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Cambridge.University.Press.Gender.Race.and.the.Writing.of.Empire.Public.Discourse.and.the.Boer.War.Sep.1999.
This page intentionally left blank All of London exploded on the night of May , in the biggest West End party ever seen The mix of media manipulation, patriotism, and class, race, and gender politics that produced the ‘‘spontaneous’’ festivities of Mafeking Night begins this analysis of the cultural politics of late-Victorian imperialism Paula M Krebs examines ‘‘the last of the gentlemen’s wars’’ – the Boer War of – – and the struggles to maintain an imperialist hegemony in a twentieth-century world, through the war writings of Arthur Conan Doyle, Olive Schreiner, H Rider Haggard, and Rudyard Kipling, as well as contemporary journalism, propaganda, and other forms of public discourse Her feminist analysis of such matters as the sexual honor of the British soldier at war, the deaths of thousands of women and children in ‘‘concentration camps,’’ and new concepts of race in South Africa marks this book as a significant contribution to British imperial studies Paula M Krebs is Associate Professor of English at Wheaton College, Massachusetts She is co-editor of The Feminist Teacher Anthology: Pedagogies and Classroom Strategies () and has published articles in Victorian Studies, History Workshop Journal, and Victorian Literature and Culture MMMMM - GENDER, RACE, AND THE WRITING OF EMPIRE - General editor Gillian Beer, University of Cambridge Editorial board Isobel Armstrong, Birkbeck College, London Terry Eagleton, University of Oxford Leonore Davidoff, University of Essex Catherine Gallagher, University of California, Berkeley D A Miller, Columbia University J Hillis Miller, University of California, Irvine Mary Poovey, New York University Elaine Showalter, Princeton University Nineteenth-century British literature and culture have been rich fields for interdisciplinary studies Since the turn of the twentieth century, scholars and critics have tracked the intersections and tensions between Victorian literature and the visual arts, politics, social organization, economic life, technical innovations, scientific thought – in short, culture in its broadest sense In recent years, theoretical challenges and historiographical shifts have unsettled the assumptions of previous scholarly syntheses and called into question the terms of older debates Whereas the tendency in much past literary critical interpretation was to use the metaphor of culture as ‘‘background,’’ feminist, Foucauldian, and other analyses have employed more dynamic models that raise questions of power and of circulation Such developments have reanimated the field This series aims to accommodate and promote the most interesting work being undertaken on the frontiers of the field of nineteenth-century literary studies: work which intersects fruitfully with other fields of study such as history, or literary theory, or the history of science Comparative as well as interdisciplinary approaches are welcomed A complete list of titles published will be found at the end of the book GENDER, RACE, AND THE W R I T I N G OF E M P I R E Public Discourse and the Boer War PA UL A M K RE B S Wheaton College, Massachusetts The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org © Paula M Krebs 2004 First published in printed format 1999 ISBN 0-511-03316-8 eBook (Adobe Reader) ISBN 0-521-65322-3 hardback To my mother, Dorothy M Krebs, and to the memory of my father, George F Krebs, who knew war and knew not to glamorize it XXXXXX Works cited Girouard, Mark The Return to Camelot: Chivalry and the English Gentleman New Haven: Yale University Press, Gordimer, Nadine ‘‘Introduction.’’ In Ruth First and Ann Scott, Olive Schreiner London: The Women’s Press, Gramsci, Antonio Selections from Prison Notebooks London: Lawrence and Wishart, Green, Martin Dreams of Adventure, Deeds of Empire London: Routledge, Green, Roger Lancelyn Kipling: The Critical Heritage London: Routledge, Gunn, J A W Beyond Liberty and Property: The Process of Self-Recognition in Eighteenth-Century Political Thought Kingston, Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press, Haggard, H Rider King Solomon’s Mines Oxford University Press, The Days of My Life: An Autobiography London: Longmans, The Last Boer War London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, & Co., ă Swallow, A Tale of the Great Trek London: Longman, Cetywayo and His White Neighbours: Or, Remarks on Recent Events in Zululand, Natal and Transvaal London: Trubner, ă Hall, Catherine Competing Masculinities: Thomas Carlyle, John Stuart Mill, and the Case of Governor Eyre.’’ White, Male, and Middle-Class: Explorations in Feminism and History London: Routledge, – Hall, Stuart ‘‘Race, Articulation, and Societies Structured in Dominance.’’ In UNESCO, Sociological Theories: Race and Colonialism Paris: UNESCO, – Hall, Stuart, and Schwartz, Bill ‘‘The Crisis in Liberalism.’’ In Stuart Hall, The Hard Road to Renewal: Thatcherism and the Crisis of the Left London: Verso, Hamilton, J Angus The Siege of Mafeking London: Methuen, Harris, Michael, and Lee, Alan (eds.) 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Stepan, Nancy The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain – London: Macmillan, Stirling, Monica The Fine and the Wicked: The Life and Times of Ouida London: Victor Gollancz, Stokes, Eric ‘‘Kipling’s Imperialism.’’ In John Gross (ed.), Rudyard Kipling: The Man, His Work, and His World London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, – Storey, Graham Reuters: The Story of a Century of News Gathering New York: Crown, Suleri, Sara The Rhetoric of English India University of Chicago Press, Sussman, Herbert Victorian Masculinities Cambridge University Press, Swinburne, Algernon The Complete Works of Algernon Charles Swinburne Vol VI Bonchurch edition Ed Edmund Gosse and Thomas James Wise London: Heinemann, Symons, Julian Conan Doyle: Portrait of an Artist New York: Mysterious Press, Thompson, Leonard The Political Mythology of Apartheid New Haven: Yale University Press, Thornton, A P The Imperial Idea and Its Enemies: A Study in British Power London: Macmillan, UNESCO Sociological Theories: Race and Colonialism Paris: UNESCO, van den Boogaart, Ernst ‘‘Colour Prejudice and the Yardstick of Civility: The Initial Dutch Confrontation with Black Africans, –.’’ In Robert Ross (ed.), Racism and Colonialism The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, – van Reenen, Rykie (ed.) Emily Hobhouse’s Boer War Letters Cape Town: Human and Rousseau, Van Wyk Smith, M Drummer Hodge: The Poetry of the Anglo-Boer War (–) Oxford: Clarendon, Wahrman, Dror Imagining the Middle Class: The Political Representation of Class in Britain, c – Cambridge University Press, Walkowitz, Judith City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late Victorian London University of Chicago Press, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State New York: Cambridge University Press, Wallace, Edgar The Four Just Men New York: Dover, Walvin, James Black and White: A Study of the Negro in English Society – London: Allen Lane, Works cited Warwick, Peter Black People and the South African War, – African Studies Series No Cambridge University Press, Warwick, Peter (general ed.), Warwick, Peter and Spies, S B (advisory ed.) The South African War: The Anglo-Boer War – London: Longmans, Willan, Brian Sol Plaatje, African Nationalist – London: Heinemann, Williams, Raymond Problems in Materialism and Culture London: Verso, ‘‘The Press and Popular Culture: An Historical Perspective.’’ In George Boyce, James Curran, and Pauline Wingate (eds.), Newspaper History from the Seventeenth Century to the Present Day Beverly Hills: Sage, – Wilson, Angus The Strange Ride of Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Works London: Secker and Warburg, Wilson, C Usher ‘‘A Situation in South Africa: A Voice from the Cape Colony.’’ Nineteenth Century (November ): – Winks, Robin (ed.) The Historiography of the British Empire-Commonwealth; Trends, Interpretations, and Resources Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, Wirgman, A Theodore ‘‘The Boers and the Native Question.’’ Nineteenth Century (April ): – Woods, Katharine Pearson ‘‘The Evolution of an Artist.’’ Bookman (June ): – Woods, Oliver and Bishop, James The Story of the Times London: Michael Joseph, Woolf, Virginia Three Guineas London: Hogarth, Worcester, Robert M British Public Opinion: A Guide to the History and Methodology of Public Opinion Polling Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Daily Mail Daily News Manchester Guardian The Times The Bloemfontein Friend Westminster Gazette Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman Papers, British Library Joseph Chamberlain Papers, University of Birmingham Kate Courtney Papers, London School of Economics Millicent Fawcett Papers, Fawcett Library Herbert Gladstone Papers, British Library Kitchener Papers, Public Record Office, Kew Kitchener-Marker Correspondence, British Library Works cited Milner Papers, New College, Bodleian Library, Oxford Solomon T Plaatje Papers, University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies Ripon Papers, British Library Olive Schreiner Papers, Microfilm, University of York Southern African Studies Archives War Office records, Public Record Office, Kew Colonial Office records, Public Record Office, Kew Index Africans, images in Britain, –, – Allett, John, Amery, Leo, Arata, Stephen, Arnold, Matthew, , Arnold, F S., Arnold, W T., , Baden-Powell, Colonel Robert, , –; and the Scouts, , , ; image created by Lady Sarah Wilson, –; manipulates news of siege of Mafeking, –; statements on Africans during siege, –; policies towards Africans at Mafeking, – Barrie, J M., Beit, Alfred, Berkman, Joyce Avrech, ‘‘Black Watch’’ – Black Week, , Black male sexuality, , Black men as rapists, image of, , , , –, , , Bloemfontein, , , Blue-books, , , , , , Boers, ; images of in Britain, , , , –, , , –, ; as working class, ; as degenerate, ; Huguenot descent cited, , , Boer women; as spies and suppliers to Boers, , , , –, ; blamed for camp conditions, , , , –; as noble, , ; as rape victims, ; as Victorian women, Boyce, George, Brantlinger, Patrick, , , , Bright, John, Bristow, Joseph, British soldiers as rapists, – Brodrick, War Secretary St John (see also War Office), , , , ; and the camps, , ; and Millicent Fawcett, ; and Emily Hobhouse, , , ; worried about public opinion on camps, , , , Brown, Lucy, , Buchanan, Robert, ‘‘The Voice of the Hooligan’’ Burdett, Carolyn, Burnett, Frances Hodgson, Bushman, – Butler, Josephine, Butler, Judith, Cadbury, George, , , Campbell-Bannerman, Sir Henry, , , , ‘‘Cape Boys’’ , , Carby, Hazel V., Carlyle, Thomas, , Carr, John Dickson, Castle, Kathryn, Chamberlain, Colonial Secretary Joseph (see also Colonial Office), , , , , , , ; worried about public opinion on the camps, –, ; attacked in print by Ouida, chivalry, , , , , , , , , , ; Eglinton Tournament, –; as justification of camps, , , ; as grounds for criticizing camps, , ; and working class, –; and sexual honor, , , Chrisman, Laura, –, Index Churchill, Winston, Civil War (U.S.), , Cobden, Richard, Colonial Office (see also Chamberlain), , , , , concentration camps, , , , , , ; as prisoner of war camps, , , , , –; foreign opinion on, ; formation of, –, –; health conditions in, , –, –, ; mortality rates in, , –, , , ; policy and gender ideology, , , , –, , , , , –; reduced-rations policy, –, –, ; African camps, , , , , Conrad, Joseph, Contagious Diseases Act, Contemporary Review, Cook, E T., Courtney, Kate, Courtney, Leonard, crowd, –, , , Daily Express, , Daily Mail, , , , , , , , , , ; and siege of Mafeking, –; as pro-war populist paper, –; against Boer women, –; coverage of camps, –, –; and Hobhouse report, , ; coverage of Parliament, compared to The Times, Daily News, , , , , , , , , , , ; coverage of camps, , , ; letters about Emily Hobhouse in, ; takeover by pro-Boers, – Daily Telegraph, Darragh, J T., – Darwinism (see also evolution), , David, Deirdre, , , , Davin, Anna, n degeneration, , –, , n Dillon, John, , Doyle, Arthur Conan, , , , ; as popular writer, –, , , , , ; as patriot, , ; on the Boers, –, ; on the concentration camps, –; on military honor, –, ; relationship with Jean Leckie, ; sexual honor, –, , –, ; works at Langman Hospital in South Africa, , ; Brigadier Gerard, , ; Sherlock Holmes, , , , ; Sir Nigel Loring, , , ; and women’s rights, –; ‘‘The Doctors of Hoyland,’’ in Round the Red Lamp, –; The Great Boer War, –, , ; Micah Clarke, ; The War in South Africa, , –; The White Company, , Dubow, Saul, , – n Durbach, Rene, , Education Act, , Ellis, John, Ellis, Peter Berresford, Elshtain, Jean Bethke, Etherington, Noman, evolution (see also Darwinism), –, , , –, – farm-burning, , , , , , Fawcett, Millicent, , , , –; and Emily Hobhouse, –; and African camps, Fawcett Commission (see Ladies Commission) Ferreira, T J., Gagnier, Regenia, – Gardiner, A G., Gardner, Brian, Garrett, Edmund, , Gilbert, Sandra M., , Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, Girouard, Mark, Gladstone, Herbert, Gordimer, Nadine, Gramsci, Antonio, , , n Green, Alice, Gubar, Susan, , Gunn, J A W., Habermas, Jurgen, ă Haggard, H Rider, , , –, , –, , , , , ; as African adventure writer, –, ; as African administrator, , , , –; on Africans, ; editing African Review, ; articles in the South African, , ; letters to press, , –, , ; Allan Quatermain, ; Cetywayo and his White Neighbours, , ; King Solomons Mines, Index , , ; The Last Boer War, , , , ; Nada the Lily, ; She, , , ; Swallow, –; ‘‘The Transvaal’’ ; ‘‘The Zulu War Dance’’ Hales, Arthur, , Hall, Stuart, Hamilton, Angus, – Harmsworth, Alfred, , , , Harrison, Frederic, Herbert, Auberon, – Hobhouse, Emily, , , , ; and African camps, ; and Boer class hierarchy, ; and Daily News, , ; and Manchester Guardian, , , , , ; and Millicent Fawcett, –; and St John Brodrick, , , ; The Times on, ; The Brunt of the War and Where It Fell, –; Report of a Visit , , , , –, Hobhouse, Leonard T., , , Hobsbawm, Eric, Hobson, J A., , –, , , , , , , –, ; as Boer War correspondent, , , , ; on influence of press on public opinion, , , , –; on influence of South African press on British, –, , ; Imperialism, , , – – on factors influencing public opinion, ; The Psychology of Jingoism, – – on factors influencing public opinion, –; The War in South Africa, , , , , , , , homosociality in war, Hornung, E W., Huebner, Count, Illustrated London News, , imperial imaginary, , –, Indian Mutiny (see Sepoy Rebellion) Irish MPs, Jameson, Leander Starr, , , Jameson Raid, , jingoism; and class, , , , , , ; and the Daily Mail, ; and Mafeking Night, , , , ; difference from patriotism, , ; Hobson on, , jingo press (see also popular press), –, , , –, , Jones, Kennedy, Joubert, Piet, Kaarsholm, Preben, Katz, Wendy, Kipling, , , , , , –, , –, , , , , , , ; and Africans, –; and New Journalism, ; articles for Daily Mail, , , ; speech to Anglo-African Writers Club, , ; fiction in Daily Express, , , ; poetry in The Times, , , ; polemic in The Times (for Imperial South Africa Association), , , , ; ‘‘The Absent-Minded Beggar’’ , , , –, , ; ‘‘Boots’’ ; ‘‘The Captive’’ , ; ‘‘Chant-Pagan’’ , , ; ‘‘Columns’’ ; ‘‘The Comprehension of Private Copper’’ , , ; ‘‘The Islanders’’ –, , ; ‘‘The Ladies’’ ; ‘‘The Lesson’’ , , ; ‘‘The Married Man’’ ; ‘‘M.I.’’ , ; ‘‘The Parting of the Columns’’ –; ‘‘Recessional’’ ; ‘‘The Return’’ –; ‘‘A Sahib’s War’’ , ; ‘‘The Sin of Witchcraft’’; ‘‘Wilful-Missing’’ ; Bloemfontein Friend, , , – ‘‘Fables for the Staff’’ –; Barrack-Room Ballads, ; Kim, , , , , , ; Plain Tales from the Hills, ; Soldiers Three, ; Stalky & Co., Kitchener, General, , ; proclaims camps policy, , –; defends camps, , – Koss, Stephen, , , , , , Ladysmith, Ladies Central Committee for Relief of Sufferers (Cape Town), , ‘‘Ladies Commission’’ , , , , , , , , Le Bon, Gustave, , Lee, Alan, , Lenin, V I., Lippmann, Walter, Lloyd George, David, , , , Low, Gail Ching-Liang, Lyttleton, Mrs Alfred, , MacDonald, Robert H., Macdonell, John, – MacKenzie, John, , , , , , , Index Mafeking (siege of town), , , –, –, , , ; African presence during, , – Mafeking Night, –, , , , , , , , , ; and social class, –, , , , –, , Mafikeng (African stadt), Manchester Guardian, , , , , , , , , , , , , ; coverage of the camps, –; and Hobhouse report, , , , Massingham, H W., , Masterman, C F G., Maxwell, General John, McClelland, J S., McClintock, Anne, , , , , , , medievalism, , , –, – memsahibs, , ‘‘methods of barbarism’’ , Meyer, Susan, Mill, John Stuart, , Milner, South African High Commissioner Alfred, , –, , , ; worried about public opinion on the camps, , , , miscegenation, –, – Morris, William, Morning Leader, Mrs G., , nationalism, , , , Neilly, J Emerson, New Imperialism, , , , , , –, , , , New Journalism, , , , , , , –, , , , , , , ; Wemyss Reid disapproval of, , New Woman, , , Nineteenth Century, Orange Free State (Orange River Colony), , , Ouida, Pall Mall Gazette, , Parry, Ann, , patriotism, , , , , , , , Plaatje, Sol, , Poovey, Mary, popular press (see also jingo press), –, , , , , , , , , , , , Porter, Bernard, Price, Richard, ‘‘the public’’ –, , , , , , , public opinion, –, , , , , , , , , , ; and newspapers, , , –; as influence on the electorate, ; as check on soldiers’ ‘‘recklessness’’ ; Hobson on, , – public sphere, , , Reform Acts, , Reid, T Wemyss, –, , Renan, Ernest, Reuters, , , Review of Reviews, Rhodes, Cecil, , , , Ripon, Lord, , , Roberts, General Lord, , , , , , Robertson, John M., Ross, Edward, Rowntree, Joshua, , Ruskin, , , , Said, Edward, , , –, , Salisbury, Lord, Schreiner, Olive, , , , , , , , , ; as pro-Boer, , , , ; and Stead, , ; on Africans, , , –, , –, ; on African women, –; on Bushmen, –; on Zulus, –; and evolution, , , , , , –, –, , –; and class issues, , –, –, ; and miscegenation, , , –; ‘‘The Boer ’’ , , ; ‘‘The Boer Woman and the Modern Woman’s Question’’ –; An English-South African’s View of the Situation, , , , –, , ; Closer Union, , ; From Man to Man, , , ; The Political Situation, , –, , ; ‘‘The Problem of Slavery’’ , , ; ‘‘The Psychology of the Boer’’; ‘‘The Wanderings of the Boer’’ –; The Story of an African Farm, , , ; Thoughts on South Africa, –, , , , –, ; Trooper Peter Halket of Mashonaland, , , ; Woman and Labour, , , Schwartz, Bill, Index Scott, C P., , , Scott, Joan Wallach, Sepoy Rebellion, , – sexual honor (see chivalry) Sharpe, Jenny, , , , , Shattock, Joanne, Shepstone, Sir Theophilus, , Simons, Jack and Ray, – Sinfield, Alan, Smith, Iain, social Darwinism, , –, , South Africa Conciliation Committee, , South African Native National Congress, South African Republic (Transvaal), , , –, , South African Women and Children’s Distress Fund, , , , , , Speaker, Spencer, Herbert, Spender, J A., , , Spion Kop, , Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty, Stead, W T., ; as public figure, , ; on British rape of Boer women, –; on chivalry and class differences, –; on national honor, –; on white male sexuality, , –; How Not to Make Peace, , ‘‘The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon’’ ; Methods of Barbarism, , ; The Truth About the War, – War Against War in South Africa, , –, – Stokes, Eric, Stop the War Committee, Suleri, Sara, , , Swinburne, Algernon, , The Times, , , , , , , , , –, , , , –; and Hobhouse report, , ; and political influence, ; coverage of camps, , –, –, , ; coverage of Parliament, compared to Daily Mail, ; style influenced by halfpennies, Tommy Atkins, , , , , , , , , uitlanders, , , , , , Victoria League, Wahrmann, Dror, Walkowitz, Judith, Wallace, Edgar, –, , – War Office (see also Brodrick), , , , , , , , , , , , Ward, Mary, , Watson, Richard Spence, Wells, Ida B., Westminster Gazette, , , , , Wilde, Oscar, Willan, Brian, , Wilson, Lady Sarah, , –, , Wilson, C Usher, – Wirgman, A Theodore, Wolff, Michael, women’s suffrage, , , Woods, Katharine Pearson, working class, , , , , , –, , , –, , , , –, , , Zulus, , , –, , , - , University of Cambridge Titles published The Sickroom in Victorian Fiction: The Art of Being Ill by Miriam Bailin, Washington University Muscular Christianity: Embodying the Victorian Age edited by Donald E Hall, California State University, Northridge Victorian Masculinities: Manhood and Masculine Poetics in Early Victorian Literature and Art by Herbert Sussman, Northeastern University Byron and the Victorians by Andrew Elfenbein, University of Minnesota Literature in the Marketplace: Nineteenth-Century British Publishing and the Circulation of Books edited by John O Jordan, University of California, Santa Cruz and Robert L Patten, Rice University Victorian Photography, Painting, and Poetry by Lindsay Smith, University of Sussex Charlotte Bronte and Victorian Psychology ă by Sally Shuttleworth, University of Sheeld The Gothic Body Sexuality, Materialism, and Degeneration at the Fin de Siecle ` by Kelly Hurley, University of Colorado at Boulder Rereading Walter Pater by William F Shuter, Eastern Michigan University Remaking Queen Victoria edited by Margaret Homans, Yale University and Adrienne Munich, State University of New York, Stony Brook Disease, Desire, and the Body in Victorian Women’s Popular Novels by Pamela K Gilbert, University of Florida Realism, Representation, and the Arts in Nineteenth-Century Literature by Alison Byerly, Middlebury College Literary Culture and the Pacific by Vanessa Smith, King’s College, Cambridge Professional Domesticity in the Victorian Novel: Women, Work, and Home by Monica F Cohen Victorian Renovations of the Novel Narrative Annexes and the Boundaries of Representation by Suzanne Keen, Washington and Lee University Actresses on the Victorian Stage Feminine Performance and the Galatea Myth by Gail Marshall, University of Leeds Death and the Mother from Dickens to Freud Victorian Fiction and the Anxiety of Origins by Carolyn Dever, New York University Ancestry and Narrative in Nineteenth-Century British Literature: Blood Relations from Edgeworth to Hardy by Sophie Gilmartin, Royal Holloway, University of London Dickens, Novel Reading, and the Victorian Popular Theatre by Deborah Vlock After Dickens: Reading, Adaptation and Performance by John Glavin, Georgetown University Victorian Women Writers and the Woman Question edited by Nicola Diane Thompson, Kingston University, London Rhythm and Will in Victorian Poetry by Matthew Campbell, University of Sheffield Gender, Race, and the Writing of Empire: Public Discourse and the Boer War by Paula M Krebs, Wheaton College, Massachusetts