VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES οOο ĐẶNG NGUYÊN GIANG A STUDY ON STRUCTURAL AND SEMANTIC COMPONENTS OF TYPICAL ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE IDIOMS (Nghiên cứu thành tố cấu trúc ngữ nghĩa số thành ngữ cố định (đặc ngữ) điển hình tiếng Anh tiếng Việt) Major: English Linguistics Code: 62 22 15 01 Supervisors: Assoc Prof Dr Võ Đại Quang Assoc Prof Dr Lê Hùng Tiến HANOI – 2013 PART A: INTRODUCTION Rationale Actually, studying idioms is not new; nevertheless, it has never been old In Vietnam, there exist three approaches in studying idioms: etymology, synchronic evolution, comparison and contrastive analysis (Hành 2008) The studies under original recovery and synchronic evolution are the backgrounds for comparison and contrastive works Several attempts have been made to work out the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese in terms of emotion expressing idioms (Trào 2009), idiomatic verb phrases (Long 2010), idiom translation (Lan 2001; Phúc 2009), etc An in-depth investigation of the structural and semantic components of idioms will also offer excellent opportunities for cross-language comparison and analysis Structurally, English and Vietnamese are very different English is regarded as a semi-inflectional language (Crystal 1997) while Vietnamese is completely isolating It is interesting, however, that several idioms in English have the same structural patterns as those in Vietnamese For example, like water off a duck’s back in English and nước đổ đầu vịt in Vietnamese are both prepositional phrases It is more interesting that the idiomatic meanings of the two idioms are also similar, and they are paraphrasable as ‘have no effect’ In terms of structural components, these idioms have both similarities and differences They are similized idioms introduced by prepositions as the first component parts (like in English and in Vietnamese) The differences lie in the rest of component parts forming the idioms The component parts after like in English together form a noun phrase whereas those after in Vietnamese together form a clause To the best of my knowledge, the structural components of idioms in both English and Vietnamese have not yet been investigated in this way Although the component parts forming idioms expressing the same concepts in English and Vietnamese are usually different, they have some features in common The idioms in both languages appear from totally transparent to the totally opaque: transparent, i.e all the components are explicit; semi-transparent, i.e some components are explicit (the meaning focused) and the other are implicit; semi-opaque, i.e all the components are implicit but possibly interpretable; and opaque, i.e all the components are implicit (Fernando & Flavell 1981; Fernando 1996) Investigating semantic components of idioms based on these semantic criteria in both English and Vietnamese is still the gap In addition, what main factors lie behind the differences between the two languages in terms of the formation of semantic components of idioms also need uncovering (Hành 2008) Aims and Objectives of the Study The study attempts to find out the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms from structural and semantic perspectives In order to achieve the aims, the study is expected to reach the following objectives: - to study how idioms are organized structurally and semantically in English and Vietnamese; - to establish the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms in terms of structural and semantic components; - to provide main factors lying behind the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms Research Questions i) How are idioms in English and Vietnamese organized structurally and semantically? ii) What are the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms in terms of structural and semantic components? iii) What main factors lie behind the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms? Scope of the Study The present study focuses on everyday idioms selected from recently published dictionaries (see Section 6.3) Contributions of the Study Scientifically, a common theory on idioms is applied to both English and Vietnamese This approach helps to find out the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms in terms structural and semantic components Practically, the work will provide assistance to English-speaking learners of Vietnamese and Vietnamese learners of English to distinguish one kind of idioms from others in each language The work will also enable learners to tell when idioms in English and Vietnamese are similar and different, which is likely to be useful for their study Language teachers will be aided to help their learners reach this communicative goal (see Section in Part C) For translation, knowledge of idioms from this work will help translators find closest equivalents to the expression in the source language Methodology 6.1 Theoretical Framework In tems of structural components of idioms, the models of Immediate Constituent Analysis suggested by Bloomfield (1933) are used in the present study The semantic components of idioms in the current study are analyzed according to Katz & Fodor’s (1963) componential theory 6.2 Analytical Framework In the present inquiry, the theories of contrastive linguistics of König and Gast (2008) and Chaturvedi (1973) are applied to the investigation of the idioms collected In order to carry a contrastive study, Chaturvedi (1973) suggests some guiding principles as follows: (i) to analyse the mother tongue and the target language independently and completely; (ii) to compare the two languages item-wise-item at all levels of their structure; (iii) to arrive at the categories of a) similar features, b) partially similar features, c) dissimilar features - for the target language; and (iv) to arrive at principles of text preparation, test framing and target language teaching in general 6.3 Data Collection In order to collect the data, a working definition of an idiom has been established in the present study (see Section 1.1.1) Any idiom selected in both English and Vietnamese satisfies the criteria the definition for working involves Data for the present analysis of English and Vietnamese are mainly collected from the following dictionaries: English Bình, P V (1999) Tục ngữ nước Anh thành ngữ tiếng Anh giàu hình ảnh [English picturesque idioms] Hải Phòng: Nxb Hải Phòng Cambridge Idioms Dictionary (2006) (2nd ed.) Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press Collins COBUILD Idioms Dictionary (2002) (2nd ed.) UK: Harper Collins Publisher Cowie, A P., Mackin, R., & McCaig, I R (1993) Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms Oxford: Oxford University Press Siefring, J (2005) Oxford Dictionary of Idioms Oxford: Oxford University Press Vietnamese Lân, N (2003) Từ điển thành ngữ tục ngữ Việt Nam Hà Nội: Nxb Văn học Lực, N., & Đang, L V (2009) (3rd ed.) Thành ngữ tiếng Việt [Dictionary of Vietnamese idioms] Hà Nội: Nxb Khoa học Xã hội Minh, T H (2007) Đi tìm điển tích thành ngữ [Seeking idioms’ classic references] Hà Nội: Nxb Thông Tấn Ý, N N., Hành, H V, Khang, N V., Thại, L X., & Thành, P X (1998) Từ điển giải thích thành ngữ tiếng Việt [Dictionary of Vietnamese idioms] Hà Nội: Nxb Giáo dục Ý, N N (2002) Từ điển thành ngữ tiếng Việt phổ thông [A dictionary of common Vietnamese idioms] Hà Nội: Nxb Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội The dictionaries above are chosen because of several specific reasons Firstly, they are quite popular and currently available Secondly, they cover a large number of the idioms which people are likely to find in everyday English as well as Vietnamese Thirdly, most of idiom types can be found in these dictionaries in a large number And finally, the dictionaries satisfy the diachronic perspective because the examples for illustrations are mostly from literal works, magazines and newspapers The collected data forms a corpus under three categories: symmetrical idioms (231 for English and 2,343 for Vietnamese), similized idioms (516 for English and 699 for Vietnamese), and non-symmetrical idioms (3,387 for English and 1,011 for Vietnamese) 6.4 Data Analysis Due to the aims, the objectives, and the scope of the study, componential analysis, describing, comparing and contrasting are regarded as the main methods used in the present dissertation The study makes use of the Vietnamese language as the target and the English one as the source language (the base language) In some cases, we may use the opposite (the English language as the target and the Vietnamese one as the source language) 6.5 Procedure Generally, the procedure of the present study is divided into four stages (Chaturvedi 1973; König and Gast 2008) (see Section 6.2): (i) From our corpus, we first analyze the mother tongue and the target language independently and completely in terms of structural and semantic components of idioms according to the theoretical framework (see Section 6.1) (ii) After that, we compare the idioms in the two languages item-wise-item at all levels of their structural and semantic components We also seek the underlying factors affecting the formation of semantic components of idioms in both English and Vietnamese (Hành 2008; Lijie 2010) (iii) Then, we arrive at the categories of a) structural and semantic components of idioms found in both languages, b) structural and semantic components of idioms unique to English as well as Vietnamese We also investigate the regularities for the established similarities and differences (iv) And finally, we give some suggestions for idiom teaching and translation based on the findings Structure of the Study The present study consists of three major parts, in addition to the appendices and the references Part A, introduction, consists of the rationale, the aims and objectives, the research questions, the scope, the contributions, the methodology, and the structure of the study Part B, development, is divided into three chapters including chapter 1: Literature Review, chapter 2: Structural Components of English and Vietnamese Idioms, and chapter 3: Semantic Components of English and Vietnamese Idioms The last part is conclusion which includes the recapitulation of the study as well as the conclusions and some suggestions for implications achieved from the discussion in the dissertation and for further studies PART B: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 Theoretical Background 1.1.1 Idioms Defined In general, most of the linguists (Hornby 1995; Seidl and McMordie 1988; Fernando 1996; Mệnh 1972; Châu 1981; Dân 1986; Hành 2008; etc) share the same point of view that an idiom is a fixed expression whose meaning cannot be worked out by looking at the meanings of its individual constituents In the present study, given below is regarded as a summary of the defining features of an idiom Such an idiom (i) is a fixed unit whose components cannot be varied or varied under definable control; ii) is regarded as a complex scene with a bipartite semantic structure: a literal reading and an idiomatic meaning; (iii) has the meaning which is usually different from the meanings of the combination of its components; (iv) expresses a pure concept 1.1.2 Idioms from Traditional View Traditionally, it is believed that idioms are unpredictable or noncompositional (Chafe 1970; Chomsky 1965, 1980; Katz 1973; Fernando & Flavell 1981; Mệnh 1972; Châu 1981; Đức 1995; Hành 2008; etc) It means that the meaning of an idiom cannot be derived from the meanings of its constituents According to traditional view, the meaning of an idiom is the special chemical mixture of all components’ meaning, which is completely new in quality It means that there is no link between the literal reading and the idiomatic meaning However, in fact, there exist a lot of idioms, the idiomatic meanings of which can be derived from the meanings of their component parts, i.e their syntax is correlative Indeed, the traditional view cannot be applied to explain all types of idioms It can be considered as the limitation of this view 1.1.3 Idioms from Cognitive View From cognitive view, most idioms are believed to be analyzable and have meanings that are at least partly motivated (Geeraets 1995; Gibbs 1990, 1995; Kövecses & Szabo 1996; Nunberg et al 1994; Fernando 1996; Taylor 2002; Langlotz 2006, etc) Gibbs (1990, 1995) supposes that most idioms are motivated by cognitive – semantic mechanisms such as metaphors, metonymies and conventional knowledge Indeed, the psychological experiments conducted by Gibbs (1990, 1995) prove that the figurative meanings of most idioms are not arbitrary Sharing the same points with the authors above, in the present study we once again suppose that most idioms in both English and Vietnamese are analyzable and have meanings which are at least partly motivated through the component parts forming idioms 1.1.4 Idioms from Taxonomic View In English, several attempts have been made to classify idioms (Makkai 1972; Fernando & Flavell 1981; Seidl & McMordie 1988; Cowie, Mackin & McCaig 1993; Nunberg et al 1994; Fernando 1996; etc) From cognitive view, Nunberg et al (1994) classify English idioms into two types: idiomatically combining expressions (or idiomatic combinations) and idiomatic phrases More specifically, Fernando (1996) divides English idioms into three categories: pure idioms, semi-idioms and literal idioms It is clear that English idioms are traditionally classified due to their synctactic properties whereas the classification of idioms from cognitive view is based on their semantic properties In Vietnamese, the category of idioms is usually established according to the forms (Lực and Đang 1978; Đức 1995; Hành 2008; etc) According to Đức (1995), Vietnamese idioms can be divided into three main groups: idioms with symmetrical structures, idioms with comparison structures, and idioms with non-symmetrical structures Hành (2008) classifies Vietnamese idioms into symmetrical figurative, non-symmetrical figurative and similized Each main category is subdivided into smaller categories 1.1.5 Idioms from Cultural View Idioms which are regarded as a form of a language reflect culture in a concentrated way (Zhang 2007) More particularly, Lijie (2010) points out that the cultural differences between English and Chinese on idioms origins are dominated by different living circumstance, different historical allusion, different religions and beliefs, and different traditions and customs Fernando and Flavell (1981) outline the cultural preoccupations, the 'world view' implicit in the idioms of English More specifically and generally, Bình (1999) supposes that geographical feature, habitat, mode of production, cultural character, national thought, etc define the characteristics of idioms of each language Sharing the same point of view with Bình (1999), Lan (2001) emphasizes the role of the national thought in defining the images compared by giving a comparative table among Vietnamese, English and Russian in terms of similized idioms Through this table, she comments that the images used to compare are very popular things in everyday lives of the people in each nation Additionally, Hành (2008) does not only pay attention to structural system, he also particularly focuses on the use and artistic value of idioms From cultural perspective, he comments that underlying cultural factors behind idioms need uncovering 1.1.6 Idioms in the Relationship to Other Linguistic Units Several linguists (Mệnh 1972; Lực & Đang 1978; Đức 1995; Hành 2008; Trào 2009; etc) have made attempts to distinguish idioms from some of other linguistic units such as collocations, proverbs, clichés and catchphrases, etc However, they in fact usually overlap to some extent In the present inquiry, idioms and some of other linguistic units are distinguished according to their structural realization, relationship among components, meaning, nominative function, syntactic function, and denotation 1.2 Previous Research 1.2.1 Previous Research Works on Idioms in English Idioms in English are studied in terms of several aspects such as grammar, semantics, rhetoric, pragmatics, etc which are investigated from different views However, the majority of scholars pay their attention to the two approaches Scholars (Chafe 1970; Chomsky 1965, 1980; Katz 1973; Fernando & Flavell 1981; Seidl and McMordie 1988, Cowie, Mackin & McCaig 1993; etc) who adopt the first approach are more structurally orientated They describe the idioms and their idiomaticity in terms of one or more structural properties The idiomatologists (Geeraets 1995; Gibbs 1990, 1995; Kövecses & Szabo 1996; Nunberg et al 1994; Fernando 1996; Taylor 2002; Langlotz 2006, etc) who adopt the second approach look on idiomaticity as manifesting underlying conceptual design of the language Such an approach leads to the nature of cognition itself and hence has strong psycholinguistic implications 1.2.2 Previous Research Works on Idioms in Vietnamese In Vietnamese, although there exist several studies on idioms, most of the scholars (Tu 1976; Châu 1981; Thản 1963; Mệnh 1986; Giáp 1985; Lê 1976; San 1974; Hành /1973/1976/2008; Việt 1981; Giáp 1988, Hùng 1988, Hiển 1994; Khánh 1977; Đức 1995; etc) focus on the forms and meanings of idioms from traditional view It seems that studies on idioms from cognitive view have not been paid due attention 1.2.3 Previous Research Works on Idioms in English and Vietnamese under Comparison and Contrastive Analysis In Vietnam, some attempts have been made to work out the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms (Lan 2001; Giang 2009; Dũng 2011; Phúc 2009; Trào 2009; Long 2010; etc) To the best of my knowledge, there have not been any studies on idioms in terms of structural and semantic components in both English and Vietnamese carried out before CHAPTER 3: SEMANTIC COMPONENTS OF ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE IDIOMS 3.1 Canonical Semantic Components The discussion of canonical semantic components of idioms in English and Vietnamese falls into three types of idioms existing in our data: symmetrical, similized, and non-symmetrical We will examine two issues which focus attention on each idiom type in terms of semantic components: motivation degree and composition 3.1.1 Semantic Components of Symmetrical Idioms 3.1.1.1 Motivation Degree of Semantic Components In our collected data, there exist three degrees of motivation of symmetrical idioms: transparent (11.69% in English and 5.34% in Vietnamese, semi-opaque (88.31% in English and 89.46% in Vietnamese) and opaque (0% in English and 5.20% in Vietnamese) 3.1.1.2 Composition of Semantic Components As presented in Chapter 2, the structural components of symmetrical idioms are under construction of A and B, A or B, A but B, A to B, or A, B in English, and AB in Vietnamese The common structural feature of these idioms in both languages is that they always contain two symmetrical component parts, i.e A and B are always available Indeed, the composition of semantic components of symmetrical idioms can be motivated by the relationship between A and B This relationship is divided into two types: coordination and subordination (Hành 2008): The coordination is sub-divided into balance, focus, alternative and alternative concession The subordination refers to the symmetrical idioms whose two component parts (A and B) are dependent Semantically, the dependent relationship between A and B is cause and effect, purpose, manner, or mutuality 3.1.2 Semantic Components of Similized Idioms 3.1.2.1 Motivation Degree of Semantic Components In our collected data, there also exist two degrees of motivation of similized idioms: semi-transparent (77.52% in English and 82.69% in Vietnamese and semiopaque (22.48% in English and 17.31% in Vietnamese) 3.1.2.2 Composition of Semantic Components The structural components of similized idioms are constructed in as A as B, A like B or like/as B in English, and A B, B or AB in Vietnamese The 16 typical feature of these idioms in both languages is that they have both topic of comparison (A) and subject compared (B) whether in some cases A can be omitted Existentially, the relationship between A and B can be visibility or invisibility The composition of semantic components of similized idioms is also motivated by the relationship between A and B In fact, B can be the degree, the manner, or the attribute of A 3.1.3 Semantic Components of Non-symmetrical Idioms 3.1.3.1 Motivation Degree of Semantic Components Semantic components of non-symmetrical idioms in both English and Vietnamese also involve the analyzability of the constituents Due to the relationship between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning, the motivation degree of non-symmetrical idioms in English is divided into transparent (3.37%), semi-opaque (91.14%) and opaque (5.49%) in English, and semi-opaque (95.25%) and opaque (4.75%) in Vietnamese 3.1.3.2 Composition of Semantic Components The structural components of non-symmetrical idioms can be constructed in various forms Therefore, the composition of semantic components is very complicated; in some cases, it is impossible to explain the relationship between the component parts Based on the the transparent-opaque axis (Fernando & Flavell 1981), the composition of semantic components of non-symmetrical idioms is divided into correlativeness and non-correlativeness 3.2 Non-Canonical Semantic Components 3.2.1 Semantic Components of Idiom Variants 3.2.1.1 Realization Idioms are regarded as variants of each other when they have the same contents and structural patterns but different constituents belonging to the same semantic field (see Section 2.2.1.1) In both English and Vietnamese, there exist base idioms, from which several idioms having the same contents are formed However, it is not, in fact, always easy to realize which idioms are the base ones The base idioms can be varied by substitution, modification, partial deletion, and component reversal (see Section 2.2.1.2) 3.2.1.2 Semantic Nuance Idiomatic meanings themselves involve both meanings and nuances (Hành 2008) In general, idiom variants in both English and Vietnamese usually have the 17 same meanings as well as nuances External modification such as adverbial modification in English and modal particle modification in Vietnamese can be regarded as an exception because it is only used to emphasize the idiomatic meaning of the idiom as a whole, and it does not affect its nuance Nevertheless, internal modification (adjectival and noun modification) usually leads to different nuances of idiom variants Although it is very difficult to give a satisfactory analysis, with the intuition of a native speaker, we can realize the different nuances of the idiom variants in several examples 3.2.2 Semantic Components of Synonymous Idioms 3.2.2.1 Realization Idioms are said to be synonymous when they have similar contents but different structural patterns or have the same structural patterns but different components belonging to different semantic fields (see Section 2.2.2.1) In English, synonymous idioms involve substitution (belonging to different semantic fields), pattern transformation, and passivization Substitution (belonging to different semantic fields), literalized transformation, language transformation and pattern transformation are regarded as different types of synonymous idioms in Vietnamese (see Section 2.2.2.2) 3.2.2.2 Semantic Nuance The meanings of synonymous idioms are semantically similar, but their nuances are completely different Each of synonymous idioms has its own nuance It is easy to realize that the nuance of each synonymous idiom comes from the mental images originally creating idioms Therefore, we can regard the base idioms and their synonyms as notional synonymous units It means that units expressing the same notion or the same fact not only have different figurative styles but also different nuances 3.3 Formation of Semantic Components of idioms 3.3.1 Formation Mechanism In this section, we have examined several issues which focus attention on the formation mechanism of semantic components of idioms as the external semantic cognition Metaphors, metonymies and conventional knowledge are regarded as the concretization of external semantic cognition More particularly, the idiomatic meanings come from the cognition of the world and human activities through mental images 18 3.3.2 Main Factors Affecting the Formation of Semantic Components In this section, our discussion on main factors affecting the formation of idiomatic meanings in English shares much with Lijie (2010) As presented above, the semantic components of idioms are motivated by the external semantic cognition governed by several different implicit factors: living circumstance, historical allusion, religions and beliefs, traditions and customs, etc (Lijie 2010) 3.4 Semantic Components of English and Vietnamese Idioms Compared 3.4.1 Similarities 3.4.1.1 Canonical Semantic Components Found in both Languages Symmetrical idioms in our data in both languages can be transparent, or semi-opaque The composition of semantic components of symmetrical idioms in both English and Vietnamese can be motivated by the relationship between A and B Coordination is shared by both languages, i.e A and B are independent Similized idioms can be semi-transparent, or semi-opaque The typical semantic feature of similized idioms in both languages is that they have both topic of comparison (A) and subject compared (B) whether in some cases A can be omitted Additionally, in the semantic composition of similized idioms, B can be the degree of A, the manner of A, or the attribute of A Non-symmetrical idioms can be semi-opaque, or opaque The semantic composition of non-symmetrical idioms is the random relationship among component parts In some cases, they are regarded as lexemes (Fernando & Flavell 1981) The constituents forming the idioms are pseudo-lexemes 3.4.1.2 Non-Canonical Semantic Components Found in both Languages Idiom variants are available in both English and Vietnamese In general, the meanings and nuances of these idioms are usually the same This is the typical semantic feature of idiom variants because they are formed due to the same mental images However, the base idioms and their synonyms usually have the similar meanings but different nuances The synonymous idioms in both languages share this semantic feature 3.4.1.3 Formation of semantic components found in both Languages In both languages, the formation mechanism of semantic components of idioms is regarded as the external semantic cognition which is motivated by metaphors, metonymies, or conventional knowledge More particularly, the 19 idiomatic meanings come from the cognition of the world and human activities through mental images The formation of semantic components of idioms is commonly affected by living circumstance (geographical environment, climate), historical allusion (historical events, fables and mythologies), religions and beliefs, traditions and customs (food and cooking, animals, laboring) 3.4.2 Differences Apart from the features shared by both languages, the analysis of the data has revealed some significant differences between English and Vietnamese idioms in terms of semantic components The primary difference lies in the motivation degrees of semantic components of different idiom types The investigation reveals the different rate of semi-transparent similized idioms (77.52% in English and 82.69% in Vietnamese) and semi-opaque similized idioms (22.48% in English and 17.31% in Vietnamese) Transparent symmetrical idioms are more prevalent in English than those in Vietnamese (11.69% in English and 5.34% in Vietnamese) Both languages share a quite similar rate of semiopaque symmetrical idioms (88.31% in English and 89.46% in Vietnamese The opaque symmetrical idioms (5.20%) are only distinctive in Vietnamese English shows a bit higher rate of opaque non-symmetrical idioms (5.49%) while Vietnamese displays a lower rate (4.75%) On the contrary, semi-opaque nonsymmetrical idioms (95.25%) in Vietnamese are more common than those (91.14%) in English Transparent non-symmetrical idioms in English are 3.37% while there are no transparent non-symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese 3.4.2.1 Canonical Semantic Components Unique to English Non-symmetrical idioms in English can be transparent, i.e the idiomatic meanings of these idioms can be derived from the meanings of their individual constituents However, the transparent non-symmetrical idioms are not found in our Vietnamese data The subordination between A and B of symmetrical idioms involves mutualit y, i.e the appearance of A brings about B This type of relationship in the semantic composition is unique to English 3.4.2.2 Canonical Semantic Components Unique to Vietnamese Symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese can be opaque, i.e the component parts of the idiom are completely implicit 20 The subordination between A and B of symmetrical idioms involves cause and effect (i.e A is regarded as the reason for B being the result), purpose (i.e B is the purpose of A), and manner (i.e B is the manner of A, or vice versa) The existential relationship between A and B of similized idioms refers to semi-transparency, i.e B is available and A is omitted but possibly deduced from B 3.4.2.3 Differences between English and Vietnamese in Terms of Main Factors that Affect the Shaping of Semantic Components of Idioms The findings of the study show that the differences between English and Vietnamese in terms of the origins of semantic components of idioms are dominated by different living circumstance (geographical environment, climate), different historical allusion (historical events, fables and mythologies, literary works), different religions and beliefs, different traditions and customs (food and cooking, animals) Indeed, ‘as the crystals of human languages, idioms mirror human wisdom in the process of conceptualization of the world Human life is colorful and idioms correspondently reflect various social activities’ (Zhang 2007) People use idioms to express their experience; thus, the semantic components of idioms come from different origins It means that idioms reflect the cultural influence of a language It is the biggest difference between English and Vietnamese in terms of the formation of semantic components of idioms 21 PART C: CONCLUSION Recapitulation An investigation of idioms in English and Vietnamese in terms of structural and semantic components is carried out in the present study The findings of the study are concerned with the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms in terms of (1) structural components, and (2) semantic components and their formation A common theoretical framework on idioms is applied to both English and Vietnamese The canonical structural and semantic components involve three types of idioms existing in our data: symmetrical, similized, and non-symmetrical The non-canonical structural components refer to two types of idioms: idiom variants and synonymous idioms The semantic components of each idiom type involve the motivation degrees, the association between the literal readings and the idiomatic meanings, and the semantic composition of component parts The formation mechanism of the semantic components of idioms is motivated by external semantic cognition including metaphors, metonymies and conventional knowledge Conclusions 2.1 In the present study, a common theoretical framework on idioms is applied to both English and Vietnamese This theory involves three types of idioms existing in our data: symmetrical, similized, and non-symmetrical (Đức 1995; Hành 2008) The structural components of these idioms are coded in A, B, M, X, etc, which are then realized, described and analyzed according to grammatical rules suggested by Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik (1985) Our investigation reveals that there is a quite different rate of similized idioms (12.48% in English and 17.25% in Vietnamese) English shows a remarkably high rate of non-symmetrical idioms (81.93%) while Vietnamese displays a much lower rate (24.94%) On the contrary, symmetrical idioms are far more prevalent in Vietnamese (57.81%) than those in English (5.59%) Vietnamese is a language which possesses tones and rhythms Symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese also possess a quality of rhythm, which results from the rules of harmony in sound (Hành 2008) when constituent words are combined This is the reason why symmetrical idioms are so popular in Vietnamese The canonical structural components of idioms in English share some similarities with those in Vietnamese For non-symmetrical idioms, the structural 22 components involve noun phrases, adjective phrases, verb phrases, and sentences The sentences are subdivided into simple sentences, compound sentences and complex sentences The simple sentences are specified in AB (A is the subject which can be a noun or noun phrase for B being the predicate (verb phrase)) Similized idioms are constructed in (as) A as B/A like B in English and A B in Vietnamese A can be an adjective, or a verb, and B can be a noun, a noun phrase, or a clause These idioms are also constructed in like/as B in English and B in Vietnamese B can be a noun phrase, or a clause For symmetrical idioms, the structural components conform to two symmetrical component parts (A connector B in English and AB in Vietnamese) A (corresponding with B) can be a noun/noun phrase, or a verb/verb phrase Although both languages have some similarities in terms of canonical structural components of idioms, there exist several differences For symmetrical idioms, in English, the structural components of these idioms conform to two symmetrical component parts (A, B) combined by a connector; A (as well as B) can be an adjective, an adverb, an adverbial phrase, a prepositional phrase, a pronoun, or a subordinator However, in Vietnamese, the structural components of these idioms conform to the two symmetrical component parts without any connectors (AB); A (as well as B) can be a clause For similized idioms, English idioms are constructed in (as) A as B/A like B; A can be an adverb, or a verb phrase, and B can be an adverb, or a prepositional phrase Vietnamese similized idioms are constructed in A B (A can be a noun or a noun phrase for B being a verb phrase); in B (B can be a verb phrase); in AB (A can be an adjective, and B can be a noun or a verb), which are not found in English In terms of non-canonical structural components, the criteria for the distinction between idiom variants and synonymous idioms are established We focus on two criteria: contents and grammatical structures Contents are based on the same or different mental images; grammatical structures are based on the same or different structural patterns Although the possible variabilities of idiom variants in both English and Vietnamese involve substitution, modification, partial deletion, and component reversal, there exist several internal differences between the two languages in terms of each type For example, the substitution happening to adverbs, conjunctions or articles is only distinctive in English (see Section 2.3.2) In terms of the possible variabilities of synonymous idioms, the substitution 23 (alternatives belonging to different semantic fields) and pattern transformation are shared by both languages Passivization is admissible in English while literalized transformation and language transformation are distinctive in Vietnamese In addition, the idiom variants in Vietnamese (52%) are a little more common than those in English (46%) It shows the opposite in terms of synonymous idioms (54% in English and 48% in Vietnamese) Thus, the idioms expressing similar contents in English tend to have different structural patterns and different component parts belonging to different semantic fields rather than different component parts belonging to the same semantic field It shows the opposite in Vietnamese 2.2 In the present study, the canonical semantic components of idioms in English and Vietnamese are investigated under their motivation degree and composition The motivation degree of semantic components is divided into transparent (all the components are explicit), semi-transparent (some components are explicit, and others are implicit), semi-opaque (all the components are implicit but possibly interpretable), and opaque (all the components are implicit) (Fernando & Flavell 1981) These motivation degrees are applied to three types of idioms existing in our data: symmetrical, similized, and non-symmetrical (Đức 1995; Hành 2008) Our investigation reveals a quite different rate of semi-transparent similized idioms (77.25% in English and 82.69% in Vietnamese) and semi-opaque similized idioms (22.48% in English and 17.31% in Vietnamese) Transparent symmetrical idioms are more prevalent in English than those in Vietnamese (11.68% in English and 5.34% in Vietnamese) Both languages share a quite similar rate of semiopaque symmetrical idioms (88.31% in English and 89.46% in Vietnamese) Opaque symmetrical idioms (5.20%) are only found in our Vietnamese data English shows a bit higher rate of opaque non-symmetrical idioms (5.49%) while Vietnamese displays a lower rate (4.75%) On the contrary, semi-opaque nonsymmetrical idioms (95.25%) in Vietnamese are more common than those (91.14%) in Vietnamese Transparent non-symmetrical idioms in English are 3.37% while there are no transparent non-symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese The findings reveal that most of the idioms in English and Vietnamese are possibly interpretable (Gibbs 1990, 1995; Nunberg et al 1994; Kövecses & Szabo 1996; Fernando 1996; Langlotz 2006) However, these idioms are more common in English than those in Vietnamese Both English and Vietnamese share several similar properties in terms of the composition of semantic components of idioms This semantic composition is 24 motivated by the relationship between the component parts forming idioms For symmetrical idioms, the relationship between the two symmetrical component parts involves coordination (balance, focus, alternative, and alternative concession) and subordination (mutuality in English and cause and effect, purpose, and manner in Vietnamese) (Hành 2008) The existential relationship between the topic of comparison and the subject compared of similized idioms involves visibility (transparency and semi-transparency (only in Vietnamese)) and invisibility In the semantic composition, the subject compared can be the degree, the manner, or the attribute of the topic of comparison For non-symmetrical idioms, the composition of semantic components is quite complicated and in some cases it is impossibly analyzed in a logical way It is semantically divided into correlativeness and noncorrelativeness Non-symmetrical idioms belonging to non-correlativeness are regarded as lexemes (Fernando 1981), i.e the component parts of an idiom together form a mono-lexemic construction with a bipartile semantic structure The non-canonical semantic components of idioms involve two types of idioms: idiom variants and synonymous idioms Our investigation reveals that most of the base idioms and their variants in English have the same meanings and nuances However, in Vietnamese, several base idioms and their variants have different nuances (although they have similar meanings) Indeed, the semantic components of idiom variants in Vietnamese are more complicated than those in English We see no differences between English and Vietnamese in terms of synonymous idioms; all the base idioms and their synonyms have similar meanings but different nuances The formation mechanism of semantic components of idioms in both English and Vietnamese is motivated by external semantic cognition including metaphors, metonymies and conventional knowledge (Gibbs 1990, 1995) It is a natural cognition process implicitly affected by several different factors The differences between English and Vietnamese in terms of the formation of semantic components of idioms are dominated by different living circumstance (geographical environment, climate) different historical allusion (historical events, fables and mythologies, literary works), different religions and beliefs, different traditions and customs (food and cooking, animals) (Lijie 2009) This leads to a fact that components forming idioms in the two languages are different although they denote similar concepts 25 Implications for Idiom Teaching and Translation 3.1 The findings of the study reveal that the formation of idiomatic meanings is affected by several underlying cultural factors, i.e idioms reflect the cultural influence of a language in general and English and Vietnamese in particular It is the reason why we should teach idioms to English-speaking students of Vietnamese and Vietnamese students of English Indeed, if we choose not to teach the students idioms, they will be missing an important cultural factor of the language they try to speak fluently However, idioms in both English and Vietnamese are regarded as very complicated linguistic units which are difficult to perceive Hence, idioms should be taught to intermediate or upper-intermediate students who are ready to take their fluency of English or Vietnamese to the next level Based on the main findings of the study, we would like to give some suggested strategies for idiom teaching as follows: Grouping idioms In the present study, idioms are divided into three types: symmetrical, similized and non-symmetrical The motivation degree of each type involves transparent, semi-transparent, semi-opaque, or opaque Idioms should be taught according to these categories, from which they are much easier to be motivated Explaining how idioms are motivated Most of the idioms are motivated by metaphors, metonymies and conventional knowledge through mental images Teachers should bear in mind that people use language in general and idioms in particular as means of communication to express their own ideas through mental images Therefore, one of the most effective strategies for teachers is to highlight the mental images that motivate the idioms Additionally, some idioms come from special origins which should also be explained when teaching idioms Introducing idioms in context In fact, some teachers simply go over a list of idioms and their definitions or explanations However, the teachers have to make sure that students not only understand idioms but also learn how to use them; thus, idiom examples should be presented in context, for example, in simple conversations in which the idiomatic meanings are clear 26 As introduced at the beginning of this section, culture is reflected not only in English idioms but also in Vietnamese idioms Thus, teachers and students must make themselves master their mother tongue and their country’s culture Many students even not have sufficient knowledge of Vietnamese culture and language but still require a good result in their language learning Obviously, they could never achieve their aims successfully The teachers must be well aware of this fact and have suitable methods to help students enrich their mother tongue as well as their foreign language linguistically and culturally 3.2 Idioms are regarded as very intricate phrases, and they are especially difficult to translate into another language Generally, idioms are culture-bound, i.e they are specific to particular culture and society The idiomatic meanings are dominated by different cultural factors Therefore, in order to give a translation that is true to the original, translators should make themselves at home with both cultures and both languages In addition, although most idioms are possibly interpretable or at least partly motivated, their idiomatic meanings are quite hidden That we should not create anything on our own by simply translating an idiom word for word is the rule to be followed In fact, translation theorists give four different translation strategies for idioms: translating an idiom with a non-idiom, translating an idiom with an idiom, translating an idiom literally, and translating an idiom with lexical constituents No matter what strategy we use to translate idioms, we have to make the target language (English or Vietnamese) natural and to some extent keep its own nuance and style Suggestions for Further Studies Although the criteria for investigation have been clearly established, some findings of the present study especially the motivation degree of idiom types, to some extent, carry the author’s own effort This can be regarded as the limitation of the study Another investigation on the issue given should be objectively carried out among native speakers of both English and Vietnamese Idioms are regarded as linguistic units functioning as words Therefore, they can form sentences This is the reason why the roles of idioms in forming sentences in English and Vietnamese need investigating We hope that this can be carried out in the coming time 27 The meanings of idioms are usually different from the meanings of the combination of their individual component parts This is because idioms contain themselves underlying cultural factors which form their own typical nuances and styles It can be said that the biggest differences between English and Vietnamese in terms of idiomatic meanings are their nuances and styles It is still a gap needing to be investigated soon 28 PUBLISHED WORKS BY THE AUTHOR RELEVANT TO THE THESIS Giang, Đ N (2009) Idiomatic Variants and Synonymous Idioms in English VNU Journal of Science, Foreign Languages, 25 (2), 81-85 Giang, Đ N (2011) Idiom Variants and Synonymous Idioms in English and Vietnamese: The Similarities and Differences VNU Journal of Science, Foreign Languages, 27 (4), 273-280 Giang, Đ N (2011) Bàn thêm đặc tính ngữ nghĩa thành ngữ tiếng Anh [On the semantic properties of English idioms] Bản tin thông tin khoa học công nghệ - Trường Đại học Tây Bắc, 1-6, 27-33 Giang, Đ N (2012) Bàn thêm đặc tính ngữ nghĩa thành ngữ tiếng Việt [On the semantic properties of Vietnamese idioms] Từ điển học Bách khoa thư, 15 (1), 38-43 ... University Press Vietnamese Lân, N (2003) Từ điển thành ngữ tục ngữ Việt Nam Hà Nội: Nxb Văn học Lực, N., & Đang, L V (2009) (3rd ed.) Thành ngữ tiếng Việt [Dictionary of Vietnamese idioms] Hà Nội:... Đi tìm điển tích thành ngữ [Seeking idioms’ classic references] Hà Nội: Nxb Thông Tấn Ý, N N., Hành, H V, Khang, N V., Thại, L X., & Thành, P X (1998) Từ điển giải thích thành ngữ tiếng Việt [Dictionary... mainly collected from the following dictionaries: English Bình, P V (1999) Tục ngữ nước Anh thành ngữ tiếng Anh giàu hình ảnh [English picturesque idioms] Hải Phịng: Nxb Hải Phòng Cambridge Idioms