79 JUMO, FAS 525, Edition 02.04 5 Switching controllers 5.1 Discontinuous and quasi-continuous controllers With the continuous controllers described previously, with P, PD, I, PI and PID actions, the manipu- lating variable y can take on any value between the limits y = 0 and y = y H . In this way, the control- ler is always able to keep the process variable equal to the setpoint w. In contrast to continuous controllers, discontinuous and quasi-continuous controllers do not have a continuous output signal, but one that can only have the state ON or OFF. The outputs from such controllers are frequently implemented as relays, but voltage and current outputs are also com- mon. However, unlike the continuous controller, these are binary signals that can only have a value of 0 or the maximum value. These signals can be used to control devices such as solid-state re- lays. Fig. 51: Continuous, discontinuous and quasi-continuous controllers In addition to these controller types with binary outputs, there are also 3-state and multi-state con- trollers, where the manipulating variable output can have 3 or more levels. A tri-state controller would, for instance, be used for heating and cooling tasks, or humidification and dehumidification. It might be assumed that controllers with outputs which can only be in the ON or OFF state would only produce an unsatisfactory control action. But surprisingly enough, satisfactory results for the intended purposes can be achieved in many control processes, particularly with quasi-continuous controllers. Discontinuous and quasi-continuous controllers are very widely used, because of the simple construction of the output stage and the actuators that are required, resulting in lower costs. They are found universally in those areas of process control where the processes are rela- tively slow and can be readily controlled with switching actuators. The simplest controller with a binary output is the discontinuous controller, which is effectively a li- mit switch that simply switches the manipulating variable on or off, depending on whether the pro- cess variable goes below or above a predetermined setpoint. A simple example of such a control- ler is the two-state bimetallic temperature controller in an electric iron, or a refrigerator thermostat. Quasi-continuous controllers can be put together, for example, by adding a switching stage to the output of a continuous controller (see Fig. 51), thus converting the continuous output signal into a switching sequence. P, PD, I, PI and PID actions can also be implemented for these controllers (Fig. 51) and the foregoing remarks about continuous controllers are also applicable. fine graduation of manipulating variable ( 0 – 100 %) coarse graduation of manipulating variable ( 0 or 100 %) continuous controller switching stage fine graduation of manipulating variable ( 0 – 100 %) continuous controller y y y R w -x comparator with hysteresis y continuous controller discontinuous controller quasi-continuous controller w -x w -x 5 Switching controllers 80 JUMO, FAS 525, Edition 02.04 5.2 The discontinuous controller The discontinuous controller has only 2 switching states, i.e. the output signal is switched on and off, depending on whether the process variable goes below or above a predetermined limit or set- point. These devices are also often used as limit monitors, which initiate an alarm message when a setpoint is exceeded. A simple example of a mechanical discontinuous controller is, as previously explained, the bimetal- lic switch of an electric iron, which switches the heating element off when the set temperature is re- ached and switches it on again when the temperature falls by a fixed switching differential (hystere- sis). There are other examples in the field of electronic controllers. For example, a resistance ther- mometer (Pt 100), whose electronic circuitry switches heating on if the temperature falls below a certain value, say 5°C, to provide frost protection for an installation. In this case, the resistance thermometer together with the necessary electronic circuitry takes the place of the bimetallic switch. Fig. 52: Characteristic of a discontinuous controller The discontinuous controller shown here supplies 100% power to the process until the setpoint is reached. If the process variable rises above the setpoint, the power is taken back to 0%. Apart from the hysteresis, we see that the discontinuous controller corresponds to a continuous control- ler with no proportional band (X P = 0) and therefore “infinite” gain. 81 5 Switching controllers JUMO, FAS 525, Edition 02.04 5.2.1 The process variable in first-order processes If we connect a discontinuous controller, such as a rod thermostat, to a first-order process (e.g. a thermostatic bath with water circulation, warmed by an immersion heater), we find that the course of the process variable and manipulating variable is as shown in Fig. 53. In theory, the controller should switch off the energy when the setpoint is reached, the process variable would fall imme- diately and once again go below the setpoint. The controller would immediately switch on again, and so on. Because an idealized first-order process has no delay time, the relay would switch on and off continuously, and would be destroyed in a very short time. For this reason, a discontinuous controller usually incorporates a switching differential X Sd (also known as hysteresis) about the setpoint, within which the switch status does not change. In prac- tice, the switching differential is often to one side of the setpoint, either below (for example with heating) or above (for example with cooling). Fig. 53 shows a case where the switching differential lies below the setpoint. The switch-off point of the controller is the setpoint w. In practice, as the process is not ideal (it has some delay time), the higher and lower values of the process variable do not coincide exactly with the switching edges of the differential (X Sd ). Fig. 53: Discontinuous controller in a first-order process 5 Switching controllers 82 JUMO, FAS 525, Edition 02.04 What matters however, is that the controller only switches when the process variable has moved outside the differential band that has been set. The process variable continually fluctuates, at least between the values X hi and X lo . The fluctuation band of the process variable is therefore influenced by the switching differential. In a process with delay, the discontinuous controller can only maintain the process variable con- stant between the values X hi and X lo . The on-off switching is due to the manipulating variable being too large to maintain the process variable constant when it is switched on, and too small when it is switched off. In a large number of control tasks, where the process variable only needs to be main- tained approximately constant, these fluctuations are not a problem. An example of this is a dome- stic electric oven, where it does not matter if the actual temperature fluctuates between 196°C and 204°C for a baking temperature of 200 °C. If these continuous fluctuations of the process variable do cause problems, they can be minimized to a limited extent by selecting a smaller switching differential Xsd. This automatically leads to more switching operations per unit time, i.e. the switching frequency increases. This is not always desirable, as it affects the life of the controller relay. It can be shown (mathematical details are not entered into here) that the following relationship exists between the switching frequency (f sw ) and the parameters T, X max and X Sd : f sw : switching frequency T osc : period of oscillation X max : max. process variable reached with the controller output permanently switched on X Sd : switching differential T : time constant of the first-order process We can see from this relationship that the shorter the time constant (T), the higher the switching frequency. A control process with short time constants will therefore produce a high switching fre- quency, which would contribute to rapid wear of the switching stage of the controller. For this rea- son, a discontinuous controller is unsuitable for this type of process. valid for f sw 1 T osc 1 4 X max X Sd • 1 T •== x X max 2 ≈ 83 5 Switching controllers JUMO, FAS 525, Edition 02.04 5.2.2 The process variable in higher-order processes In a process with delay, we have seen that under ideal conditions the fluctuation band is determi- ned only by the switching differential X Sd of the controller. The process itself has no effect here. In a process with several delays, which can be described as delay time, response time and transfer coefficient, this is no longer the case. As soon as there are any delays the process variable will continue to rise or fall after switch-off and will only return after reaching a maximum. Fig. 54 shows how the process variable overshoots the response threshold of the relay when the manipulating va- riable is switched on and off. Fig. 54: Discontinuous controller in a higher-order process This produces an overshoot of the process variable, with limits given by the values X hi and X lo . This means that the process variable fluctuates even when the controller has zero switching differential, as the process only reacts to the change in manipulating variable after the end of the delay time. Once again, take the electrically heated furnace as an example. If the energy supply is switched off when the setpoint is reached, the temperature still continues to rise. The reason is that the tempe- rature in the furnace only permeates slowly, and when the setpoint is reached, the heater rod is al- ready at a higher temperature than that reported by the sensor. The rod and furnace material conti- nue to supply additional heat. Similarly, when the heating is switched on again, heating-up is rather sluggish and initially the temperature continues to fall a little further after switch-on. 5 Switching controllers 84 JUMO, FAS 525, Edition 02.04 The more powerful the heater, the greater is the temperature difference between the heater rod and the sensor during heating-up, because of the process delay, and the process variable will overs- hoot the setpoint even more during heating-up. We use the term excess power in this connection, meaning the percentage by which the maximum power of a furnace is greater than the power re- quired to approach a setpoint. Example: A furnace which requires a manipulating variable of 2kW on average to stabilize at a set- point of 200°C, but has a 4 kW continuous output rating, has an excess power of 100% at the wor- king point of 200°C. This means that the higher the excess power, the wider is the fluctuation band ∆x of the process variable about the setpoint. Now the present (but unwanted) fluctuation band of the process variable can be estimated for the case where 100% excess power is available: It is assumed that the switching differential X Sd = 0 As we can see, the fluctuation band is dependent not only on X max (with a linear process this is proportional to the excess power) but also on the ratio T u /T g , whose reciprocals we are already fa- miliar with from Chapter 2, and which give a measure of how good the controllability of a process is. The shorter the delay time in comparison with the response time, the narrower is the fluctuation band. The formula given for the fluctuation band ∆x is valid for X Sd = 0. If there is a switching diffe- rential, this is also added to the fluctuation band. This gives us the formula: The formula for the period of oscillation is: T osc = 4T u (valid for X Sd = 0) If a switching differential X Sd has been set, then the period of oscillation is slightly longer. From this we can derive the maximum switching frequency, which can be used to predict the expected con- tact life: valid for ∆xX max T u T g •= x X max 2 ≈ ∆xX max T u T g X Sd +•= f osc 1 4T u = 85 5 Switching controllers JUMO, FAS 525, Edition 02.04 5.2.3 The process variable in processes without self-limitation Because the step responses of an integrating process are linear, the behavior of a discontinuous controller is easy to describe and calculate. Here again the process value fluctuates between the given limits X hi and X lo (Fig. 55). In an ideal process without delay time T u , the limit values are equal to the switching differential X Sd . Fig. 55: Discontinuous controller in a process without self-limitation The switching frequency f sw is given by: K p : proportionality factor of the process y H : maximum value of the manipulating variable An example of such an application is a discontinuous controller used as a limit switch for level con- trol of a water tank. The tank is used as a storage reservoir, from which water is drawn to meet de- mand or into which a constant amount flows. Summarizing, we can say that the discontinuous controller offers the advantage of simple con- struction and few parameters which have to be set. The disadvantage is the fluctuation of the pro- cess variable about the setpoint. In non-linear processes these fluctuations can be wider in the lo- wer operating range than in the upper, because the process has excess power here. Approaching the setpoint in the lower operating range will often result in wider fluctuations than in the upper operating range. The area of application for such discontinuous controllers is limited to applicati- ons where precise control is not required. In practice, these controllers are implemented through mechanical thermostats, level switches etc. If an electronic controller with a sensor is used, the controller is almost always provided with a dynamic action. f sw 1 T osc K p y H • 2X Sd • == 5 Switching controllers 86 JUMO, FAS 525, Edition 02.04 5.3 Quasi-continuous controllers: the proportional controller As we have already seen, a quasi-continuous controller consists of a continuous controller and a switching stage. If this controller is operated purely as a proportional controller, then the characte- ristics which we have already met in Chapter 3.2.1 “The proportional band” apply equally here. Fig. 56 : Proportional band of a quasi-continuous proportional controller The quasi-continuous controller whose characteristic is shown in Fig. 56 always gives out a 100% manipulating variable, as long as the process value lies below the proportional band. As the pro- cess value enters the proportional band and approaches the setpoint, so the manipulating variable becomes progressively lower. How can a controller with a switched output provide a virtually constant energy supply i.e. stepless dosage? In the end it is immaterial whether a furnace is operated at 50% heating power all the time or at 100% heating power for only half the time. The quasi-continuous controller changes the switch-on ratio or ON-time ratio (also known as duty-cycle) of the output signal instead of changing the size of the output signal. An ON-time ratio of 1 corresponds to 100% of the manipulating variable, 0.25 corresponds to 25% of the manipulating variable, and so on. The ON-time ratio, or duty-cycle R is defined as follows: T on = ON time T off = OFF time Multiplying the ratio R by 100 gives the relative ON-time in % of R, which corresponds to the mani- pulating variable in %. With a quasi-continuous controller the characteristic of the process (especially the time constants) exerts a strong influence on the course of the process variable. In a process where a disturbance is transmitted relatively slowly (a process with long time constants) and where energy can be stored, there is a smoothing effect on any pulses. With a suitable switching frequency, the use of a quasi- continuous controller with these processes achieves a similar result to that achieved using a conti- nuous controller. y 100 % X w x P R T on T on T off + = R(%) y R 100%•== 87 5 Switching controllers JUMO, FAS 525, Edition 02.04 The situation is different with a very fast process, where there is hardly any smoothing of the con- stantly changing flow of energy, and the process variable fluctuates accordingly. Hence quasi-con- tinuous controllers are preferably used where the process is comparatively slow, and are especially popular in temperature control systems. Fig. 57: Power control The definition of ON-time ratio (or duty-cycle) means the ratio of the switch-on time of a controller output to the sum of the switch-on and switch-off times, e.g. an ON-time ratio of 0.25 means that the power supply is switched on for 25% of the total time. It gives no information on the actual du- ration of the periods during which the switching cycles take place. For this reason, the so-called cycle time (C y ) is defined, which fixes this time period. It represents the period during which switching on and off takes place once, i.e. it is equal to the sum of the switch-on and switch-off times (Fig. 57). The switching frequency is the reciprocal of the cycle time. Fig. 57 shows the same ON-time ratio (R = 0.25) for different cycle times. 5 Switching controllers 88 JUMO, FAS 525, Edition 02.04 For a given ON-time ratio of 0.25 and a cycle time of C y = 20 sec, this means that the energy sup- ply is switched on for 5 seconds and switched off for 15 seconds. If the cycle time is 10 sec, the energy supply is switched on for 2.5 seconds and switched off for 7.5 seconds. In both cases, the power supplied is 25 %, but with a finer dosage with C y = 10 sec. The fluctuations of the process variable are smaller in the second case. Theoretically, the ON-time of the controller is given by the following relationship: T on = ON time y = manipulating variable in % C y = cycle time This means that a shorter cycle time results in a finer dosage of the energy supply. On the other hand, there is increased switching of the actuating device (relay or contactor). The switching fre- quency can easily be determined from the cycle time. Example: The cycle time of a controller used for temperature control is C y = 20 seconds. The relay used has a contact life of 1 million switching operations. The value given for C y results in 3 switching opera- tions per minute, i.e. 180 per hour. For 1 million operations, this gives a life of 5555 hours = 231 days. Based on an operating time of 8 hours per day, this represents approx. 690 days. Assuming around 230 working days per year we arrive at an operating life of approx. 3 years. Generally, the cycle time is selected so that the control process is able to smooth out the energy bursts supplied, to eliminate periodic fluctuations of the process variable as far as possible. At the same time, the number of switching operations must always be taken into account. With a micro- processor controller however, the value set for the cycle time C y is not held constant over the who- le of its working range. A detailed discussion of this point is rather complicated and would be too advanced at this stage. If it is possible to operate a switching P controller in manual mode, the in- fluence on C y can be observed by direct input of a manipulating variable. When C y is matched to the dynamic action of the process, the behavior of a quasi-continuous con- troller (as a proportional controller with dynamic action) can definitely be comparable with that of a continuous controller, which also explains its name. With quasi-continuous controllers the different manipulating variables are the result of a variation of the ON-time ratio, but there is no discernible difference in the course of the process variable when compared to that of a continuous controller. T on yC y • 100 % = [...]... is also the case with a proportional controller A quasi-continuous controller can also be configured as a PID controller, which means that it slows down as the setpoint is approached and stabilizes accurately at the setpoint A quasi-continuous controller (and also a P controller) can be pictured as a combination of a continuous controller and a switching stage connected to the output The continuous controller... always assume a linear actuator action If the actuator has a non-linearity, or play is present in the actuator mechanism, this assumption will only be an approximation 98 JUMO, FAS 52 5, Edition 02.04 5 Switching controllers An actuating controller offers the following setting parameters for the corresponding control action: Dynamic action PD PDD PI PID PD/PID Setting parameters XP XP - XP XP - - Tn Tn... differential does not apply here, but a contact spacing can be set Fig 60 shows the characteristic of a quasi-continuous 3-state controller used to control an climatic cabinet Fig 60: Characteristic of a quasi-continuous controller with two outputs, as a proportional controller As shown in Fig 60, the two proportional bands XP1 and XP2 can be adjusted independently for a quasi-continuous controller... made of a controller which operates a thyristor-controlled power unit and a refrigerator unit and thus maintains constant temperature in a climatic cabinet The two plants require two controller outputs – but the controller must provide a continuous output for heating and a switched output for cooling 94 JUMO, FAS 52 5, Edition 02.04 5 Switching controllers 5. 6 The modulating controller Actuators (actuator... parameters XP XP Tn Tn - Td Ty Ty XSh XSh Table 11: Setting parameters with the modulating controller JUMO, FAS 52 5, Edition 02.04 97 5 Switching controllers 5. 7 Continuous controller with integral motor actuator driver A “continuous controller with integral motor actuator driver” or, for short, an actuating controller, is much more suitable for operating a motorized actuator than is a modulating controller... to maintain the process value Now the process value is below the contact spacing, and we obtain a positive manipulating variable (for example 28 .5 C and 25% manipulating variable) Cooling: Now the ambient temperature increases (disturbance), whereupon the inner chamber of the cabinet is heated The process value increases – on entering the contact spacing (29°C) the manipulating variable is 0%, and... with 100% manipulating variable, whereupon the process value increases The heating manipulating variable continually reduces from a process value above 27°C (on reaching the proportional band), the heating relay starts to pulse and the switch-on times become progressively shorter The control deviation and hence the manipulating variable become smaller, until a manipulating variable is obtained which... contact spacing is chosen, the true control deviation will be smaller than the set contact spacing, because the final pulse runs the actuator into the contact spacing and thereby reduces the control deviation As the actuator drive has the same characteristic for clockwise and anticlockwise rotation, there is only one setting each for XP, Tn and Td The setting parameters are then as follows: Dynamic action.. .5 Switching controllers 5. 4 Quasi-continuous controllers: the controller with dynamic action A quasi-continuous controller, operated as a pure proportional controller and with Cy suitably matched, shows almost the same behavior in a process as does a continuous controller with P action Although it reacts very quickly to changes in the control deviation, it cannot reduce the control deviation... PD, PID can be set for the continuous controller The duty of the actuating controller is now to regulate this manipulating variable on the regulating valve The actuating controller operates the actuator via two switching outputs, and receives an actuator retransmission signal (usually a standard signal 0/4 — 20mA, 0/2 — 10V etc.), which feeds the actuator position back to the controller Example: The . receive an actuator retransmission signal and must always assu- me a linear actuator action. If the actuator has a non-linearity, or play is present in the actuator me- chanism, this assumption. down as the setpoint is ap- proached and stabilizes accurately at the setpoint. A quasi-continuous controller (and also a P controller) can be pictured as a combination of a conti- nuous controller. quasi-continuous controller, and actual control actions Example: A quasi-continuous controller configured as a proportional controller actually has PD ac- tion, because of the switching stage connected