air concentrations Wet transformations Transport and diffusion Initial mixing Scavenging Total emissions Manmade Natural Scavenging Dry deposition Wet deposition Figure Schematic diagram of the atmospheric cycle of a pollutant1 (Reprinted from Environmental Science and Technology by permission of the American Chemical Society) insufficient attention was paid to the potential for groundwater contamination, and serious pollution has arisen as a result Another important consideration regarding pollutant cycling is that of degradability, be it chemical or biological Chemical elements (other than radioisotopic forms) are, of course, non-degradable and hence once dispersed in the environment will always be there, although they may move between compartments Thus, lead, for example, after emission from industry or motor vehicles, has a rather short lifetime in the atmosphere, but upon deposition causes pollution of vegetation, soils, and waters.2 On a very long time-scale, lead in these compartments will leach out from soils and transfer to the oceans, where it will concentrate in bottom sediments Some chemical elements undergo chemical changes during environmental cycling which completely alter their properties For example, nitrate added to soil as fertilizer can be converted to gaseous nitrous oxide by biological denitrification processes Nitrous oxide is an unreactive gas with a long atmospheric lifetime which is destroyed only by breakdown in the stratosphere As will be seen later, nitrogen in the environment may be present in a wide range of valence states, each conferring different properties Some chemical compounds are degradable in the environment For example, methane (an important greenhouse gas) is oxidized via carbon R M Harrison and D P H Laxen, 'Lead Pollution: Causes and Control', Chapman & Hall, London, 1981 monoxide to carbon dioxide and water Thus, although the chemical elements are conserved, methane itself is destroyed and were it not continuously replenished would disappear from the atmosphere The breakdown of methane is an important source of water vapour in the stratosphere, illustrating another, perhaps less obvious, connection between the cycles of different compounds Degradable chemicals which cease to be used will disappear from the environment PCBs are no longer used industrially to any significant degree, having been replaced by more environmentally acceptable alternatives Their concentrations in the environment are decreasing, although because of their slow degradability (i.e persistence), it will take many years before their levels decrease below analytical detection limits The transfer of an element between different environmental compartments, involving both chemical and biological processes, is termed biogeochemical cycling The biogeochemical cycles of the elements lead and nitrogen will be discussed later in this chapter 1.1 Environmental Reservoirs To understand pollutant behaviour and biogeochemical cycling on a global scale, it is important to appreciate the size and mixing times of the different reservoirs These are given in Table The mixing times are a very approximate indication of the time-scale of vertical mixing of the reservoir.3 Global mixing can take very much longer as this involves some very slow processes These mixing times should be treated with considerable caution as they oversimplify a complex system Thus, for example, a pollutant gas emitted at ground level mixes in the boundary layer (ca km) on a time-scale typically of hours Mixing into the free troposphere (1-10 km) takes days, whilst mixing into the stratosphere (10-50 km) is on the time-scale of several years Thus, no one time-scale describes atmospheric vertical mixing, and the same applies to other reservoirs Such concepts are useful, however, when considering the behaviour of trace components For example, a highly reactive hydrocarbon emitted at ground level will probably be decomposed in the boundary layer Sulfur dioxide, with an atmospheric lifetime of days, may enter the free troposphere but is unlikely to enter the stratosphere Methane, with a lifetime of several years, extends through all of the three regions P Brimblecombe, 'Air Composition and Chemistry', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2nd Edn., 1996 Table Size and vertical mixing of various reservoirs (from Brimblecombe3) Mass (kg) Biosphere Atmosphere Hydrosphere Crust Mantle Core a 4.2 5.2 1.4 2.4 4.0 1.9 x 10 x 10 18 x 10 21 x 10 22 x 10 x 10 Mixing time (years) 60 0.2 1600 > x 10 >108 Plants, animals, and organic matter are included but coal and sedimentary carbon are not The mixing time of carbon in living matter is about 50 years It should be noted from Table that the atmosphere is a much smaller reservoir in terms of mass than the others The implication is that a given pollutant mass injected into the atmosphere will represent a much larger proportion of total mass than in other reservoirs Because of this, and the rather rapid mixing of the atmosphere, global pollution problems have become serious in relation to the atmosphere before doing so in other environmental media The converse also tends to be true, that once emissions into the atmosphere cease, or diminish, the beneficial impact is seen on a relatively short time-scale This has been seen in relation to lead, for instance, where lead in Antarctic ice (derived from snow) has shown a major decrease resulting from diminishing emissions from industry and use of leaded petrol4 (Figure 2) Improved air quality in relation to CFCs will take longer to achieve because of the much longer atmospheric lifetimes (> 100 years) of some of these species (see Chapter 1) 1.2 Lifetimes A very useful concept in the context of pollutant cycling is that of the lifetime of a substance in a given reservoir We can think in terms of substances having sources, magnitude S, and sinks, magnitude R At equilibrium: R= S An analogy is with a bath; the inflow from a tap (S) is equal to the outflow (R) when the bath is full An increase in S is balanced by an increase in R If the total amount of substance A in the reservoir J.-P Candelone, S Hong, C Pellone, and C F Boutron,/ Geophys Res., 1995,100,16605-16616 Concentration of lead (pg/g) LEAD Date of deposition of snow or ice Figure Changes in lead concentrations in snowjice deposited in central Greenland from 1773 to 1992 (Adapted from Candelone et al.A) (analogy = mass of water in the bath) is A9 then the lifetime, x is defined by: (1) In practical terms, the lifetime is equal to the time taken for the concentration to fall to 1/e (where e is the base of natural logarithms) of its initial concentration, if the source is turned off If the removal mechanism is a chemical reaction, its rate may be described as follows: (2) (In this case d[^4]/d/ describes the rate of loss of A if the source is switched off; obviously with the source on, at equilibrium d[^4]/d/ = 0) The latter part of equation (2) assumes first order decay kinetics, i.e the rate of decay is equal to the concentration of A9 termed [A], multiplied by a rate constant, k As discussed later this is often a reasonable approximation Taking equation (1) and dividing both numerator and denominator by the volume of the reservoir, allows it to be rewritten in terms of concentration Thus: (3) since S' = R (4) Thus the lifetime of a constituent with a first order removal process is equal to the inverse of the first order rate constant for its removal Taking an example from atmospheric chemistry, the major removal mechanism for many trace gases is reaction with the hydroxyl radical, OH* Considering two substances with very different rate constants5 for this reaction, methane and nitrogen dioxide: (5) molecs"1 (6) molecs"1 (7) Making the crude assumption of a constant concentration of OH* radical6 (more justifiable for the long-lived methane, for which fluctuations in OH* will average out, than for short-lived nitrogen dioxide), where Worked example What are the atmospheric lifetimes of CH4 and NO2 if the diurnally averaged concentration of OH* radical is x 106 molec cm~3? Then from equation (4) = 5.1 years for CH4 B J Finlayson-Pitts and J N Pitts Jr., 'Atmospheric Chemistry', John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1986 C N Hewitt and R M Harrison, Atmos Environ., 1985,19, 545 By analogy, for nitrogen dioxide, the lifetime, T = 20 hours This general approach to atmospheric chemical cycling has proved useful in many instances For example, measurements of atmospheric concentration, [A]9 for a globally mixed component may be used to estimate source strength, since and where V is the volume of atmosphere in which the component is mixed Source strengths estimated in this way, for example for the compound methyl chloroform, CH3CCl3, known to destroy stratospheric ozone, may be compared with known industrial emissions to deduce whether natural sources contribute to the atmospheric burden 1.2.1 Influence of Lifetime on Environmental Behaviour Some knowledge of environmental lifetimes of chemicals is very valuable in predicting their environmental behaviour In relation to the atmosphere, there is an interesting relationship between the spatial variability in the concentrations of an atmospheric trace species and its atmospheric lifetime.3 Compounds such as methane and carbon dioxide with a long lifetime with respect to removal from the atmosphere by chemical reactions or dry and wet deposition (see Section of this chapter) show little spatial variability around the globe, as their atmospheric lifetime (several years) exceeds the time-scale of mixing of the entire troposphere (of the order of a year) On the other hand, for a short-lived species such as nitrogen dioxide, removal by chemical means or dry or wet deposition occurs much more quickly than atmospheric mixing and hence there is very large spatial variability, with concentrations sometimes exceeding 100 ppb in urban areas, whilst remote atmosphere concentrations can be at the level of a few ppt By analogy, short-lived species also show a much greater hour-to-hour and day-to-day variation in concentration at a given measuring point than long-lived species for which local sources impact only to a modest degree on the existing background concentration This illustration using the atmosphere can be taken somewhat further in relation to other environmental media Lifetimes of highly soluble species such as sodium and chloride in the oceans are long compared to the mixing times and therefore variations in salinity across the world's oceans are relatively small (see Chapter 4) Where soils are concerned, mixing times will generally far exceed lifetimes and extreme local hot spot concentrations can be found where soils have become polluted Lifetime also influences the way in which we study the environmental cycles of pollutants In the case of reactive atmospheric pollutants, it is the reaction rate, or rate of dry or wet deposition, which determines the lifetime We are therefore concerned mainly with the rates of these processes in determining the atmospheric cycle In the case of longer-lived species, such as persistent organic compounds like PCBs and dioxins, chemical reaction rates are rather slow and these compounds can approach equilibrium between different environmental media such as the atmosphere and surface ocean or the atmosphere and surface soil, with evaporation exceeding deposition during warmer periods and wet and dry deposition replacing the contaminant into the soils or oceans in cooler weather conditions Both the kinetic approach dealing with reaction rates and the thermodynamically based approach considering partition between environmental media will be introduced in this chapter In general the kinetic or reaction rate approach will be most appropriate to the study of short-lived reactive substances, whilst the equilibrium approach will be more applicable to long-lived substances 2.1 RATES OF TRANSFER BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL COMPARTMENTS Air-Land Exchange The land surface is an efficient sink for many trace gases These are absorbed or decomposed on contact with plants or soil surfaces Plants can be particularly active because of their large surface area and ability to absorb water-soluble gases The deposition process is crudely described by the deposition velocity, vd, _, vd(cm s ]) = Flux (figm~2 s~l) —:—— :—— r- Atmosphenc concentration (fig m~ J ) The term flux is analogous to a flow of material, in this case expressed as micrograms of substance depositing per square metre of ground surface per unit time In the case of rough surfaces the square metre of area refers to the area of a hypothetical horizontal flat surface beneath the true Table Some typical values of deposition velocity Po IIu tan t Surface Deposition velocity (cm s ~ l ) SO SO SO SO O3 O3 O3 HNO CO Aerosol ( < 2.5 fim) Grass Ocean Soil Forest Dry grass Wet grass Snow Grass Soil Grass 1.0 0.5 0.7 2.0 0.5 0.2 0.1 2.0 0.05 0.1 surface rather than the sum of the area of all the rough elements such as plant leaves which make up the true surface Since the deposition process itself causes a gradient in atmospheric concentration, vd is defined in relation to a reference height, usually m, at which the atmospheric concentration is measured For reasons described later, vd is not a constant for a given substance, but varies according to atmospheric and surface conditions However, some typical values are given in Table 2, which exemplify the massive variability For some trace gases, for example, nitric acid vapour, dry deposition represents a major sink mechanism In this case the process may have a major impact upon atmospheric lifetime Worked example Dry deposition is frequently the main sink for ozone in the rural atmospheric boundary layer What is the lifetime of ozone with respect to this process? Assuming a typical dry deposition velocity of cm s~l and a boundary layer height of 1000 m, (H), Flux Mixing depth (m) where By analogy with equation (4), _h_ ~ vd = 1000/0.01 s = 28 hours Thus, taking the boundary layer as a discrete compartment, the lifetime of ozone with respect to dry deposition is around day The lifetime in the free troposphere (the section of the atmosphere above the boundary layer) is longer, being controlled by transfer processes in and out, and chemical reactions The stratospheric lifetime of ozone is controlled by photochemical and chemical reaction processes Dry deposition processes are best understood by considering a resistance analogue In direct analogy with electrical resistance theory, the major resistances to deposition are represented by three resistors in series Considering the resistances in sequence, starting well above the ground, these are as follows: (i) ra, the aerodynamic resistance describes the resistance to transfer downwards towards the surface through normally turbulent air; (ii) rb, the boundary layer resistance describes the transfer through a laminar boundary layer (approximately mm thickness) at the surface; (iii) rs, the surface (or canopy) resistance is the resistance to uptake by the surface itself This can vary enormously, from essentially zero for very sticky gases such as HNO vapour, which attaches irreversibly to surfaces, to very high values for gases of low water solubility which are not utilized by plants (e.g CFCs) Since these resistances operate essentially in series, the total resistance, R, which is the inverse of the deposition velocity, is equal to the sum of the individual resistances (8) Some trace gases have a net source at the ground surface and diffuse upwards; an example is nitrous oxide Whether the flux is downward or upward, it is driven by a concentration gradient in the vertical, dc/dz The relationship between flux, F, and 449 Index terms Links Intellectual deficits 393 Internal loading 126 Internet 435 Ion pairs 82 Ionic strength 75 IPPC 105 419 Directive 404 Iridium 177 Irish Sea 247 Iron 121 178 186 Irrigation water 114 Isokinetic sampling 292 152 181 188 Isoprene 38 Itai-Itai 113 233 80 204 172 182 189 K Kaolinite Kesterson Reservoir 115 Krypton 154 Kyoto 18 L Lagrangian trajectory modeling Lakes 34 257 sediments 369 119 Land contaminants 214 Land Use Planning 418 Landfilling 232 235 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 176 184 190 177 185 450 Index terms Landfill sites tax Links 273 429 Lanthanum 152 Lapse rate 28 Lead 52 171 197 260 391 lead-210 113 173 234 341 152 185 250 346 169 186 257 354 164 181 184 119 Leaded paintwork 262 Leaded petrol 261 Leblane Process 123 Lichens 355 Life Cycle Analysis 430 Lifetimes 240 264 Ligands 96 Liming 129 Limits 400 Line sources 269 Lithium 140 152 30 358 London smog 140 176 241 342 Long-path absorption measurements 324 Los Angeles 359 Lysocline 164 M Magnesium 151 188 deficiency 374 152 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 451 Index terms Manganese Marine aerosol Links 121 140 152 153 171 172 181 188 173 182 189 176 184 177 185 178 186 155 340 174 388 186 242 247 birds 384 environment 383 mammals 378 Mathematical modeling 33 Mean ion activity coefficient 76 Measurement of gaseous air pollutants 267 314 Mediterranean Sea 145 157 158 Mercury 117 175 142 176 152 188 Mesophyll tissues 344 Metal cations 210 344 354 38 155 complexation 93 ion mobility 96 pollution 388 toxicity 96 Metalliferous mining 233 Metals 339 in dusts 288 Meteorological data 318 Methaemoglobinaemia 130 Methane 13 Methanesulfonate 167 Methylation 113 Methyl bromide Methyl tert-butyl ether Methylchloroform 23 133 25 243 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 452 Index terms Links Methyl iodide 155 Methylmercury 118 390 Methyl radicals 54 Minamata 118 MINTEQA2 106 Mirabilite 144 Mixed acidity constant 341 346 15 23 25 388 390 78 Modeling of environmental dispersion 303 Molybdenum 185 Monitoring 267 protocol 317 Monomethylarsonic acid 113 Monsoons 148 Montreal Protocol 339 Multi-functionability approach 412 Mussel Watch 352 N National Air Quality Strategy 44 National Radiological Protection Board 278 National Survey of Air Pollution 276 Neon 154 Neutralization 129 Nickel 152 169 171 173 185 Nitrate 59 168 60 186 129 259 157 408 167 186 259 radical 167 Nitrate Vulnerable Zones 422 Nitrite 157 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 453 Index terms Nitrogen deposition Links 154 259 373 dioxide 41 242 340 344 oxides 37 40 48 155 259 13 37 246 145 164 169 188 190 249 250 264 334 338 340 156 365 N-Nitroso compounds Nitrous oxide Non-conservative 130 198 Non-conservative behaviour 142 Non-sea salt sulfate 151 Nonylphenol 132 North Sea 196 Number of sampling sites 316 Nutrients 98 O Objectives Occult deposition 400 64 Ocean basins 257 Octanol-water partition coefficient 211 Oil 383 spills 385 Organic contaminants Organic material 210 215 81 139 147 149 158 164 176 186 345 378 Organochlorine pesticides 352 Organochlorines 212 216 Organophosphate 216 350 Organophosphorus 131 Orthophosphate 126 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 381 454 Index terms Outer sphere complexes Links 82 Over-abstraction 398 Oxides of nitrogen 260 Oxygen 140 142 153 154 155 156 157 169 171 186 13 344 19 354 56 360 245 363 325 373 depletion 20 142 layer 19 150 157 168 212 384 218 386 231 339 Ozone P Pacific Ocean 149 Pacific oyster 379 PAHs 53 352 Palladium 177 Paraquat 209 Parathion 217 217 Particle formation 59 Particles 59 249 Paniculate matter 59 360 Partition coefficients Parts per billion Pasquill stability class PCBs 264 307 53 132 217 219 235 345 379 347 381 375 376 377 Pedogenic processes 202 Peritachlorophenol 410 Permeability 206 Peroxyacetyl nitrate 58 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 455 Index terms Links Peroxybenzoyl nitrate 58 Pesticides 72 131 211 352 pH 85 153 161 181 189 139 157 162 182 140 158 163 183 142 159 164 186 Phenol 338 Phosphate 125 167 168 170 Phosphorus 122 152 169 Photic zone 142 156 158 164 344 Photochemical ozone 53 Photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP) 57 Photochemical smog Photosynthesis PHREEQC Pinene 152 160 177 188 168 359 98 106 38 Pit lakes Pitzer equation 110 77 Placer gold 117 Planned emissions 270 Plants 362 Platinum 177 Plume rise 32 Plutonium 248 282 42 51 PM10 Podzolization 107 Point of zero charge 181 Point sources 269 Polar stratospheric clouds 340 182 22 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 360 361 456 Index terms Pollution control permit Polonium Links 190 191 197 200 152 172 184 188 156 157 177 427 185 Polychlorinated biphenyls see PCBs Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins 53 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, see PAHs Pore waters 121 Potassium 151 Potential density 146 Potential temperature 142 Precaution 413 Precision 321 Prerequisites for monitoring 316 Presentation of data 326 Primary minerals 79 Primary pollutants 36 Primary producers 367 Productivity 129 Protection zone 422 Proton transfer 101 Purification 134 Pycnocline 146 Pyrite 104 pε 97 145 322 135 140 186 pε–pH diagrams 100 Q QSAR 335 Quality assessment 398 Quality control procedures 317 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 457 Index terms Quartz Links 80 R Radon 277 Rain 255 Rainout 64 Rainwater composition 66 Reclamation 226 Recycling 430 Red Sea 145 Redox conditions 207 Redox equilibria 100 Redox intensity 97 Redox processes 99 Redox-sensitive elements 99 Reedbed 135 Remediating contaminated land 411 Remote sensing of pollutant 324 Reproduction 374 Residence time 142 Resistances to transfer 252 Respirable particles 341 Respiration 253 151 181 99 Respiratory disease 358 Respiratory tract 340 Restoration 128 Revelle factor 164 Risk Assessment 347 Risk-based Corrective Action 413 River water 255 Riverine suspended particulate matter 254 360 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 197 458 Index terms Links Rubidium 140 Ruthenium 177 S Saanich Inlet 157 Salinity 142 143 145 146 147 148 187 150 188 151 197 153 162 Salinization 115 Scandium 152 Scavenging coefficient Scavenging ratio 64 252 Sea breezes 31 Sea-salt 37 Seal populations 185 60 378 Secondary minerals 80 Secondary pollutants 36 135 Sediment 110 258 cores 123 soil and biological monitoring 285 Sedimentation 294 velocities 65 Selenium 115 142 Sellafield 247 283 Semen quality 381 Sewage effluent 382 Sewage sludge 114 Sigma-tee 146 Silicate 167 Silicic acid Silicon 176 218 168 170 169 181 81 152 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 459 Index terms Links Silver 177 Site investigation 220 Smectites 204 Smelting 110 233 42 50 Smoke particles 186 358 Sodium 151 172 152 173 184 Soil 201 262 370 and sediment sampling methods 302 cleaning 226 constituents 203 formation 202 organic matter 205 profile 202 properties 206 Solubility 81 Solubility product 81 Solvay process 123 Solvents 235 Soot 188 153 175 176 115 41 Source inventory 319 Source monitoring 271 Southern Ocean 148 Speciation 171 339 Specific conductance 75 Specific Ion Interaction Theory 77 Stability field 104 Stability limits of water 100 Standards 400 172 174 402 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 460 Index terms Stomata Stratosphere Stratospheric ozone depletion Strontium Subsidence inversion Subsidiarity Links 337 341 239 19 325 142 151 152 30 416 Sulfate 59 Sulfite 62 Sulfur 151 176 Sulfur dioxide 41 344 50 355 Sulfurous acid 62 Superfund 411 Supersaturation 153 Supply chain pressures 433 Surface charge 181 Surface complex 84 Surface resistance 246 Surface tension 143 Surfactants 143 Suspended particulates 299 Synthetic pyrethroids 131 106 358 T 2,4,5-T 216 Tailing ponds 110 TBT 195 196 197 TCDD 216 217 377 TCDF 216 217 Temperature inversions 217 30 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 151 362 340 461 Index terms Tertiary treatment 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin Links 135 Tetraethyl lead 260 Tetramethyl lead 260 Thallium 176 Thermocline 145 Thorium 152 185 76 180 Titanium 152 153 Toluene 134 Tin Total suspended particulate matter 42 Toxic Organic Micropollutants (TOMPS) 52 Toxicity tests 185 299 333 334 Tradeable permits Trajectories 430 28 Transfer velocity 252 Tributyltin 194 Trichloroethene 133 Trigger concentrations 224 Tropopause 198 379 225 Tube wells 112 Turbidity 117 U Underground fuel tanks 413 Uniform emission standards 402 Units of concentration 403 405 Upwelling 149 Uranium 152 Uranium dioxide 153 168 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 462 Index terms Links US ambient air quality standards 323 US National Air Sampling Network 298 UV radiation 142 V Vanadium 152 Vegetation 337 Vehicular emissions Vermiculite 47 205 Vienna Convention 24 Visibility 61 Vitellogenin 133 Vivianite 126 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Volatilization 39 382 57 141 W Washout 64 coefficient 253 Waste disposal 232 Waste Framework Directive 429 Waste management hierarchy 430 Waste treatment 135 Waste waters 135 WATEQ4F 106 253 Water meadows 125 Quality Objectives 401 resources 431 sampling methods 300 table 112 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 463 Index terms Links Water Framework Directive 417 Weathering 179 of rock 255 Weddell Sea 149 Wet deposition 193 195 198 152 186 169 188 170 189 171 250 64 Wetlands 128 Wheal Jane tin mine 109 Wind shear 192 11 X Xylene 134 Z Zinc 122 185 Zooplankton 368 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation ... Crust Mantle Core a 4 .2 5 .2 1.4 2. 4 4.0 1.9 x 10 x 10 18 x 10 21 x 10 22 x 10 x 10 Mixing time (years) 60 0 .2 1600 > x 10 >108 Plants, animals, and organic matter are included but coal and sedimentary... respectively and a ( = Reactive/ ^inert) is a factor which quantifies any enhancement of gas transfer in the water due to chemical reaction The terms rw and are the resistances to transfer in the water and. .. these pollutants'1 may be expanded as follows: (a) Monitoring may be carried out to assess pollution effects on humans and their environment, and so to identify any possible cause and effect relationships