COMMUNITY-BASED ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE IN SETTLEMENT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES AMONG THE URBAN POOR: A CASE STUDY OF METRO MANILA HANNAH KEREN LEE BSc Geography (Hons.), University of Birmingham MSc Development Planning: Environment & Sustainable Development, UCL A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ARCHITECTURE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE 2013 DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and it has been written by me in its entirety I have duly acknowledged all the sources of information, which have been used in the thesis This thesis has also not been submitted for any degree in any university previously Hannah Keren Lee August 2013 National University of Singapore National University of Singapore PhD Thesis Acknowledgements Acknowledgements This thesis, although officially the work of one person – the author, contains the valuable input from many people I would like to thank and acknowledge them here Firstly, my husband: thank you for your unending love and support, and most notably for enduring the months apart this PhD has necessitated Secondly, my newborn son: your imminent birth gave me wonderful motivation to complete my writing and now you are here, I thank you for the indescribable joy you bring into every day Thirdly, my family: you have prayed for me, loved me, listened to me and comforted me as I have navigated this PhD process – thank you! Fourthly, my supervisors: thank you for the time and effort you have put into my research and for the wisdom with which you have guided the process To my hosts in the Philippines: thank you for your generous hospitality and loving care towards me throughout my fieldwork and for making it such an enjoyable experience To the organizations and individuals who participated and facilitated my fieldwork in Metro Manila: thank you for your time, honesty and openness You made this research possible Thank you also to academics at IIED and the DPU in London; I have appreciated the opportunity to discuss research ideas with you Finally, to the Asia Research Institute: thank you for the scholarship that has enabled me to embark on this PhD Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore i PhD Thesis Table of Contents Table of Contents Acknowledgements i Table of Contents ii Abstract v List of Tables, Figures, Boxes and Plates vii Introduction 1.1 1.2 Importance of Research Research Context 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.3 1.4 Identification of Knowledge Gaps 13 Thesis Structure 15 Research Approach and Methodology 16 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Interdisciplinary Research Approach 16 Research Problem 17 Research Questions 18 Research Aim and Objectives 18 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.5 2.6 Metropolitan Manila 26 Methods of Data Collection 27 2.7.1 2.7.2 2.8 2.9 Systems Approach 19 Inductive Approach 21 Research Components 22 Why the Philippines? 23 2.6.1 2.7 Aim 18 Objectives 18 Overall Research Design 19 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 Theory Review of CBA 27 Case Study 28 Recording of Data 37 Analysis of Data 38 2.9.1 Cities and Urbanisation Urban Poverty Climate Change The Development Challenge Adaptation – a Response CBA criteria 40 Literature Review of CBA 41 3.1 Historical Evolution of CBA 41 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.2 3.3 3.4 Conferences 43 Donors and Non-Governmental Organisations 48 Definitions and Meaning 48 Methodology 50 Practice of CBA 55 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 Rural Areas 57 Urban Areas 58 Funding for CBA 65 Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore ii PhD Thesis 3.5 Table of Contents Lessons for Urban CBA from Research 67 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.6 Critique, Limitations and Challenges of CBA 72 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.7 Summary 82 Roots 84 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.2 4.3 Development and Adaptation Continuum 127 Linkages with Disaster Risk Reduction 131 Entry Point 133 Summary 135 Context Analyses for CBA within Metro Manila 137 5.1 National and Regional Influences 137 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.2 5.3 Hydrometeorological Hazards 138 Development Issues 140 National Policy Environment 145 External Influences 162 5.2.1 5.2.2 International Agreements 162 Donor Funding 167 Summary 172 Analysis of the Case Study in Metro Manila 175 6.1 Profile of Case Study Settlement Development Organisations 175 6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.2 6.3 Case – Gawad Kalinga 175 Case – Homeless  People’s  Federation  of  the  Philippines,  Inc 177 Case – TAO-Pilipinas 179 Profile of Case Study Urban Poor Communities 181 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 6.2.6 Development-Related 101 Adaptation-Related 115 Paradigm 127 4.3.1 4.4 4.5 4.6 Development Theory 84 Adaptation Theory 91 Key Concepts 100 4.2.1 4.2.2 Critique and Limitations 73 Challenges 78 Theoretical Framework for CBA 84 4.1 Assets and Housing 67 Partnerships and Institutional Capacity 69 Trust, Communication and Adaptive Strategies 70 Community Savings and Surveys 72 Selection of Study Communities 181 Community Histories 182 Community Characteristics 189 Current Climate-Related Hazards and Disasters 195 Community and Household Assets 204 Daily Concerns 208 Summary 211 Application of CBA Criteria to Evaluate the Case Study 212 7.1 7.2 Criterion 1: Operates at the community level 212 Criterion 2: Responds to climate risks in a developmental framework 212 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.3 Criterion 3: Builds upon existing local autonomous adaptation strategies 244 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 7.4 Direct Interventions 213 Indirect Interventions 237 Changes to Housing 244 Willingness to Move 246 Strategies to Reduce Flood Risk 246 Strategies to Cope with Heat 248 Criterion 4: Engages community members through participatory methods 251 Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore iii PhD Thesis Table of Contents 7.5 Criterion  5:  Enhances  the  community’s  options  and  decision-making power regarding present and future actions to climate risks 252 7.5.1 7.5.2 Perceived Changes in Weather and their Causes 253 Awareness, Understanding and Importance of Climate Change 254 7.6 Criterion 6: Complements community-based development and DRR work 257 7.7 Criterion 7: Incorporates a futures view into community planning and development 257 7.8 Criterion 8: Reduces present and future climate risks of a community 258 7.9 Overview of CBA Criteria Assessment 259 7.10 Evaluation of the CBA Process 263 7.11 Summary 266 CBA Practice and Theory Reviewed 268 8.1 Implications for CBA Practice within the Case Study Context of Settlement Development Planning 268 8.1.1 8.1.2 8.1.3 8.2 The Concept of CBA Revisited 286 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.3 Limitations of CBA Practice in the Case Study 268 Challenges of CBA Practice in the Case Study 272 Recommendations for CBA Practice in the Case Study 280 Existing Theory 286 Settlement Development Planning – a Form of Urban CBA 296 Summary 297 Conclusion 299 9.1 Key Research Findings 299 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.2 9.3 Significance of Findings 299 Contribution to Current Knowledge 300 Main Contributions to Theory 301 The Research Process 302 9.3.1 9.3.2 Research Limitations 304 Further Research 306 References 308 Appendix A – List of Interview Questions by Category for Case Study 323 Appendix B – Complete List of Interviews 332 Appendix C – Community Information 336 Appendix D – Stakeholder Analysis and Venn Diagrams 343 Appendix E – Case Study Tools 352 Acronyms 356 Glossary 360 Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore iv PhD Thesis Abstract Abstract It is widely accepted that anthropogenic climate change and the impacts thereof have and will have serious consequences for humanity Specifically, academics and development practitioners are raising awareness to the fact that the poor are very likely to be the most impacted by climate change because of their high vulnerability and low capacity, and yet they have done the least to cause it In light of this it is feared that climate change may undo progress towards development, namely the millennium development goals Hence adaptation responses to climate change are no longer a peripheral accessory but are fundamental and central to achieving development goals in the future So much so, that ‘adaptation  as development’  is a recognized approach for which Community-Based Adaptation to Climate Change (CBA) is a good medium This thesis sets out doctoral research on the practice of CBA among the urban poor in the context of settlement development planning (such as slum up-grading and resettlement) It is rooted in development and adaptation theories, and due to its interdisciplinary nature straddles the fields of urban planning and architecture, global environmental change and international development among others Through context analyses and case study research in Metro Manila, the Philippines the thesis addresses a lack of knowledge and research about CBA practice in urban areas, and contributes empirical support for conceptualising settlement development planning among the poor as a form of urban CBA This is particularly demonstrated through direct and indirect interventions within settlement development programmes that reduce the vulnerability and exposure and build the adaptive capacity of urban poor inhabitants to climate risks, such as climate-related hazards and current and future impacts of climate change Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore v PhD Thesis Abstract CBA criteria and indicators used to assess the case study also indicate areas where settlement development planning can be strengthened in order to practice urban CBA more effectively In this regard, the research sets forth eleven recommendations to settlement development organizations For example to recognize the potential to reduce vulnerability through well designed, planned and climate-proofed housing and sites, and to build upon synergies that exist between Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) initiatives and adaptation to climate change Of particular notice, the research finds that in spite of institutional support for adaptation to climate change at the national, regional and municipal levels and knowledge of climate change among settlement development practitioners, urban poor inhabitants have little or no awareness of climate change For them their priorities centre on meeting daily needs and responding to immediate climate risks, namely floods and heat in Metro Manila This highlights the important role that settlement development practitioners (including planners, architects and engineers) can play as channels for conveying knowledge and thus raising awareness about climate change and associated risks to the urban poor communities they work with Secondly, it highlights that climate change will gain prominence among the urban poor when it noticeably impacts upon their daily needs (such as food, water, work and housing) And thirdly, it encourages settlement development practitioners and government to view community-based disaster risk reduction and management (CBDRRM) initiatives, which are prevalent responses to current climate risks among settlement development programmes, to be viewed as catalysts and gateways for more strategic, planned adaptation initiatives Yet, within this to develop a longer term, futures view that incorporates climate change consciousness and sensitivity into planning and goes beyond historic and current climate risks Key words: Housing, Settlement Development Planning, Urban Poor, Climate Change, Climate Risk, Adaptation, Philippines, Flooding Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore vi PhD Thesis Appendices Figure 32 Venn diagram by Sub-Urban residents during a focus group meeting Figure 33 Venn diagram by Masagana residents during a focus group meeting Source: Venn diagram exercise carried out with key informants during community visits between March and June 2012 Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 351 PhD Thesis Appendices Appendix E – Case Study Tools This section briefly describes five tools that are used during the case study fieldwork research in the Philippines (see page 35) They include: snowball sampling; stakeholder and institutional mapping; semi-structured interviews; focus groups; community hazard mapping; Venn diagrams (for stakeholder mapping within communities); and individual and community asset ranking and climate hazard ranking Snowball Sampling Snowball sampling is a non-probability method used in social science research and is particularly useful when the researcher does not know in advance who are relevant actors to be studied As such snowball sampling begins with the identification of one or several key informants; in this research these will be leaders of the NGOs and federations in the case study These key informants are then asked to recommend or highlight other relevant key informants, actors or institutions for the study (Trochim, 2006a) Like a snowball gains in size as it rolls down a hill, it is expected that the list of key informants, actors and institutions will grow exponentially as more interviews are held Stakeholder Mapping Stakeholder79 mapping is a similar process to snowball sampling in that it accumulates a growing number of connections, however it focuses on those that have a stake in the analysis (which may differ from institutions or other actors) and it pays more attention to stakeholder characteristics and the nature of their relationships with one another in terms of power, authority and influence (Lobo, 2008) The case study will use this tool in order to a) highlight which stakeholders are necessary to interview in order to better understand the study subject and to b) make 79 A   stakeholder   is   some   who   has   a   ‘stake’   in   the   element   under   analysis   – which is community-based adaptation among the urban poor in this research Stakeholders in this research may belong to housing, disaster management, and urban poverty sectors among others and in operational areas such as planning and administration Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 352 PhD Thesis Appendices recommendations for strengthening the practice of community-based adaptation in the context of settlement development planning Because stakeholders are not homogenous and may differ in importance and function, they will be categorized into key, primary, or secondary stakeholders and delivery, enabling or end user agencies, respectively (Lobo, 2008, p 49 and 50) Institutional Mapping Institutional mapping differs from stakeholder mapping in that the focus of the mapping is institutions Institutions, compared to organizations (which may be stakeholders),   “set   the   context   and   framework   within   which   organizations   operate”   (Lobo, 2008, p 36)     Therefore   they   are   the   “rules   of   the   game”   whereas   organizations  are  “the  players”  (Lobo, 2008, p 12) Institutions can exhibit a formal nature, for example constitutions, rules, regulations, laws, rights, or an informal nature, for example sanctions, customs, mores, traditions (Ibid.) In either case an understanding of them is important if any recommended change is to be effective This case study research uses this tool to map out the important institutions that influence community-based adaptation in settlement developments in order to highlight, which institutions need to be further researched and which may play a part in the recommendations for strengthening the practice of CBA in the context of settlement development planning Semi-Structured Interviews Unlike formal questionnaires, semi-structured interviews follow a list of prepared questions but there is flexibility to change the order of questions and to add new questions during the interview process This interview style encourages two-way conversation between the researcher and the interviewee, and allows the researcher to probe deeper to extrapolate reasons behind answers given Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 353 PhD Thesis Appendices Focus Groups Focus groups are a research tool often used during fieldwork They are composed of a group of people (perhaps to 15 people) who have a common characteristic – in this research focus group participants were all members of the same community The focus group is often mediated by the researcher – possibly with the assistance of a translator – and should encourage a safe environment in which people can share their experiences, opinions, responses etc about topics raised by the researcher Its strength is the opportunity to verify and get consensus about information or to highlight areas of differing opinions One weakness is that more confident or talkative individuals can suppress the opinions of quieter people Community Hazard Mapping Community hazard mapping can be carried out during a focus group meeting It involves community members drawing a map of their community onto which they layer additional information This information is specifically about hazards they experience (for example, floods, landslide and soil erosion, fire and earthquakes), their spatial occurrence and severity Additional information can include identifying spatial characteristics like location of houses, community buildings, sources of water supply and electricity, and road access among others Often an existing map of the community can be used as a base or reference map Similar to the Venn mapping (in Appendix D), this research draws upon the work of Moser and Stein (2010, 2011) for guidance on hazard mapping in the context of doing participatory climate change adaptation appraisals Venn Diagrams Venn diagrams can also be carried out during a focus group meeting In order to create a Venn diagram participants identify who are key stakeholders and actors involved, for example, in their community Furthermore they identify what type of influences these stakeholders and actors have: they can be positive or negative and Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 354 PhD Thesis Appendices range from very small to very big This information is represented through circles of various  size  and  ‘+’  and  ‘-‘  signs    Arrows  are  finally  used  to  illustrate  the  connection   and direction of stakeholder and actor relationships with the community (See Figure 28 for an example) Ranking Exercises Ranking exercises can be carried out with individual interviewees or with a group and allow the researcher to see how subjects under research (for example, types of hazards or household assets) are ranked from high importance to low importance Typically a list of subjects under research is given to the interviewee, they are then asked to rank these subjects, and the researcher subsequently records their ranking Ranking results can be combined to get average ranking results Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 355 PhD Thesis Acronyms Acronyms ACCA – Asian Coalition for Community Action Program ACHR – Asian Coalition for Housing Rights ADB – Asian Development Bank AusAID – Australian Government Overseas Aid Program CBA – Community-Based Adaptation CBDRRM – Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction and Management CBFEWS – Community-Based Flood Early Warning System CCA – Climate Change Adaptation CCC – Climate Change Commission CDP – Comprehensive Development Plan CIDA – Canadian International Development Agency CLUP – Comprehensive Land Use Plan CMP – Community Mortgage Program DENR – Department of Environment and Natural Resources DFID – Department For International Development (UK) DPOS – Department of Public Order and Safety DRR(M) – Disaster Risk Reduction (and Management) FMM – Franciscan Missionaries of Mary GEF – Global Environment Facility GK – Gawad Kalinga Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 356 PhD Thesis Acronyms GMMA – Greater Metro Manila Area GTZ – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (German Agency for Technical Cooperation) HOA – Home Owners Association HLURB – Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board HPFPI – Homeless  People’s  Federation  of  the  Philippines,  Inc HUDCC – Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council IDRC – International Development Research Centre (Canada) ISFs – Informal Settler Families JICA – Japan International Cooperation Agency KOICA – Korea International Cooperation Agency LAPA – Local Adaptation Programme of Action LCCAP – Local Climate Change Action Plan LDRRMP – Local Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan LGU – Local Government Unit MDG-F – Millennium Development Goals Achievement Fund MGB – Mines and Geosciences Bureau MMDA – Metropolitan Manila Development Authority NAMRIA – National Mapping and Resource Information Authority NAPA – National Adaptation Programme of Action NCCAP – National Climate Change Action Plan NCR – National Capital Region of the Philippines (Metro Manila) NDRRMC – National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 357 PhD Thesis Acronyms NDRRMP – National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan NEDA – National Economic and Development Authority NHA – National Housing Agency OCD – Office of Civil Defense PACSII – Philippine Action for Community-Led Shelter Initiatives, Inc PAGASA – Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration PCUP – Presidential Commission for the Urban Poor PCVA – Participatory Capacity and Vulnerability Analysis PHILSSA – Partnership of Philippine Support Service Agencies, Inc PHILVOCS – Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology PSHAI – Payatas Scavengers Homeowners Association, Inc SDI – Slum Dwellers International Sida – Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SPI – Social Pastoral Institute TAMPEI – Technical Assistance Movement for People and the Environment, Inc UNDP – United Nations Development Programme UNESCAP – United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific UN-Habitat – United Nations Human Settlements Programme UP – University of the Philippines UPAO – Urban Poor Affairs Office UPDF – Urban Poor Development Fund Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 358 PhD Thesis Acronyms UP-NIGS – University of the Philippines National Institute of Geological Sciences USAID – United States Agency for International Development VMSDFI – Vincentian Missionaries Social Development Foundation, Inc Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 359 PhD Thesis Glossary Glossary Adaptation – “adjustment   in   natural   or   human   systems   in   response   to   actual   or   expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities Various types of adaptation can be distinguished, including anticipatory and reactive adaptation, private and public adaptation, and autonomous and planned adaptation”  (IPCC, 2007a) Adaptive capacity – “the  ability  of  a  system  to  adjust  to  climate  change  (including   climate variability and extremes), to moderate potential damages, to take advantage of  opportunities,  or  to  cope  with  the  consequences”  (IPCC, 2007a) Barangay – as the smallest administrative unit of the government, this is the lowest level of government that is responsible for and works most closely with communities Above the barangay is the city or local government unit It is common for the word barangay to be abbreviated to  “Brgy.”     Bayanihan – a Filipino term used to describe community spirit and unity to achieve a task An example of bayanihan is therefore community members coming together to help a family build their house Bilateral development agency – this is an agency that is committed to development work and its home country (typically a high-income nation) is different to the countries (typically low- and middle-income nations) in which it operates Climate change – a change of climate, which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity and greenhouse gas emissions, that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods (UN, 1992a) Community mortgage program – often referred to as CMP this is a mortgage financing program implemented through the Social Housing Finance Corporation Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 360 PhD Thesis Glossary (SHFC),  which  “assists  legally  organized  residents of blighted or depressed areas to own the lots they occupy, providing them security of tenure and eventually improve their   neighbourhood   and   homes   to   the   extent   of   their   affordability”   (SHFC,   2012)     Urban poor communities can avail of the CMP either for the purchase of land where they are already living or in order to purchase new land if government is relocating them The land is therefore officially mortgaged to the SHFC to whom CMP residents pay a monthly amortisation over a course of 25 years based on the total loan amount (SHFC, 2012) Danger zones – This term is broadly used by government agencies, the media and in legal documentation however the actual definition is illusive In short it refers to areas that are considered high risk to hazards such as typhoons or floods and these areas are identified by hazard assessments carried out by the Mines and Geosciences Bureau   under   the   DENR     Interestingly   however   the   majority   of   “danger   zone”   inhabitants are the urban poor, specifically informal settlers Development - Human  development  is  “a  process  of  enlarging  people’s  choices  and   building human capabilities (the range of things people can be and do), enabling them to: live a long and healthy life, have access to knowledge, have a decent standard of living and participate in the life of their community and the decisions that affect their lives   Human   development   has   always   been   “open-ended”   in   that   there   can   be   as   many dimensions to it as there are ways  of  enlarging  people’s  choices.”    Some  of  the   central issues of human development include: Social progress, growth with equity, participation with freedom, sustainability and human security (UNDP, nd.) Governance – is  “the  management  of  the  common  affairs  of  political  communities…   [and] involves much more than the formal institutions of government It may occur in informal arenas too…   Governance   processes   themselves   generate   relational   networks, which may cut across or act to draw together and interlink the relational webs  of  the  life  of  households  and  firms”  (Healey, 2006a, pp 58-59) Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 361 PhD Thesis Glossary Greenhouse gases – main gases that trap heat in the stratosphere and create a “greenhouse”  effect  around  the  earth  include  carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxides (N2O), hydroflurocarbons (HFCs), perflurocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) Hazard – a   natural   hazard   may   cause   a   ‘natural’   disaster   (of   both   small   or   large   scale) It is a geological, atmospheric, or hydrological event (e.g earthquake, landslide, volcanic eruption, windstorm, wild fire, drought, flood, and water surge) that has the potential to cause harm or loss (e.g death or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption, environmental degradation) Natural forces are not the sole cause of natural hazards; in fact, human activity can also contribute to their creation A landslide caused by environmental degradation is one example of such a ‘human-induced  hazard’  (Wamsler, 2007) Institutions – “Sociologists   use   the   term   to   refer   to   complex   social   forms   that   reproduce themselves such as governments, the family, human languages, universities,   hospitals,   business   corporations,   and   legal   systems”     A   standard   definition   is   given   by   Jonathon   Turner   who   states   institutions   are   “a   complex   of   positions, roles, norms and values lodged in particular types of social structures and organising relatively stable patterns of human activity with respect to fundamental problems in producing life-sustaining resources, in reproducing individuals, and in sustaining viable societal structures within  a  given  environment.”  (Miller, 2011) Institutional capacity – is  “the  quality  of  the  relational  networks  of  a  place”  (Healey, 2006a, p 60) Kapitbahayan – the  Filipino  word  for  ‘neighbourhood’ NGO – a non-governmental organization is a formal enterprise that operates separate from official government often because its mandate has political aspects They often Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 362 PhD Thesis Glossary work for social causes and therefore may also often work in partnership with government Local Government Code of 1991 – officially registered as Republic Act No 7160 this   act   aims   to   allow   territorial   and   political   subdivisions   of   the   State   “to   enjoy   genuine and meaningful local autonomy to enable them to attain their fullest development as self-reliant communities and make them more effective partners in the  attainment  of  national  goals”  and  thus  “provide  more  responsive  and  accountable   local government structure instituted through a system of decentralization whereby local government units [are] given more powers, authority, responsibilities, and resources.”  (Philippines, 1991) Mitigation – technological change and substitution that reduce resource inputs and emissions per unit of output Although several social, economic and technological policies would produce an emission reduction, with respect to climate change, mitigation means implementing policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance sinks (IPCC, 2007a) Philippine Climate Change Act of 2009 – officially registered as Republic Act No 9729 this   act   aims   to   mainstream   “climate   change   into   government   policy formulations, establishing the framework strategy and program of climate change, creating  for  this  purpose  the  Climate  Change  Commission,  and  for  other  purposes.”   (Philippines, 2009) Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010 – officially registered as Republic Act No 10121 this   act   aims   to   strengthen   “the   Philippines   Disaster Risk Reduction and Management System, providing for the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Framework and institutionalising the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan, appropriating funds therefore  and  for  other  purposes.”  (Philippines, 2010) Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 363 PhD Thesis Glossary Pro-poor adaptation – responds   to   the   fact  that   “countries   which   face   the   greatest   dangers from the physical impacts of climate change have contributed least to greenhouse   gas   emissions”   (Prowse & Scott, 2008, p 42) Pro-poor adaptation therefore   is   a   form   of   adaptation   that   aims   to   integrate   “issues   of   justice   and   fairness…  to  climate  change  policy”  and  practice,  so  that  “poor  people  do  not  suffer   from  climate  change  more  than  rich  people  do”  – indeed  “the  benefits  of  adaptation   should  outweigh  the  adaptation  costs  for  poor  people”  (Ibid., p 42 and 43) Poverty – this covers not just income poverty, but human poverty, which includes measures of low life expectancy, illiteracy, and lack of access to health services, drinking water, and adequate shelter and nutrition (UNDP, 2011a) Resilience – capacity of a community, system, or society to withstand/resist hazards and/or disasters, and thus maintain an acceptable functional and structural standard – even in the case of a hazardous/disastrous occurrence – by  ‘bouncing  back’  rapidly,   as well as adapting so as to be able to deal adequately with future threats To put it simply, resilience is the antithesis of vulnerability (Wamsler, 2007) Tompkins and Adger (2005) refer to three conditions that enable resilience: ability to self-organize, ability to buffer disturbance and capacity for learning and adapting Risk – the result of interaction of physically defined hazards with the properties of the exposed communities or households – i.e., their sensitivity or (social) vulnerability Risk can also be considered as the combination of an event, its likelihood, and its consequences – i.e., risk equals the probability of climate hazard multiplied  by  a  given  system’s  vulnerability  (CIDA, 2012) Settlement development planning – bottom-up planning exercised within the framework of development programming, through social housing, slum upgrading, settlement planning and/or local urban governance programmes It also involves broader, top-down  housing  planning  and  “It  concerns  the  connections  between  people   and places, movement and urban form, nature and the built fabric, and the processes Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 364 PhD Thesis Glossary for   ensuring   successful   villages,   towns   and   cities”   (DETR, 2000, p quoted byWamsler, 2007) Sitio – a smaller area within a barangay, a sitio can make up a community or may include several communities It does not have its own administrative unit but is under the  barangay’s  rule   Sustainability – although globally used this term is ambiguous and may hold different meanings dependent on the user However sustainability originally stems from the environment and development field and according to the famous Brundtland report   (1987)   it   refers   to   “development   that   meets   the   needs   of   the   present   without   compromising   the   needs   of   future   generations   to   meet   their   own   need”     A   broader   understanding is that the positive outcomes of a development action can be sustained over future generations (Lawson, Park, Cook, & Finn, 2008) Urban poor – are residents living in poverty within urban areas The urban poor are characterized by low skills, low wages, and having insecure employment Typically, they live in informal settlements, such as slums, in crowded conditions, with poor quality housing, a lack of infrastructure and basic services, and insecure tenure (Baker, 2009) However as a result of settlement development programmes portions of the urban poor now live in upgraded or new settlements within the city Vulnerability – the degree to which communities, households, individuals etc are susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate variation to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity (IPCC, 2007a) Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore 365 ... relevant actors to interview regarding the practice of climate change adaptation, particularly in relation to housing issues and the urban poor, in Metro Manila and the Philippines Snowball sampling... climate change into housing design and thus to act as channels for communicating climate change and as catalysts of adaptation actions among the urban poor Hannah Keren Lee National University of Singapore... change adaptation response among the urban poor? What is happening on the ground about CBA in urban areas in the context of settlement development planning? How can the practice of CBA as a climate