38 Conceptual and Historical Perspectives Another series of articles on the subject of and unsuccessful cases rather than through the extensive study of groups of clients categorizedpsychotherapy integration appeared in Psychi- atric Annals in 1988: Rhoads’ (1988) contribu- by broad diagnostic labels. Cashdan (1988) de- scribed the role of the therapeutic relationshiption addressed the dual use of psychotherapy and psychotropic medication; Babcock (1988) within an object relations framework, Andrews (1988, 1989) offered a model of change thatand Powell (1988) independently pointed out that many behavioral interventions will pro- emphasized the importance of self-confirming feedback cycles, Glass and Arnkoff (1988)voke clinically meaningful emotional and cog- nitive insights; London and Palmer (1988) ar- found evidence for common as well as specific factors in clients’ explanations for change, andgued that cognitive therapies represent viable integrative therapies in and of themselves; and Omer and London (1988) concluded that the nonspecific variables in therapy were no longerBirk (1988) reminded us of the need to explore the integration of individual psychotherapy “noise” but have achieved the status of “signal.” Wolfe and Goldfried (1988), reporting on awith marital and family therapy. The integration of therapeutic modalities, National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) research conference dealing with psychother-such as individual and family therapy, was typi- fied by the work of Allen (1988), Beach and apy integration, stated that the establishment and growth of an accessible archive of tapesO’Leary (1986), Duhl and Duhl (1980), Feld- man (1979, 1989), Feldman and Pinsof (1982), and transcripts would be a major boon to em- pirical studies relevant to integration. AnotherFriedman (1980a,b 1981), Grebstein (1986), Gurman (1981), Hatcher (1978), Lebow (1984), subtheme related to the need for integration to be based in empirical findings was the call forPinsof (1983), Rosenberg (1978), Segraves (1982), Steinfeld (1980), and Wachtel and a better, more unified understanding of psy- chopathology (Arkowitz, 1989; Guidano, 1987;Wachtel (1986). A common phenomenon these authors discussed was the vicious cycle that re- Wolfe, 1989; Wolfe & Goldfried, 1988). One of the first research programs specifi-sults when a member of an interpersonal sys- tem expects and assumes the worst about a sig- cally designed to develop a new methodology for the advancement of psychotherapy integra-nificant other, resulting in acting in such a way to provoke the very negative reactions from the tion began to emerge from the work of Gold- fried and his associat es (e.g., Castonguay, Gold-significant other that “confirm” the original dysfunctional belief. As testimony to the mo- fried, Hayes, & Kerr, 1989; Goldfried, Newman, & Hayes, 1989; Goldsamt, Goldfried, Hayes,mentum the above works have gathered, a spe- cial interest group within the American Family & Kerr, 1989; Kerr, Goldfried, Hayes, & Gold- samt, 1989). These authors developed a codingTherapy Association was organized to support these integrative efforts. system, composed in the language of the ver- nacular, to compare and contrast the feedbackToward the end of the 1980s, the call for the development of an empirical methodology that cognitive-behavioral and psychodynamic therapists give their patients. Their databasefor the study of psychotherapy integration be- came quite pronounced (e.g., Goldfried & comprised transcripts and audiotapes of actual therapy sessions, thus facilitating the study ofSafran, 1986; Norcross & Grencavage, 1989; Norcross & Thomas, 1988; Safran, Greenberg, what the therapists actually do in session (Gold- fried & Newman, 1986).& Rice, 1988; Wolfe & Goldfried, 1988), whereas others (Messer, Sass, & Woolfolk, Another issue that gained momentum in the late 1980s was the examination of the nar-1988) underscored the benefits of alternate epistomological approaches to understanding rowing gap between cognitive-behavioral and psychodynamic viewpoints on the nature of thethe therapy process. Safran, Greenberg, and Rice (1988) posited that psychotherapists ulti- therapeutic relationship. For example, Line- han’s (1987; Heard & Linehan, 2005) Dialec-mately would learn more about the process of therapy via the intensive study of successful tical Behavior Therapy for borderline personal- A History of Psychotherapy Integration 39 ity disorder characterized the therapeutic tial therapy, Piagetian theory, behavior therapy, psychodynamic therapy, Gestalt imagery, mari-relationship as being central to the success of the treatment. Westen’s (1988) intriguing arti- tal therapy, and pharmacotherapy). cle conceptualized the transference phenome- non in terms of information processing while The 1990s acknowledging its vital emotional component. Goldfried and Hayes (1989) argued that—even If the 1980s witnessed the establishment of in- tegration as a movement, then the 1990s sawin behavior therapy—the therapeutic relation- ship frequently elicits a sample of the client’s the ideas of this movement become generally recognized and adopted by a wide variety ofmost clinically relevant thoughts, emotions, and behaviors as they pertain to the self and researchers and clinicians alike. Indeed, inte- grative themes became part of the prevailingothers. Newman (1989) authored a treatise on the phenomenon of countertransference as ex- zeitgeist and were increasingly incorporated into mainstream writing. Moreover, Jensen,perienced and conceptualized from the per- spective of the cognitive-behavioral therapist. Bergin, and Greaves (1990) surveyed psycho- therapists and found that a majority of themIn 1989, Lazarus published a revision of his influential book, The Practice of Multimodal subscribed t o e clectic/integrative forms of therapy. Interpersonal Process in Cognitive TherapyTherapy. Simek-Downing’s (1989) Interna- tional Psychotherapy, a book that took cross- by Safran and Segal (1990) outlined how the clinical effectiveness of cognitive therapy couldcultural factors into account in examining the process of therapy, addressed elements of suc- be enhanced by incorporating principles and techniques associated with interpersonal the-cessful interpersonal helping that appear to be universal. Mahrer’s The Integration of Psycho- ory. In their edited volume, Eclecticism and In- tegration in Counseling and Psychotherapy,therapies (1989) expressed the sentiment that “. . . integrationists are dealing with many of Dryden and Norcross (1990) included a con- sideration of potential obstacles to integrationthe crucial questions for our field” and spelled out his recommended responsibilities for the as well as emerging themes that could poten- tially lead to contention among those in theintegrative therapist, teacher, supervisor, and researcher. Beitman, Goldfried, and Norcross’ field, noting that since integration and eclecti- cism were still in their early stages of develop-(1989) overview article on psychotherapy inte- gration in the American Journal of Psychiatry ment, different authorities have had different views. In another edited book, Client-Centeredunderscored the importance of research find- ings on this topic so that “prescriptive treat- and Experiential Psychotherapy in the Nineties (Lietaer, Rombauts, & VanBalen, 1990), Bo-ment [could be] based primarily on patient need and empirical evidence rather than on hart contributed a chapter in which he brought an integrative approach to client-centered ther-theoretical predisposition” (p. 141). Beginning work in this area came from Sheffield, En- apy, describing the common underlying factors in psychotherapy and how these are related togland (Barkham, Shapiro, & Firth-Cozens, 1989), where it was found that a combined in- client-centered therapy. In their review of the burgeoning common-factors literature, Gren-tervention that went from psychodynamic to cognitive-behavior therapy worked better than cavage and Norcross (1990) suggested that the factors could be classified according to clientone in which the sequence was reversed. Although not originally intended to be an characteristics, therapist attributes, change pro- cesses, treatment structure, and therapy rela-integrative text, the Comprehensive Handbook of Cognitive Therapy (Freeman, Simon, Beu- tionship. Duncan, Parks, and Rusk (1990) noted thattler, & Arkowitz, 1989) nonetheless comprised many chapters that seemed to create concep- although theoretical integration may offer “the greatest intellectual appeal,” technical eclecti-tual and technical bridges between cognitive therapy and other approaches (e.g., experien- cism may be the more practical solution, al- 40 Conceptual and Historical Perspectives lowing the clinician to avoid having to find a techniques must be tried out in their new con- texts and be validated through use and experi-connection between techniques and metabe- liefs or theoretical underpinnings. Beutler and mentation. Writing about multicultural coun- seling and therapy, Ramirez (1991) observedClarkin (1990) proposed a systematic eclectic therapy that allows for the selection of a treat- the regular use of contributions from different orientations. Alford (1991) called for integra-ment approach based on client predisposing variables, treatment context, relationship vari- tionists to find the various systems that are wor- thy of integration, noting a continued lack ofables, therapeutic strategies, and techniques. Discussing their identification as a technical consensus regarding criteria for the selection and incorporation of elements from variouseclectic and a common factors integrationist, respectively, Lazurus (1990) and Beit man (1 990) therapies. Horowitz (1991) proposed “deep” formulations such as emotionality, relation-debated their differing stances. Expanding on work begun in the 1980s, Ryle (1990) discusses ships, self-control, and development that may potentially offer an entry to integration. Wach-how cognitive-analytic therapy integrates as- pects of cognitive, psychodynamic, and behav- tel (1991) similarly proposed moving beyond simply combining elements, suggesting that weior therapies. Also in 1990, Lazarus urged inte- grationists to avoid training students in one try to achieve a more seamless psychotherapeu- tic integration. He also pointed out that in-particular approach to therapy and instead to present them with various options in an unbi- stances of true synthesis do occur sometimes and that it is important to take special note ofased manner so that they can learn to recog- nize the values of each approach. them. Goldfried (1991) proposed a research enter-Two landmark books appeared in 1991. One (Frank & Frank, 1991) was a revision of prise that would examine such instances. He discusses his “desegregation” research acrossthe classic Persuasion and Healing by Frank that was publish ed three decade s earl ie r (Frank, pure-form treat ment m odalities, which involves a comparative analysis of the change process.1961) and the other a comprehensive analysis by Mahoney (1991) on the process of change. He proposed that by focusing on clinical prin- ciples that are common across orientations, re-Also of particular significance in 1991, the Society for the Exploration of Psychotherapy search would have a greater likelihood of fo- cusing on the most important mechanisms ofIntegration (SEPI) began publishing its own journal, the Journal of Psychotherapy Integra- change. Commenting on this article, Shoham- Salomon (1991) added that only therapies thattion. The goal of the journal was to offer a fo- rum for articles that moved beyond the con- are different from each other in clearly identi- fiable ways can be integrated.fines of sing le-schoo l or single-theory approa che s to psychotherapy and behavior. Much of the Writing in 1991, Schacht suggested that the manner in which clinicians learn therapy willwork in the area of integration throughout the 1990s was published in this journal. influence their ability to employ integrative concepts in therapy, observing that integrationThe first articles published in the Journal of Psychotherapy Integration dealt with the cur- has different meanings for beginning therapists than for expert therapists. He proposed thatrent state and trends of psychotherapy integra- tion. In a dialogue between Lazarus and Mes- those who train students in integrative ap- proaches need to take note of the develop-ser (1991), Lazarus lamented the frag me nta ti on that exists among psychotherapies and called mental path that therapists follow as they move from novice to expert therapists. In the samefor “fewer theories and more facts” (p. 146), arguing for a data-based technical eclecticism year, Mahoney and Craine reported on a sur- vey of 177 members of SEPI and the Societyrather than an integration that is informed solely by theory. Messer countered this argu- for Psychotherapy Research (SPR) regarding optimal therapeutic practice. The only differ-ment by noting that all data are informed by theory but also acknowledged that imported ence found among theoretical orientations was A History of Psychotherapy Integration 41 that behaviorists rated psychological change as factors that cuts across all forms of treatment; and (7) SEPI, which provides an educational,less difficult than non-behaviorists. Of particu- lar interest is the finding that most respondents clinical, and scientific forum in which to con- sider integration.exhibited considerable belief change over the course of their careers. Commensurate with its maturation, psycho- therapy integration began to differentiate moreIn 1992, Goldfried and Castonguay noted that despite the popularity of integrative ap- clearly into separate paths or subtypes: com- mon factors, theoretical integration, and tech-proaches, the three major therapeutic schools were most likely here to stay. However, just two nical eclecticism (Arkowitz, 1992). Lazarus, Beutler, and Norcross (1992) discussed the fu-years later, Castonguay and Goldfried (1994) highlighted several instances of rapprochement ture of technical eclecticism. In the early 1990s, eclecticism became a more deliberate combi-that have led to the refinement of the existing schools. nation of interventions stemming from more appropriate training in various orientations, aIn an edited volume, History of Psychother- apy: A Century of Change (Freedheim & Fren- systematic assessment of client needs, and a use of outcome research.denberger, 1992), Arkowitz presented a chapter that traced the development of psychotherapy The first edition of the Handbook of Psycho- therapy Integration, edited by Norcross andintegration across the twentieth century. Apart from the content that Arkowitz offered, what is Goldfried (1992), offered a comprehensive ex- amination of the theory and practice of integra-particularly significant is the reality that in- cluding such a chapter was regarded as essen- tive psychotherapy, including a conceptual and historical perspective, models of psychotherapytial for a complete portrayal of the last 100 years of psychotherapy. In the same volume, integration, approaches to specific clinical prob- lems, different modalities of intervention, andArnkoff and Glass (1992) devoted a substantial portion of their chapter on cognitive therapy to issues related to training, research, and future directions. Norcross and Goldfried concludedpsychotherapy integration, noting that the de- velopment of cognitive therapy sparked interest that it is unlikely that the psychotherapy inte- gration movement will provide the field with ain e clectic and integrative approaches to th erapy. Integration was met with receptivity in the grand, overarching theoretical orientation. In- stead, they proposed that integrative efforts canearly 1990s. As an example, Duncan (1992) of- fered the use of integrative techniques for lead to increased consensus on the interven- tions that are indicated for certain clinicalameliorating the criticisms of strategic family therapy, suggesting ways for improving strategic problems. They called for process and out- come studies of both pure form and integrativetherapy that are clearly integrative in nature. Writing in the same year, Norcross and New- interventions to be complemented by research findings on the determinants of specific clini-man (1992) discussed the factors that contrib- uted to the growing interest in psychotherapy cal disorders. In the same year, Dryden (1992) edited a volume on clinical and research con-integration: (1) the proliferation of different schools of thought within psychotherapy, which tributions to integration in the United King- dom, and included a valuable bibliography ofled to increasing fragmentation and confusion; (2) the realization that no theoretical orienta- relevant articles appearing in British journals between 1966 and 1990.tion was sufficient to handle all clinical issues; (3) the rise of managed health care and the During the next year, Stricker and Gold (1993) published their Comprehensive Hand-cons equ en t pressur e for accounta bil ity and con- sensus; (4) the growing focus on specific clini- book of Psychotherapy Integration, which in- cluded contributions on a variety of topics suchcal problems and practical ways of dealing with them; (5) increasing opportunities to observe as individual approaches to integration, the in- tegration of traditional and nontraditional ap-and experiment with clinical approaches other than one’s own; (6) the interest in common proaches, psychotherapy integration for spe- 42 Conceptual and Historical Perspectives cific disorders and specific populations, teaching As others had indicated before him, he noted the large involvement of cognitive therapists inpsychotherapy integration, and a review of rele- vant research. the integration movement. Schwartz (1993) considered his work on social cognition andThat same year, the Journal of Psychother- apy Integration featured a roundtable dis- cognitive-affective balance in the development of psychopathology as an integrative construct.cussion by prominent scientist-practitioners (Norcross, 1993). The panelists (Glass, Arnkoff, He discussed how balance is an ideal central construct for an integrative cognitive-dynamicLambert, Shoham, Stiles, Shapiro, Barkham, and Strupp) dealt with the two central influ- therapy and noted that Linehan’s dialectical behavio r therapy (see Heard and Lineh an , 2005)ences in the current integration movement: common factors and technical eclecticism. attempts such balance in teaching clients to transcend artificial polarities through the dia-They covered the empirical investigation of therapeutic commonalities, the value of re- lectical process. It was also in 1993 that Linehan published her landmark book on dialecticalsearch programs determining “treatments of choice,” and alternatives to comparative de- behavior therapy, in which she describes in de- tail how this approach can be implementedsigns. They concluded by proposing additional research directions to advance integration. clinically. In the edited book Beyond Carl Rogers (Bra-One such study was conducted by Jones and Pulos (1993), who reported on both the simi- zier, 1993), Hutterer discussed the frequent move toward eclecticism by therapists trainedlarities and differences in therapy methods be- tween cognitive-behavioral and psychodynamic in a client-centered model and noted that cli- nicians trained in an “anti-dogmatic” approachtherapy. Other studies compared these same two orientations with regard to the working alli- such as Rogers’ may naturally seek out integra- tion in order to buttress the effectiveness ofance (Raue, Castonguay, & Goldfried, 1993) and client emotional experiencing (Wiser & their therapy. Goldfried and Castonguay (1993) suggested that this openness also characterizedGoldfried, 1993). Greenberg and Korman (1993) discussed the utility in involving an empirical practicing behavior therapists who have been shown to complement behavioral methodsmeasure of emotional processing in the thera- peutic process—clearly integrative. Castonguay with contributions from other orientations. In an article for a special issue of the Jour-(1993) called attention to the tendency to equate “nonspecific” factors with “common” nal of Psychotherapy Integration, Goldfried (1993) sugges te d t h at psych opa thology researchfactors, pointing out that the former refers to unspecified relational contributions, whereas can inform integrative therapy by uncovering potentially relevant determinants associatedthe latter refers to techniques (e.g., reinforce- ment) or strategies (i.e., facilitating corrective with various disorders. The clinician can then use these determinants to understand the coreexperiences) that are shared by different orien- tations. issues that need to be addressed in therapy. Writing about the feasibility of integrative ap-Mahoney, also writing in 1993a, maintained that the goal of integration is not to eliminate proaches to the study of personality, Millon, Everly, and Davis (1993) suggested that psy-differences among the various approaches to therapy, but to consolidate the unique aspects chotherapy integration is a sign of a mature clinical science that allows for a coherent tax-of each school of therapy. Given the complex- ity of human nature, he suggested that it is nec- onomy of personality disorders. Along with Gaston (1995), the authors call for such an in-essary and, in fact, unavoidable to establish an integrative movement that can allow for both a tegrative model of personality. Dutch psychologists Lemmens, deRidder,common factors approach as well as a more dialectical integration. and vanLieshout (1994) discussed empirical, conceptual, and linguistic strategies of psycho-In a separate article that same year, Maho- ney (1993b) traced the theoretical develop- therapeutic integration. They propose that these strategies offer ways to approach integra-ments in cognitive psychology since the 1950s. A History of Psychotherapy Integration 43 tion from a neutral stance. The empirical strat- difficulty involved in mapping integrative theo- ries onto such a plane. In a reply to Arnkoff,egy seeks to find common factors through re- search, the conceptual strategy attempts to Poznanski and McLennan (1995b) concurred that theoretical orientation is more multifac-develop superordinate constructs, and the lin- guistic strategy is rooted in the notion that a eted than was originally conceptualized and is best conceived of as being composed of fourcommon language must exist across orienta- tions in order to better understand psycho- elements: (1) the therapist’s theoretical affilia- tion, (2) the therapist’s espoused theory, (3) thetherapy. Jacobson (1994) discussed the potential for theory inferred from observations of therapy sessions, and (4) the therapist’s personal thera-integration inherent in contemporary behavior- ism and offered examples of some integrative peutic belief system. In the Comprehensive Textbook of Psycho-therapies derived from a behavioral orienta- tion—Acceptance and Commitment Therapy therapy (Bongar & Beutler, 1995), Beutler, Consoli, and Williams (1995) offer strategies(ACT; Robinson & Hayes, 1997), Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT; Linehan, 1992), and for designing effective treatment plans from the vantage point of systematic eclectic psycho-Functional Analytic Psychotherapy (FAP; Koh- lenberg & Tsai, 1991). In this regard, Gold- therapy. These include: (1) patient characteris- tics, (2) treatment context, (3) patient–thera-fried and Davison’s (1976) integration-friendly Clinical Behavior Therapy was reissued in an pist relationship qualities, and (4) selection of clinical strategies depending on problem com-expande d editio n (Goldfr ie d & Davison, 1994). Sechrest and Smith (1994) called for the in- plexity/severity, motivation, coping style, and resistance potential.tegration of psychotherapy into the science of psychology. They noted that behavior therapy Weinberger (1995) criticized technical eclec- ticism as lacking a theoretical base, which Beu-is a fitting example of the successful integration of a psychotherapeutic approach into main- tler (1995) countered by stating that the ab- sence of a single theory of psychopathologystream psychology. They go on to say that the successful integration of psychotherapy into and therapeutic change is indeed a strength, not a weakness. He also stated that traditionalthe broader field of psychology would address the conceptual and scientific limits of psycho- theories do not adequately address mecha- nisms of change and that individual theoriestherapy. In that year, Beitman called for a change in within a larger theoretical framework vary too much. Also in response to Weinberger, GastonSEPI’s mission as he argued that clinicians and researchers interested in integration must stop (1995) noted that theoretical (not technical) eclecticism has the ability to “fuel conceptualexploring and start defining the principles of psychotherapy integration. Also in that year, creativity” by encouraging therapists to learn all major theoretical approaches.Castonguay and Goldfried (1994) noted that a major obstacle to achieving that goal was the In his volume on rational-emotive behavior therapy, Dryden (1995) discussed the issueslack of common language that exists for clini- cians to use in order to communicate across that rational-emotive therapists consider when choosing to undertake more integrative ap-the various therapeutic schools. Poznanski and McLennan (1995a) described proaches to therapy. With regard to Gestalt therapy, Resnick (1995) maintained that inte-their attempts to assess theoretical orientation of practicing counselors and concluded that it gration is intrinsic to the approach. Greenberg (1995) pointed out that Wolfe’s (1995) self-is best measured on two polar dimensions: ana- lytic versus experiential and subjective versus psychopathology can serve as a potential basis for psychotherapy integration in that it containsobjective. Yet, as Arnkoff (1995) noted, this may not offer an adequate framework for inte- a set of integrative treatment principles for re- pairing various forms of pathologies that aregrative theories. She offered Wachtel’s (1977, 1987) theory, which integrates psychodynamic conceptualized as being rooted in issues in- volving the self (see Wolfe, 2005). Safren andand behavioral constructs, as an example of the 44 Conceptual and Historical Perspectives Inck (1995) made explicit integrative contribu- Stricker (1996) and Goldfried and Wolfe (1996) discussed the implications of manual-tions to the treatment of depression, discussing the decision rules for combining tasks and based, theoretically pure treatments for integra- tion and noted that integration may be difficultgoals from different approaches. Acknowledg- ing the importance of promoting integration at for clinicians working from a manual. Fenster- heim and Raw (1996) similarly argued that em-the training level, Robertson (1995) published a text designed to assist those who are involved pirically supported treatments that used such manuals have the potential to obstruct the inte-in training clinicians within a theoretically and pedagogically integrative framework. gration movement. All of these authors sug- gested that because empirically supportedGoldfried’s (1995) book From Cognitive- Behavior Therapy to Psychotherapy Integration: treatments have little to do with actual clinical practice, the flexibility (and potentially integra-An Evolving View traced the development of cognitive behavior approaches and its eventual tive stance) of the clinician is undermined by such treatments.implications for therapy integration. Davison (1995), an important figure in the history of Rigazio-Digilio, Goncalves, and Ivey (1996) elaborated upon Goldfried and Castonguay’scognitive-behavior therapy, similarly offered a personal and professional account of the past (1992) analysis of the future directions of inte- gration. Of interest is Rigazio-Digilio and col-20 years of his career. He elaborated on the therapeutic benefits of taking a broader thera- leagues’ mention of the need for the integra- tion movement to include cultural andpeutic approach and discussed how his early cases may have had better outcomes if such a interdisciplinary domains (see Ivey & Brooks- Harris, 2005). Historically, individuals inter-perspective had been taken. An important contribution to the psycho- ested in psychotherapy integration have failed to address such issues, and the authors, to-therapy integration literature was McCul- lough’s (1995) manual for his Cognitive Be- gether with Perez (1999), suggested that this constitutes an important next step for thehavioral Analytic System of Psychotherapy (CBASP), an intervention developed to treat movement. Books with integrative themes continued tochronic depression. It comprises a clinically sophisticated integration of cognitive, behav- appear in 1996, such as Gold’s (1996) review of key concepts on psychotherapy integrationioral, and interpersonal approaches and has subsequently been published in book form and Gilbert and Shmukler’s (1996) volume on how humanistic, psychodynamic, and behav-(McCullough, 2000) together with its empiri- cal support. Still another important contribu- ioral contributions may be used in couples therapy. In addition, the topic of psychother-tion in 1995 was the publication of Pinsof’s Integrative Problem-Centered Therapy, in which apy integration became increasingly salient in books on psychotherapy theory and techniquehe describes an approach for integrating dif- ferent theoretical approaches associated with (e.g., Patterson & Watkins, 1996). In a survey of 268 members of SEPI, Fig-individual, family, and biological interven- tions. ured and Norcross (1996) reported that respon- dents ranked the provision of a forum for theIn the mid-1990s, there is evidence that psy- chiatry continued to take notice of the psycho- systematic investigation and discussion of inte- grative themes as the central priority of SEPI.therapy integration movement. Albeniz and Holmes (1996) noted in the British Journal of In addition to continuing as is, the most fre- quent recommendations for SEPI were to in-Psychiatry that integration at the level of prac- tice is common and desirable and called for crease its membership, advocate for integra- tion, offer trainin g, and produce more resear ch.more clarification of integrative principles at the level of theory. He concluded by noting Overall, the results revealed that although dif- ferent benefits of SEPI were endorsed, mem-that the different orientations should work closely together while retaining their separate bers were largely satisfied with both SEPI and its journal.identities. A History of Psychotherapy Integration 45 In 1997, Safran and Messer discussed trends namic theme but instead enhances it. Alford and Beck (1997) provided an entire volume onin the integration movement from the perspec- tive of pluralism and contextualism. They noted cognitive therapy as an integrative paradigm for psychotherapy, maintaining that it has evolvedthat because therapeutic approaches are rooted in a particular framework, these concepts into a multidimensional approach that incor- porates interpersonal, behavioral, and psycho-might not make sense once they are removed from their context. Thus, they propose that the dynamic techniques. In Wachtel’s (1997) update of his originalproper goal of integration is to maintain an on- going dialogue among the proponents of the book, Psychoanalysis and Behavior Therapy, he offered an integrative construct, cyclical psy-various orientations while allowing for the dis- cussion and clarification of differences. chodynamics, which addresses fundamentals of both psychoanalytic and behavioral orienta-Patterson (1997) argued for the use of an integrative approach to ameliorate the divisive- tions (see Wachtel, Kruk, & McKinney, 2005). The book, Psychoanalysis, Behavior Therapy,ness that characterizes family therapy. Specifi- cally, he uses integrative concepts to establish and the Relational World, deals with how be- havior therapy may usefully complement thea substrate upon which various techniques can be added in a coherent fashion. He suggested intrapersonal and interpersonal contributions of psychoanalytic therapy.that doing so can allow the public and third- party insurers to understand family therapy Into the later part of the decade, the call for more research continued with relatively littlemore clearly. Stricker (1997) discussed the integration of evidence that it was being undertaken. Glass, Arnkoff, and Rodriquez (1998) noted that em-science and practice, maintaining that the psy- chotherapy integration model is a step toward pirical research in psychotherapy integration seriously lags behind the widespread clinicalthe reduction in the incommensurability of sci- ence and practice. Yet, Norcross, writing that and theoretical interest that it has received. They observed that even though some of thesame year (Norcross, 1997), reported that al- though integration or eclecticism is the most theoretically integrative treatments are based on research, the effectiveness of the therapeu-common theoretical orientation among psy- chotherapists, it continues to lack practical co- tic models remains, for the most part, unsub- stantiated by empirical investigation. They in-herence. He underscored the need for out- come research to establish the effectiveness of cluded mention of four promising integrative approaches that have received initial empiricalintegrative treatments, for training programs that ensured competence in integrative ap- support: Prochaska and DiClemente’s (1984) transtheoretical approach, Ryle’s (1990) cogni-proaches, and for a clearer delineation of the integration movement’s mission and goals. tive analytic therapy, Greenberg’s process-expe- riential approach (Greenberg, Rice, & Elliott,Also writing in 1997, Millon and Davis stated that eclectic therapies fall short of ade- 1993), and Shapiro’s (1995) eye-movement de- sensitization and reprocessing. However, just aquately addressing the needs of personality dis- ordered clients because “personality is integra- few years later, Schottenbauer, Glass, and Arn- koff (2005) note that there has more recentlytive and cohesive, while eclecticism need not be” (p. 386). They added that personality disor- been a dramatic increase in outcome research on psychotherapy integration.ders are pervasive and long-standing and have complex diagnostic patterns that may not lend In a commentary on a special section on psychotherapy integration with children in thethemsel ves to brief or manualiz ed types of treat- ment. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, Goldfried (1998) lamented the fact that integrationistLewis (1997) emphasized interpersonal and experiential aspects in his discussion of inte- work did not always reflect a broader historical and conceptual perspective, thereby at timesgrated psychodynamic therapy with children. He noted that the use of nonpsychodynamic “rediscovering the wheel.” Still, the signifi- cance that an entire issue of such a journal wasmethods does not minimize the psychody- 46 Conceptual and Historical Perspectives devoted to integrative approaches is note- apy, which integrates aspects of psychoanalytic, behavioral, solution-oriented, and cognitive ap-worthy. Toward the end of the 1990s, integrative proaches. Also, Shirk (1999) drew from the empirical literature to propose the utility of in-themes continued to take root internationally. For instance, Hollanders and McLeod (1999) tegrative child therapy. We noted at the outset of this chapter thatfound that roughly 87% of counselors in Great Britain do not take a pure-forms approach to our historical review ends with the twentieth century. This is an arbitrary, but convenienttherapy. Trijsburg, Colijn, Collumbien, and Lietaer (1998), writing from The Netherlands, point at which to stop; the history of psycho- therapy integration continues beyond thatEagle (1998), writing from South Africa, Car- ere-Comes (1999) and Giusti, Montanari, and point. Advances continue to be made in the twenty-first century, as reflected in the mile-Mont ana re lla (1995), writing from Italy, Christ- oph-Lemke (1999), writing from Germany, and stone inclusion of an entire volume on integra- tion in the four-volume Comprehensive Hand-Caro (1998), writing from Spain, all proffered integrative perspectives from an international book of Psychotherapy (Lebow, 2002). The remaining chapters that follow in the currentperspective. In 1999, Jacobson presented an outsider’s edition of the Handbook of Psychotherapy Inte- gration provide a sampling of these advances.perspec ti ve on psychothera py integrat ion . Some integrationists took umbrage at Jacobson’s arti- cle (Cullari, 1999; Goldfried, 1999), noting that his perspective was tainted with a pessimis- THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PROFESSIONAL NETWORKtic view of the potential for human change and contained a misunderstanding of the goal of AND INTEGRATIVE OUTLETS integration. He suggested that by taking note of the social psychology of psychotherapy and Recognizing the need to provide a reference group oriented toward rapprochement amongintegration, integrationists might find that they have heretofore been exaggerating the progress the therapies, Goldfried and Strupp, in 1979, compiled a list of professionals who were likelyof integration. Smith (1999) noted that the growing em- to be interested in efforts toward therapeutic integration and wrote to all of these individu-phasis placed on evidenced-based treatments might paradoxically lead to a breakdown of tra- als, inviting them to add their names to an in- formal “professional network.” Little was doneditional theoretical approaches. He stated that this could have the advantage of yielding a new with this list until 1982, when Wachtel and Goldfried decided to poll those included in thekind of “meta-theory” of therapy, which will increase the applicability of clinical research. network about potential directions. Taking the existing network list and expanding it on theBeitman and Yue (1999) presented such a data-based approach to therapy in a training basis of their personal contacts, they mailed a questionnaire. A total of 162 individuals com-anual. Also writing in 1999 in the International pleted the survey. The respondents expressed their continued interest in rapprochement andJournal of Psychotherapy, Slunecko took an epistemological approach toward his discus- offered their views on what should be done next; namely, the establishment of a newslettersion of integration. He noted that psychologists must engage in a nonjudgmental, structured and the formation of an organization. In the summer of 1983, an organizing com-dialogue with one another in order to become aware of the differences that exist among differ- mittee, consisting of Lee Birk, Marvin Gold- fried, Jeanne Phillips, George Stricker, Paulent orientations. There is evidence that integrative concepts Wachtel, and Barry Wolfe, met to discuss the results of the questionnaire. It was immediatelycontinued to expand into diverse modalities during the latter part of the 1990s. Budman apparent to all six that the time was ripe to do something with this rapidly growing network,(1999) discussed time-effective couples’ ther- [...]... 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