FIGHTING YOUR FEELINGS: THE IMPACT OF EMOTION REGULATION ON CONSUMER JUDGMENT AND CHOICE QIU CHENG (M. Econ. Fudan University, China) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING BUSINESS SCHOOL NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2007 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Associate Professor Lee Yih Hwai and Assistant Professor Catherine Yeung, for their professional guidance and support throughout my doctoral study at the National University of Singapore. I very much appreciate the contribution of my dissertation committee member Professor Leong Siew Meng. I would like to express my special thanks to Associate Professor Ang Swee Hoon, Assistant Professor Li Xiuping, and Assistant Professor Tambyah Siok Kuan for their insightful comments. I am indebted to the participants in the seminars at the NUS for their valuable comments and suggestions. I also want to thank my fellow Ph.D. students for their support and companionship. Last but not least, I wish to express my deepest appreciation to my family for always being supportive of my efforts in pursuing the Ph.D. i TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………….i List of Tables………………………………………………………………….……….v List of Figures………………………………………………………………….…… vi Summary… …………………………………………………………………….… .vii Chapter Introduction………………………………………………………… .1 1.1 Research Motivation………………………….…………….…… .3 1.2 Research Framework……………………… .…………….………5 Chapter Emotion Regulation and Consumer Judgment………………………….8 2.1 Emotion Regulatory Strategies……………… ………………… .9 2.1.1 Emotion Categorization and Emotion Generation… .10 2.1.2 Reappraisal…………………… …………………….13 2.1.3 Suppression………………….….….………………15 2.1.4 Resource Requirement of Reappraisal and Suppression 17 2.2 The Impact of Emotion Suppression on Consumer Judgment…19 2.2.1 Emotion Suppression, Resource Consumption, and Central Executive Functioning…………………… .19 2.2.2 Central Executive Functioning, Product Information Processing, and Consumer Judgment …….………….21 Chapter Experiments: Part I…………….…………………………………… .24 3.1 Experiment …………….……………… ………………….24 3.1.1 Overview………………………………………… .24 3.1.2 Stimuli Development…………………… ………… 25 3.1.3 Manipulations………………….….….………………27 3.1.3.1 Manipulation of Regulatory Strategy… .……27 3.1.3.2 Manipulation of Cognitive Resource… .……29 3.1.4 Procedure and Measures .29 3.1.5 Results…… .………………….….….………………31 3.1.5.1 Manipulation and Confounding Checks .……31 3.1.5.2 Emotional Reaction.……………… … .……32 3.1.6 Discussion .………………….….….………………36 3.2 Experiment …………….……………… ………………….37 3.2.1 Overview………………………………………… .37 ii 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.3 Stimuli Development…………………… ………… 38 Procedure and Measures .42 Results…… .………………….….….………………43 3.2.4.1 Manipulation Check.………………… ……43 3.2.4.2 Judgment of Image Quality Capability .……43 3.2.4.3 Product Liking……………………… ……45 3.2.5 Discussion .………………….….….………………46 Experiment …………….……………… ………………….48 3.3.1 Overview………………………………………… .48 3.3.2 Marketplace Metacognition …………… ………… 48 3.3.3 Method………………………… 50 3.3.4 Results…… .………………….….….………………51 3.3.4.1 Manipulation Check.………………… ……51 3.3.4.2 Judgment of Image Quality Capability .……51 3.3.4.3 Product Attitude…………… ……………… 54 3.3.5 Discussion .………………….….….………………54 Chapter Emotion Regulation and Consumer Choice………………………… 56 4.1 Comparing Resources Required and Resources Available…….…56 4.2 The Impact of Emotion Suppression on Consumer Choice……58 Chapter Experiments: Part II…………….…………………………………… .60 5.1 Experiment …………….……………… ………………….60 5.1.1 Overview………………………………………… .60 5.1.2 Stimuli Development…………………… ………… 61 5.1.3 Procedure and Measures .64 5.1.4 Results…… .………………….….….………………66 5.1.4.1 Manipulation Check………………… .……66 5.1.4.2 Product Choice…………………… … .……66 5.1.4.3 Relative Preference… …………… … .……67 5.1.5 Discussion .………………….….….………………69 5.2 Experiment …………….……………… ………………….71 5.2.1 Overview………………………………………… .71 5.2.2 Stimuli Development…………………… ………… 72 5.2.3 Results…… .………………….….….………………75 5.2.3.1 Manipulation Check.………………… ……75 5.2.3.2 Product Choice…………………… … .……76 5.2.3.3 Relative Preference… ……………… … .…76 5.2.4 Discussion .………………………….….….………79 iii Chapter General Discussion…………………………………………………… 81 6.1 Summary…………………….……………… ………………….81 6.2 Additional Considerations………………………………………83 6.2.1 Emotion Suppression versus Mood/Thought Suppression……… …….………… 83 6.2.2 Emotion Regulation and “Rationality”.… ………… 84 6.3 Contributions…………………………………………………… 85 6.3.1 The Nonuse of Feelings and Consumer Judgment .…85 6.3.2 Emotion Regulation and Information Processing……86 6.3.3 The Differing Resource Requirement of Different Regulatory Strategies …….………….87 6.3.4 Implications for Marketing Practitioner and Consumer Well-Being …….……….….88 6.4 Limitations.…………………………………………………… 89 6.5 Future Research Directions…………………………………… 90 6.6 Concluding Remarks…………………………………………… 92 Bibliography………………………………………………………… .……………94 iv LIST OF TABLES TABLES 3.1 PAGES Argument Strength with Reference to the Camera’s Ability to Produce High-Quality Images……………… … .………………………………… .41 v LIST OF FIGURES FIGURES PAGES 3.1 High-Aesthetic and Low-Aesthetic Product Design—Experiment 1……… 26 3.2 Emotional Reaction toward Product Design—Experiment 1… …… .35 3.3 Emotional Component of the Advertisement—Experiments and 3…… 39 3.4 Results of Experiment 2…………………………………………….……… 44 3.5 Results of Experiment 3…………………………………………….……… 53 4.1 Resources Required versus Resources Available………………… .……… 57 5.1 Pictures of Stimuli Employed in Experiment 4………………… .………….62 5.2 Results of Experiment 4…………………………………………….……… 68 5.3 Pictures of Stimuli Employed in Experiment 5………………… .………….72 5.4 Manipulation of Processing Difficulty—Experiment 5…………………… .74 5.5 Results of Experiment 5…………………………………………….……… 78 vi SUMMARY Consumers may regulate their emotional reactions toward marketing stimuli in order to depend less on their emotions to make product judgments and choices. However, this research suggests that under certain circumstances, regulating emotion may paradoxically increase the reliance on it. Building on the consensual model of emotion regulation, this research examines two important emotion regulatory strategies that consumers may apply at different stages of the emotion generative process, namely, the reappraisal strategy and the suppression strategy. The reappraisal strategy refers to the interpretation of a stimulus from a neutral and detached perspective so as to decrease the emotional relevance of the stimulus, whereas the suppression strategy refers to the inhibition of ongoing emotional response tendencies toward a stimulus during the emotion generative process. Experiment compares the resource requirement of these two strategies and establishes the premise that emotion suppression consumes appreciable cognitive resources whereas reappraisal does not. The subsequent experiments show that, as a result of its requisite cognitive inputs, suppressing emotional reactions may impair consumers’ ability to process product information systematically (experiments and 3) as well as induce consumers to make emotion-based choices (experiments and 5). These findings contrast the popular notion that managing emotions should result in rational judgments that are based on objective product information. Moreover, demonstrating that the nonuse of feelings could have an impact on consumer judgment, this research complements previous research on how the use of feelings influences consumer judgment to provide a more complete theoretical account of the impact of feelings on consumer judgment. vii CHAPTER INTRODUCTION People may believe that they can be more objective by managing their emotions. Such belief dates back to ancient Greece when Plato posed emotion against reason in his philosophical discussion (Plato/Bloom 1991). It is also reflected in the psychoanalysis of the conflict between the pleasure principle (satisfying immediate, hedonic motives) and the reality principle (achieving long-term benefits; Freud 1911). Consumers nowadays may again attempt to control their emotional reactions toward enticing products to reduce impulsive purchase decisions (Hoch and Loewenstein 1991; Kacen and Lee 2002; Rook 1987). The marketplace is abundant with products appealing to consumers’ emotions, ranging from tempting desserts, cute lifestyle products, stylish electronic appliances, to fashionable clothes. However, consumers may not always want to rely on their emotions when evaluating and choosing products (e.g., Adaval 2001; Shiv and Fedorikhin 1999). Yet one problem inherent in the nonuse of emotions is that emotions are associated with motivational impact and action tendency (Bargh 1999; Ben-Ze’ev, 2000; Frijda 1986). Consumers who feel good about a product may have an inclination to approach the product. Because of this, it is unlikely that they can discard their emotions as a piece of unimportant product information effortlessly. -1- Rather, they may adopt various strategies to regulate their emotional reactions toward products to avoid emotion-driven purchase decisions (Hoch and Loewenstein 1991; Kacen and Lee 2002). For example, consumers who are on diet may suppress their desire for a piece of delicious cheese cake; similarly, consumers who are considering a digital camera may try to evaluate it based on its functional features and down-play their positive feelings toward its sleek design. Failure to regulate emotional reactions toward products may lead to impulsive buying decisions which consumers regret later on (Rook 1987; Weinberg and Gottwald 1982). When consumers regulate their emotions, they may believe that they would be able to focus on the non-emotional product information such as the product’s utilitarian functions, and hence adopt a less emotion-laden processing frame. The current research, however, suggests that the consequences of regulating emotional reactions toward marketing stimuli are not as straightforward, as there may be costs associated with emotion regulation. Under certain circumstances, emotion regulation may impair product judgment and, consequently, lead to an ironically emotion-based choice. So, one important objective of this research is to provide contrary evidence that consumers can always be more objective in their judgments and choices by managing their emotions. The research also specifically details the explanations for why the regulation of emotions may have an impact on consumer judgment and identifies conditions under which this is likely to happen. These attempts represent an effort to bridge a gap in the literature on the impact of feelings on consumer judgment. In the following sections, the gap in the literature on feelings and consumer judgment is identified and the motivation for this research is presented. Next an overview of the research framework is provided. -2- to affect consumer choice demonstrated that consumers tend to base their choices on emotions when they have limited cognitive resources (Shiv and Fedorikhin 1999), the findings on the reappraisal strategy suggest that consumers with limited cognitive resources may still be able to refrain from making emotion-driven choices by adopting an appropriate emotion regulatory strategy such as reappraisal. 6.3.4 Implications for Marketing Practitioner and Consumer Well-Being From a practitioner’s perspective, marketers of high-aesthetic products want consumers to fully experience emotional reactions toward their products. To achieve this, they may try to constrain the cognitive resources their consumers have for product evaluation; for example, loading consumers’ mind with other information through an information-rich store environment. Under this situation, consumers may be less likely to successfully suppress their feelings toward products. Even when consumers manage to suppress their feelings, they may be less capable of judging product functions and eventually refer to their feelings when making choices. For marketers of high-function products, however, they should try to make their product benefits easy-to-process for their consumers instead of providing every little detail about how good their product functions are. Otherwise, even consumers who intend to rely less on their feelings may be unable to judge the product functions properly. From the consumer’s perspective, rather then being passive receivers of product information that is delivered by marketers, they may actively manage their emotional reactions toward products. For them, this research provides insights on the - 88 - effectiveness of different regulatory strategies under different circumstances. While the suppression strategy is readily adoptable, consumers may need to learn how to use the reappraisal strategy (e.g., examining a cute product in a technical way, evaluating a piece of chocolate cake from a nutritionist’s perspective) which will then reduce the emotional relevance of enticing products without placing continual demand on cognitive resources. Equipped with a repertoire of emotion regulatory strategies and knowledge about the potential ‘side effect’ of emotion regulation, consumers may be in a better position to make product judgments and purchase decisions that are consistent with their intentions. 6.4 LIMITATIONS Several boundary conditions to the effect of emotion suppression on consumer judgment and choice deserve discussion. First, the cognitive impact of emotion suppression is unlikely to emerge unless the processing of product information requires considerable mental resources for comprehending, comparing, or integrating the information. If consumers suppress their emotional reactions toward products that are characterized by few descriptive product features, they are less prone to an ironic reliance on their emotions in their choices. In a related vein, consumers may process product information at different levels ranging from mere pre-attention to high elaboration (Greenwald and Leavitt 1984). The scope of this research may be restricted to judgments that require the elaboration of product information. Emotion suppression is unlikely to influence - 89 - processing stages that involve mere attention or a quick retrieval of previously stored information from memory. Finally, the findings of this research are unlikely to be applicable to highly deliberated choice situations where consumers collect and process product information over a long period and at different points in time so that their impaired cognitive resources due to emotion suppression may have been refilled. Rather, the findings might be most applicable to relatively rapid decision processes where consumers, for example, may attempt to avoid impulse buying by suppressing their feelings but still end up relying on their feelings in making choices. 6.5 FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS There are several avenues for future research. First, research is needed to further reveal the mechanism underlying the choice share shift due to emotion suppression, as found in experiments and 5. Tentatively, it is possible that participants may have constructed mental images of the appearance of the options in their minds and eventually used their feelings toward these mental images to make choices when their ability to judge product functions was impaired. This account awaits further research confirmation. Second, future research may examine whether individual differences in emotion regulatory style would influence the cognitive consequences of emotion regulation. As self-regulation may become more automatic and the regulatory capability may be strengthened with practice (Muraven and Baumeister 2000), - 90 - consumers who have a chronic tendency to suppress their feelings may be less susceptible to the impairment of cognitive functioning due to emotion suppression. Also, it would be interesting to examine what chronic or situational factors may influence consumers’ adoption of a plarticular emotion regulatory strategy (e.g., the marketplace metacognition investigated in this research) as well as consumers’ intuitions about the cognitive impact of different regulatory strategies. Third, future research may investigate the interaction between emotion generation and emotion regulation. The present research examines one way of emotion generation—appraisal and the corresponding emotional reaction. However, emotions may be generated through different processes which vary in terms of automaticity (Pham et al. 2001). Whether emotion regulation with varying availability of cognitive resources can be effective may depend on the process through which emotions are generated. For instance, it may be impossible to reappraise a stimulus which elicits emotional reactions through sensory experiences or conditioning effect since the appraisal process is not involved in emotion generation. Fourth, future research may extend the study of emotion regulation from the emotion-generation stage to the judgment-making stage by examining how people may adjust the influence of emotions on their judgments. This adjustment strategy neither alters real-time emotional experiences nor requires regulatory effort while consumers are exposed to the emotion-eliciting product. As a consequence, it should not affect consumers’ online processing of product information and the product judgments based on this online information processing. On the other hand, the adjustment strategy requires consumers to identify and remove the exact influence of emotions on judgments. Since human beings often fail to properly correct the - 91 - unwanted influence (e.g., unreliable information) on their judgments (Wilson and Brekke 1994), the likelihood as well as the extent of under- or over-adjustment of the impact of emotions warrants further investigation for understanding the role of the adjustment strategy in consumer judgments. Finally, future research should examine the cognitive impact of emotion regulation in other contexts such as customer service and negotiation. Service providers may manage their display of emotions (e.g., smile) to enhance customer satisfaction (Ashforth and Humphrey 1993; Grandey and Brauburger 2002). Negotiators may express, exaggerate, or suppress their emotions strategically to achieve their goals during negotiation (Barry 1999; Kopelman, Rosette, and Thompson 2006; Levenson 1994). At the same time, the cognitive demands of customer service and negotiation are likely to be high. Service providers may need to exaggerate their enthusiasm or hide their unhappiness while providing consultation to consumers on the complicated product functions. Likewise, negotiators may need to conceal their feelings while pondering on how to acquire more value from the negotiation. Based on the current research, future research may investigate such situations where the regulation of emotions and the processing of information may compete for the same pool of resources and lead to unintended outcomes. 6.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS Although there is a tradition of associating emotions with irrationality, more recent research shows that emotions may serve as valuable, informational input for - 92 - judgment (Cacioppo and Gardner 1999; Pham 1998, 2004; Schwarz and Clore 1983, 1996). 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(2004), “Affect, Appraisal, and Consumer Judgment,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (September), 412-24. - 103 - [...]... complete theoretical account of the impact of feelings on consumer judgment In the following chapters, previous research on emotion generation, emotion regulation, and product judgment is reviewed, upon which the conceptual framework of this research is developed Next, three experiments examining the impact of emotion regulation on product judgment are presented Thereafter, further hypotheses regarding emotion. .. little consumer behavior research has tapped into the process underlying the nonuse of feelings, let alone investigating the consequent impact on consumer judgment Such investigation is of theoretical interest because of the emotion regulation process that is involved and the consequent effect on product judgment and choice (as compared with other forms of self -regulation behaviors) When both feelings. .. emotion regulation and consumer choice are developed, followed by a report of two experiments examining the impact of emotion regulation on choice Finally, implications of the present research and avenues for future research are discussed -7- CHAPTER 2 EMOTION REGULATION AND CONSUMER JUDGMENT Firms frequently incorporate emotional features in the design of products and advertisements to enhance consumers’... emotion while others regard appraisal as a component of emotion (see Ellsworth and Scherer 2003 for a review) The former confines emotion to emotional responses whereas the latter conceives emotion to encompass the entire emotion generative process Nevertheless, both suggest that the generation of emotional reactions may vary with the way people interpret the target In other words, the generation of. .. expressions on your face” (adapted from Richards and Gross 2000; Schmeichel, Vohs, and Baumeister 2003; Wegner, Erber, and Zanakos 1993) Instructions for Non -Regulation There were two non -regulation conditions to serve as control conditions where participants responded to the clocks with little emotion regulation In one condition, participants were asked to respond to the products naturally In the other condition,... reappraisal and the suppression strategies, reappraisal primarily attempts to curtail the generation of emotions at the early stage of the emotion generative process (Gross 1998; Richards and Gross 2000) As it takes place prior to the generation of emotional responses, it can efficiently change the entire subsequent emotion trajectory, and there is less of a need for consumers to monitor and regulate their emotional... product) The generalization is important in marketing in light of the fact that consumers are more often confronted by decisions that require their suppression of feelings rather than merely their control of facial expressions The second objective was to establish the premise that the effectiveness of regulating emotional reactions toward marketing stimuli (e.g., product aesthetics) depends on the availability... for and functional evaluations of a product become likely inputs to product judgment and choice, consumers’ attempts to regulate their feelings (so that they can rely less on it) can affect product judgment and choice in two ways: first, through the reduction of feelings toward the product, and second, through the changes in the product function judgment These underlying processes differentiate emotion. .. discuss the suppression strategy and its impact on consumer judgment 2.2.1 Emotion Suppression, Resource Consumption, and Central Executive Functioning An implication arising from the resource requirement of emotion suppression is that such a regulatory strategy may compete with other mental processes for the same pool of resources Moreover, the cognitive resources consumed by emotion suppression include... an emotionally upsetting video clip When consumers suppress their emotional reactions that are elicited by product aesthetics, a similar emotion regulatory process is likely to occur To achieve suppression, consumers need to engage in a loop of monitoring their current emotional reactions (e.g., do I have any feelings toward the appearance of the product?), comparing their emotional reactions with their . into the process underlying the nonuse of feelings, let alone investigating the consequent impact on consumer judgment. Such investigation is of theoretical interest because of the emotion regulation. presented. Thereafter, further hypotheses regarding emotion regulation and consumer choice are developed, followed by a report of two experiments examining the impact of emotion regulation on choice. . dimension). Demonstrating these potential effects of the nonuse of feelings on product judgment and choice, the present research complements the previous research on the use of feelings in consumer