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Communications receivers DSP, software radios, and design, third edition 1.1 Radio Communications SystemsThe capability of radio waves to provide almost instantaneous distant communicationswithout interconnecting wires was a major factor in the explosive growth of communications during the 20th century. With the dawn of the 21st century, the future for communications systems seems limitless. The invention of the vacuum tube made radio a practicaland affordable communications medium. The replacement of vacuum tubes by transistorsand integrated circuits allowed the development of a wealth of complex communicationssystems, which have become an integral part of our society. The development of digitalsignal processing (DSP) has added a new dimension to communications, enabling sophisticated, secure radio systems at affordable prices.In this book, we review the principles and design of modern singlechannel radio receivers for frequencies below approximately 3 GHz. While it is possible to design a receiver tomeet specified requirements without knowing the system in which it is to be used, such ignorance can prove timeconsuming and costly when the inevitable need for design compromises arises. We strongly urge that the receiver designer take the time to understand thoroughly the system and the operational environment in which the receiver is to be used. Herewe can outline only a few of the wide variety of systems and environments in which radio receivers may be used.Figure 1.1 is a simplified block diagram of a communications system that allows thetransfer of information between a source where information is generated and a destinationthat requires it. In the systems with which we are concerned, the transmission medium is radio, which is used when alternative media, such as light or electrical cable, are not technically feasible or are uneconomical. Figure 1.1 represents the simplest kind of communications system, where a single source transmits to a single destination. Such a system is oftenreferred to as a simplex system. When two such links are used, the second sending information from the destination location to the source location, the system is referred to as duplex.Such a system may be used for twoway communication or, in some cases, simply to provideinformation on the quality of received information to the source. If only one transmitter maytransmit at a time, the system is said to be halfduplex.Figure 1.2 is a diagram representing the simplex and duplex circuits, where a single blockT represents all of the information functions at the source end of the link and a single block Rrepresents those at the destination end of the link. In this simple diagram, we encounter oneof the problems which arise in communications systems—a definition of the boundaries between parts of the system. The blocks T and R, which might be thought of as transmitter andreceiver, incorporate several functions that were portrayed separately in Figure 1.1.Many radio communications systems are much more complex than the simplex and duplex links shown in Figures 1.1 and 1.2. For example, a broadcast system has a star configuration in which one transmitter sends to many receivers. A datacollection network may beorganized into a star where there are one receiver and many transmitters. These configurations are indicated in Figure 1.3. A consequence of a star system is that the peripheral elements, insofar as technically feasible, are made as simple as possible, and any necessarycomplexity is concentrated in the central element.Examples of the transmittercentered star are the familiar amplitudemodulated (AM),frequencymodulated (FM), and television broadcast systems. In these systems, highpowertransmitters with large antenna configurations are employed at the transmitter, whereasmost receivers use simple antennas and are themselves relatively simple. An example of thereceivercentered star is a weatherdatacollection network, with many unattended measuring stations that send data at regular intervals to a central receiving site. Star networks can beconfigured using duplex rather than simplex links, if this proves desirable. Mobile radio networks have been configured largely in this manner, with the shorterrange mobile sets transmitting to a central radio relay located for wide coverage. Cellular radio systems incorporatea number of lowpower relay stations that provide contiguous coverage over a large area,communicating with lowpower mobile units. The relays are interconnected by variousmeans to a central switch. This system uses far less spectrum than conventional mobile systems because of the capability for reuse of frequencies in noncontiguous cells.Packet radio transmission is another example of a duplex star network. Stations transmitat random times to a central computer terminal and receive responses sent from the computer. The communications consist of brief bursts of data, sent asynchronously and containing the necessary address information to be properly directed. The term packet network isapplied to this scheme and related schemes using similar protocols. A packet system typically incorporates many radios, which can serve either as terminals or as relays, and uses afloodingtype transmission scheme.The most complex system configuration occurs when there are many stations, each having both a transmitter and receiver, and where any station can transmit to one or more otherstations simultaneously. In some networks, only one station transmits at a time. One may bedesignated as a network controller to maintain a calling discipline. In other cases, it is necessary to design a system where more than one station can transmit simultaneously to one ormore other stations.In many radio communications systems, the range of transmissions, because of terrain ortechnology restrictions, is not adequate to bridge the gap between potential stations. In sucha case, radio repeaters can be used to extend the range. The repeater comprises a receivingsystem connected to a transmitting system, so that a series of radio links may be establishedto achieve the required range. Prime examples are the multichannel radio relay system usedby longdistance telephone companies and the satellite multichannel relay systems that areused extensively to distribute voice, video, and data signals over a wide geographic area.Satellite relay systems are essential where physical features of the earth (oceans, high mountains, and other physical restrictions) preclude direct surface relay.
Chapter 1 Basic Radio Considerations 1.1 Radio Communications Systems The capability of radio waves to provide almost instantaneous distant communications without interconnecting wires was a major factor in the explosive growth of communica - tions during the 20th century. With the dawn of the 21st century, the future for communi - cations systems seems limitless. The invention of the vacuum tube made radio a practical and affordable communications medium. The replacement of vacuum tubes by transistors and integrated circuits allowed the development of a wealth of complex communications systems, which have become an integral part of our society. The development of digital signal processing (DSP) has added a new dimension to communications, enabling sophis- ticated, secure radio systems at affordable prices. In this book, we review the principles and design of modern single-channel radio receiv- ers for frequencies below approximately 3 GHz. While it is possible to design a receiver to meet specified requirements without knowing the system in which it is to be used, such ig- norance can prove time-consuming and costly when the inevitable need for design compro- mises arises. We strongly urge that the receiver designer take the time to understand thor- oughly the system and the operational environment in which the receiver is to be used. Here we can outline only a few of the wide variety of systems and environments in which radio re- ceivers may be used. Figure 1.1 is a simplified block diagram of a communications system that allows the transfer of information between a source where information is generated and a destination that requires it. In the systems with which we are concerned, the transmission medium is ra - dio, which is used when alternative media, such as light or electrical cable, are not techni - cally feasible or are uneconomical. Figure 1.1 represents the simplest kind of communica - tions system, where a single source transmits to a single destination. Such a system is often referred to as a simplex system. When two such links are used, the second sending informa - tion from the destination location to the source location, the system is referred to as duplex. Such a system may be used for two-way communication or, in some cases, simply to provide information on the quality of received information to the source. If only one transmitter may transmit at a time, the system is said to be half-duplex. Figure 1.2 is a diagram representing the simplex and duplex circuits, where a single block T represents all of the information functions at the source end of the link and a single block R represents those at the destination end of the link. In this simple diagram, we encounter one of the problems which arise in communications systems—a definition of the boundaries be - tween parts of the system. The blocks T and R, which might be thought of as transmitter and receiver, incorporate several functions that were portrayed separately in Figure 1.1. 1 Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Source: Communications Receivers: DSP, Software Radios, and Design Many radio communications systems are much more complex than the simplex and du- plex links shown in Figures 1.1 and 1.2. For example, a broadcast system has a star configu- ration in which one transmitter sends to many receivers. A data-collection network may be organized into a star where there are one receiver and many transmitters. These configura- tions are indicated in Figure 1.3. A consequence of a star system is that the peripheral ele- ments, insofar as technically feasible, are made as simple as possible, and any necessary complexity is concentrated in the central element. Examples of the transmitter-centered star are the familiar amplitude-modulated (AM), frequency-modulated (FM), and television broadcast systems. In these systems, high-power transmitters with large antenna configurations are employed at the transmitter, whereas most receivers use simple antennas and are themselves relatively simple. An example of the receiver-centered star is a weather-data-collection network, with many unattended measur - ing stations that send data at regular intervals to a central receiving site. Star networks can be configured using duplex rather than simplex links, if this proves desirable. Mobile radio net - works have been configured largely in this manner, with the shorter-range mobile sets trans - mitting to a central radio relay located for wide coverage. Cellular radio systems incorporate a number of low-power relay stations that provide contiguous coverage over a large area, communicating with low-power mobile units. The relays are interconnected by various means to a central switch. This system uses far less spectrum than conventional mobile sys - tems because of the capability for reuse of frequencies in noncontiguous cells. Packet radio transmission is another example of a duplex star network. Stations transmit at random times to a central computer terminal and receive responses sent from the com - 2 Communications Receivers Figure 1.1 Simplified block diagram of a communications link. Figure 1.2 Simplified portrayal of communi- cations links: ( a ) simplex link, ( b ) duplex link. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Basic Radio Considerations puter. The communications consist of brief bursts of data, sent asynchronously and contain- ing the necessary address information to be properly directed. The term packet network is applied to this scheme and related schemes using similar protocols. A packet system typi - cally incorporates many radios, which can serve either as terminals or as relays, and uses a flooding-type transmission scheme. The most complex system configuration occurs when there are many stations, each hav- ing both a transmitter and receiver, and where any station can transmit to one or more other stations simultaneously. In some networks, only one station transmits at a time. One may be designated as a network controller to maintain a calling discipline. In other cases, it is neces- sary to design a system where more than one station can transmit simultaneously to one or more other stations. In many radio communications systems, the range of transmissions, because of terrain or technology restrictions, is not adequate to bridge the gap between potential stations. In such a case, radio repeaters can be used to extend the range. The repeater comprises a receiving system connected to a transmitting system, so that a series of radio links may be established to achieve the required range. Prime examples are the multichannel radio relay system used by long-distance telephone companies and the satellite multichannel relay systems that are used extensively to distribute voice, video, and data signals over a wide geographic area. Satellite relay systems are essential where physical features of the earth (oceans, high moun - tains, and other physical restrictions) preclude direct surface relay. On a link-for-link basis, radio relay systems tend to require a much higher investment than direct (wired) links, depending on the terrain being covered and the distances involved. To make them economically sound, it is common practice in the telecommunications indus - try to multiplex many single communications onto one radio relay link. Typically, hundreds of channels are sent over one link. The radio links connect between central offices in large population centers and gather the various users together through switching systems. The hundreds of trunks destined for a particular remote central office are multiplexed together into one wider-bandwidth channel and provided as input to the radio transmitter. At the other central office, the wide-band channel is demultiplexed into the individual channels and distributed appropriately by the switching system. Telephone and data common carriers are probably the largest users of such duplex radio transmission. The block diagram of Fig - Basic Radio Considerations 3 Figure 1.3 Star-type communications networks: ( a ) broadcast system, ( b ) data-collection network. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Basic Radio Considerations ure 1.4 shows the functions that must be performed in a radio relay system. At the receiving terminal, the radio signal is intercepted by an antenna, amplified and changed in frequency, demodulated, and demultiplexed so that it can be distributed to the individual users. In addition to the simple communications use of radio receivers outlined here, there are many special-purpose systems that also require radio receivers. While the principles of de - sign are essentially the same, such receivers have peculiarities that have led to their own de - sign specialties. For example, in receivers used for direction finding, the antenna systems have specified directional patterns. The receivers must accept one or more inputs and pro - cess them so that the output signal can indicate the direction from which the signal arrived. Older techniques include the use of loop antennas, crossed loops, Adcock antennas, and other specialized designs, and determine the direction from a pattern null. More modern 4 Communications Receivers Figure 1.4 Block diagram of simplified radio relay functions: ( a ) terminal transmitter, ( b )re - peater (without drop or insert capabilities), ( c ) terminal receiver. Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Basic Radio Considerations systems use complex antennas, such as the Wullenweber. Others determine both direction and range from the delay differences found by cross-correlating signals from different an - tenna structures or elements. Radio ranging can be accomplished using radio receivers with either cooperative or noncooperative targets. Cooperative targets use a radio relay with known delay to return a signal to the transmitting location, which is also used for the receiver. Measurement of the round-trip delay (less the calibrated internal system delays) permits the range to be esti - mated very closely. Noncooperative ranging receivers are found in radar applications. In this case, reflections from high-power transmissions are used to determine delays. The strength of the return signal depends on a number of factors, including the transmission wavelength, target size, and target reflectivity. By using narrow beam antennas and scanning the azimuth and elevation angles, radar systems are also capable of determining target direc - tion. Radar receivers have the same basic principles as communications receivers, but they also have special requirements, depending upon the particular radar design. Another area of specialized application is that of telemetry and control systems. Exam - ples of such systems are found in almost all space vehicles. The telemetry channels return to earth data on temperatures, equipment conditions, fuel status, and other important parame - ters, while the control channels allow remote operation of equipment modes and vehicle at- titude, and the firing of rocket engines. The principal difference between these systems and conventional communications systems lies in the multiplexing and demultiplexing of a large number of analog and digital data signals for transmission over a single radio channel. Electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems, used primarily for military purposes, give rise to special receiver designs, both in the systems themselves and in their target communi- cations systems. The objectives of countermeasure receivers are to detect activity of the tar- get transmitters, to identify them from their electromagnetic signatures, to locate their posi- tions, and in some cases to demodulate their signals. Such receivers must have high detectional sensitivity and the ability to demodulate a wide variety of signal types. More- over, spectrum analysis capability and other analysis techniques are required for signature determination. Either the same receivers or separate receivers can be used for the radio-loca- tion function. To counter such actions, the communications circuit may use minimum power, direct its power toward its receiver in as narrow a beam as possible, and spread its spectrum in a manner such that the intercept receiver cannot despread it, thus decreasing the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, also referred to as S/N) to render detection more difficult. This technique is referred to as low probability of intercept (LPI). Some ECM systems are designed primarily for interception and analysis. In other cases, however, the purpose is to jam selected communications receivers so as to disrupt communi - cations. To this end, once the transmission of a target system has been detected, the ECM system transmits a strong signal on the same frequency, with a randomly controlled modula - tion that produces a spectrum similar to the communications sequence. Another alternative is to transmit a “spoofing” signal that is similar to the communications signal but contains false or out-of-date information. The electronic countercountermeasure (ECCM) against spoofing is good cryptographic security. The countermeasures against jamming are high-powered, narrow-beam, or adaptive-nulling receiver antenna systems, and a spread-spectrum system with secure control so that the jamming transmitter cannot emulate it. In this case, the communications receiver must be designed to correlate the received sig - Basic Radio Considerations 5 Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Basic Radio Considerations nal using the secure spread-spectrum control. Thus, the jammer power is spread over the transmission bandwidth, while the communication power is restored to the original signal bandwidth before spreading. This provides an improvement in signal-to-jamming ratio equal to the spreading multiple, which is referred to as the processing gain. Special receivers are also designed for testing radio communicationssystems.Ingeneral, they follow the design principles of the communications receivers, but their design must be of even higher quality and accuracy because their purpose is to measure various perfor - mance aspects of the system under test. A test receiver includes a built-in self-calibration feature. The test receiver typically has a 0.1 dB field strength meter accuracy. In addition to normal audio detection capabilities, it has peak, average, and special weighting filters that are used for specific measurements. Carefully controlled bandwidths are provided to con - form with standardized measurement procedures. The test receiver also may be designed for use with special antennas for measuring the electromagnetic field strength from the system under test at a particular location, and include or provide signals for use by an attached spec - trum analyzer. While test receivers are not treated separately in this book, many of our de - sign examples are taken from test receiver design. From this brief discussion of communications systems, we hope that the reader will gain some insight into the scope of receiver design, and the difficulty of isolating the treatment of the receiver design from the system. There are also difficulties in setting hard boundaries to the receiver within a given communications system. For the purposes of our book, we have decided to treat as the receiver that portion of the system that accepts input from the antenna and produces a demodulated output for further processing at the destination or possibly by a demultiplexer. We consider modulation and demodulation to be a part of the receiver, but we recognize that for data systems especially there is an ever-increasing volume of modems (modulator-demodulators ) that are designed and packaged separately from the receiver. For convenience, Figure 1.5 shows a block diagram of the receiver as we have chosen to treat it in this book. It should be noted that signal processing may be accomplished both before and af- ter modulation. 1.1.1 Radio Transmission and Noise Light and X rays, like radio waves, are electromagnetic waves that may be attenuated, re - flected, refracted, scattered, and diffracted by the changes in the media through which they propagate. In free space, the waves have electric and magnetic field components that are mutually perpendicular and lie in a plane transverse to the direction of propagation. In common with other electromagnetic waves, they travel with a velocity c of 299,793 km/s, a value that is conveniently rounded to 300,000 km/s for most calculations. In rationalized meter, kilogram, and second (MKS) units, the power flow across a surface is expressed in watts per square meter and is the product of the electric-field (volts per meter) and the magnetic-field (amperes per meter) strengths at the point over the surface of measure - ment. A radio wave propagates spherically from its source, so that the total radiated power is distributed over the surface of a sphere with radius R (meters) equal to the distance between the transmitter and the point of measurement. The power density S (watts per square meter) at the point for a transmitted power P t (watts) is 6 Communications Receivers Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Basic Radio Considerations S GP R tt = × ×4 2 π (1.1) where G t is the transmitting antenna gain in the direction of the measurement over a uni- form distribution of power over the entire spherical surface. Thus, the gain of a hypotheti- cal isotropic antenna is unity. The power intercepted by the receiver antenna is equal to the power density multiplied by the effective area of the antenna. Antenna theory shows that this area is related to the antenna gain in the direction of the received signal by the expression Ae G r r = λ π 2 4 (1.2) When Equations (1.1) and (1.2) are multiplied to obtain the received power, the result is P P GG R r t rt = λ π 2 22 16 (1.3) This is usually given as a loss L (in decibels), and the wavelength λ is generally replaced by velocity divided by frequency. When the frequency is measured in megahertz, the range in kilometers, and the gains in decibels, the loss becomes LRFGGAGG tr fs tR =+ + ≡[. log log]–– ––32 4 20 20 (1.4) Basic Radio Considerations 7 Figure 1.5 Block diagram of a communications receiver. (RF = radiofrequency,IF= interme - diate frequency, and BB = baseband.) Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Basic Radio Considerations A fs is referred to as the loss in free space between isotropic antennas. Sometimes the loss is given between half-wave dipole antennas. The gain of such a dipole is 2.15 dB above iso - tropic, so the constant in Equation (1.4) must be increased to 36.7 to obtain the loss be - tween dipoles. Because of the earth and its atmosphere, most terrestrial communications links cannot be considered free-space links. Additional losses occur in transmission. Moreover, the re - ceived signal field is accompanied by an inevitable noise field generated in the atmosphere or space, or by machinery. In addition, the receiver itself is a source of noise. Electrical noise limits the performance of radio communications by requiring a signal field sufficiently great to overcome its effects. While the characteristics of transmission and noise are of general interest in receiver de - sign, it is far more important to consider how these characteristics affect the design. The fol - lowing sections summarize the nature of noise and transmission effects in frequency bands through SHF (30 GHz). ELF and VLF (up to 30 kHz) Transmission in the extremely-low frequency (ELF) and very-low frequency (VLF) range is primarily via surface wave with some of the higher-order waveguide modes introduced by the ionosphere appearing at the shorter ranges. Because transmission in these fre- quency bands is intended for long distances, the higher-order modes are normally unim- portant. These frequencies also provide the only radio communications that can penetrate the oceans substantially. Because the transmission in saltwater has an attenuation that in- creases rapidly with increasing frequency, it may be necessary to design depth-sensitive equalizers for receivers intended for this service. At long ranges, the field strength of the signals is very stable, varying only a few decibels diurnally and seasonally, and being min- imally affected by changes in solar activity. There is more variation at shorter ranges. Vari- ation of the phase of the signal can be substantial during diurnal changes and especially during solar flares and magnetic storms. For most communications designs, these phase changes are of little importance. The noise at these low frequencies is very high and highly impulsive. This situation has given rise to the design of many noise-limiting or noise-can- celing schemes, which find particular use in these receivers. Transmitting antennas must be very large to produce only moderate efficiency; however, the noise limitations permit the use of relatively short receiving antennas because receiver noise is negligible in com - parison with atmospheric noise at the earth’s surface. In the case of submarine reception, the high attenuation of the surface fields, both signal and noise, requires that more atten - tion be given to receiving antenna efficiency and receiver sensitivity. LF (30 to 300 kHz) and MF (300 kHz to 3 MHz) At the lower end of the low-frequency (LF) region, transmission characteristics resemble VLF. As the frequency rises, the surface wave attenuation increases, and even though the noise decreases, the useful range of the surface wave is reduced. During the daytime, iono - spheric modes are attenuated in the D layer of the ionosphere. The waveguide mode repre - sentation of the waves can be replaced by a reflection representation. As the medium-fre - quency (MF) region is approached, the daytime sky wave reflections are too weak to use. 8 Communications Receivers Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Basic Radio Considerations The surface wave attenuation limits the daytime range to a few hundred kilometers at the low end of the MF band to about 100 km at the high end. Throughout this region, the range is limited by atmospheric noise. As the frequency increases, the noise decreases and is minimum during daylight hours. The receiver noise figure (NF) makes little contribution to overall noise unless the antenna and antenna coupling system are very inefficient. At night, the attenuation of the sky wave decreases, and reception can be achieved up to thou - sands of kilometers. For ranges of one hundred to several hundred kilometers, where the single-hop sky wave has comparable strength to the surface wave, fading occurs. This phe - nomenon can become quite deep during those periods when the two waves are nearly equal in strength. At MF, the sky wave fades as a result of Faraday rotation and the linear polarization of an - tennas. At some ranges, additional fading occurs because of interference between the sur - face wave and sky wave or between sky waves with different numbers of reflections. When fading is caused by two (or more) waves that interfere as a result of having traveled over paths of different lengths, various frequencies within the transmitted spectrum of a signal can be attenuated differently. This phenomenon is known as selective fading and results in severe distortion of the signal. Because much of the MF band is used for AM broadcast, there has not been much concern about receiver designs that will offset the effects of selec- tive fading. However, as the frequency nears the high-frequency (HF) band, the applications become primarily long-distance communications, and this receiver design requirement is encountered. Some broadcasting occurs in the LF band, and in the LF and lower MF bands medium-range narrow-band communications and radio navigation applications are preva- lent. HF (3 to 30 MHz) Until the advent of satellite-borne radio relays, the HF band provided the only radio sig- nals capable of carrying voiceband or wider signals over very long ranges (up to 10,000 km). VLF transmissions, because of their low frequencies, have been confined to nar - row-band data transmission. The high attenuation of the surface wave, the distortion from sky-wave-reflected near-vertical incidence (NVI), and the prevalence of long-range inter - fering signals make HF transmissions generally unsuitable for short-range communica - tions. From the 1930s into the early 1970s, HF radio was a major medium for long-range voice, data, and photo communications, as well as for overseas broadcast services, aero - nautical, maritime and some ground mobile communications, and radio navigation. Even today, the band remains active, and long-distance interference is one of the major prob - lems. Because of the dependence on sky waves, HF signals are subject to both broad-band and selective fading. The frequencies capable of carrying the desired transmission are sub - ject to all of the diurnal, seasonal, and sunspot cycles, and the random variations of ioniza - tion in the upper ionosphere. Sunspot cycles change every 11 years, and so propagation tends to change as well. Significant differences are typically experienced between day and night coverage patterns, and between summer to winter coverage. Out to about 4000 km, E-layer transmission is not unusual, but most of the very long transmission—and some down to a few thousand kilometers—is carried by F-layer reflections. It is not uncommon to receive several signals of comparable strength carried over different paths. Thus, fading Basic Radio Considerations 9 Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Basic Radio Considerations is the rule, and selective fading is common. Atmospheric noise is still high at times at the low end of the band, although it becomes negligible above about 20 MHz. Receivers must be designed for high sensitivity, and impulse noise reducing techniques must often be included. Because the operating frequency must be changed on a regular basis to obtain even moderate transmission availability, most HF receivers require coverage of the entire band and usually of the upper part of the MF band. For many applications, designs must be made to combat fading. The simplest of these is automatic gain control (AGC), which also is generally used in lower-frequency designs. Diversity reception is often re - quired, where signals are received over several routes that fade independently—using sepa - rated antennas, frequencies, and times, or antennas with different polarizations—and must be combined to provide the best composite output. If data transmissions are separated into many parallel low-rate channels, fading of the individual narrow-band channels is essen - tially flat, and good reliability can be achieved by using diversity techniques. Most of the data sent over HF use such multitone signals. In modern receiver designs, adaptive equalizer techniques are used to combat multipath that causes selective fading on broadband transmissions. The bandwidth available on HF makes possible the use of spread-spectrum techniques intended to combat interference and, especially, jamming. This is primarily a military requirement. VHF (30 to 300 MHz) Most very-high frequency (VHF) transmissions are intended to be relatively short-range, using line-of-sight paths with elevated antennas, at least at one end of the path. In addition to FM and television broadcast services, this band handles much of the land mobile and some fixed services, and some aeronautical and aeronavigation services. So long as a good clear line of sight with adequate ground (and other obstruction) clearance exists between the antennas, the signal will tend to be strong and steady. The wavelength is, however, be- coming sufficiently small at these frequencies so that reflection is possible from ground features, buildings, and some vehicles. Usually reflection losses result in transmission over such paths that is much weaker than transmission over line-of-sight paths. In land mo - bile service, one or both of the terminals may be relatively low, so that the earth’s curvature or rolling hills and gullies can interfere with a line-of-sight path. While the range can be extended slightly by diffraction, in many cases the signal reaches the mobile station via multipath reflections that are of comparable strength or stronger than the direct path. The resulting interference patterns cause the signal strength to vary from place to place in a rel - atively random matter. There have been a number of experimental determinations of the variability, and models have been proposed that attempt to predict it. Most of these models apply also in the ul - tra-high frequency (UHF) region. For clear line-of-sight paths, or those with a few well-de - fined intervening terrain features, accurate methods exist for predicting field strength. In this band, noise is often simply thermal, although man-made noise can produce impulsive interference. For vehicular mobile use, the vehicle itself is a potential source of noise. In the U.S., mobile communications have used FM, originally of a wider band than necessary for the information, so as to reduce impulsive noise effects. However, recent trends have re - duced the bandwidth of commercial radios of this type so that this advantage has essentially disappeared. The other advantage of FM is that hard limiting can be used in the receiver to 10 Communications Receivers Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. 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Basic Radio Considerations [...]... analog and digital cellular radiotelephones Transmission between earth and space vehicles occurs in this band, as well as some satellite radio relay (mainly for marine mobile use, including navy communications) Because of the much wider bandwidths available in the UHF band, spread-spectrum usage is high for military communications, navigation, and radar Some line-of-sight radio relay systems use this band,... speak of the 3 dB bandwidth; to 1/100, the 20 dB bandwidth; and so on Another bandwidth reference that is often encountered, especially in receiver design, is the noise bandwidth This is defined as the bandwidth which, when multiplied by the center frequency density, would produce the same total power as the output of the filter or receiver Thus, the noise bandwidth is the equivalent band of a filter... frequency (SHF) band is strictly line-of-sight Very short wavelengths permit the use of parabolic transmit and receive antennas of exceptional gain Applications include satellite communications, point-to-point wideband relay, radar, and specialized wideband communications systems Other related applications include developmental research, space research, military support systems, radio location, and radio... military communications use parts of this band and so spread-spectrum designs are also found At the lower end of the band, the ionospheric scatter and meteoric reflection modes are available for special-purpose use Receivers for the former must operate with selective fading from scattered multipaths with substantial delays; the latter require receivers that can detect acceptable signals rapidly and provide... frequency output and with infinitely sharp cutoff at the band edges (Figure 1.6b) This bandwidth terminology is also applied to the transmitted signal spectra In controlling interference between channels, the bandwidth of importance is called the occupied bandwidth (Figure 1.6c) This bandwidth is defined as the band occupied by all of the radiated power except for a small fraction ε Generally, the band edges... rate, bandwidth occupancy, cost, and/ or other parameters The receiver must be designed to process and demodulate all types of signal modulation planned for the particular communications system Important characteristics of a particular modulation technique selected include the occupied bandwidth of the signal, the receiver bandwidth required to meet specified criteria for output signal quality, and the... rates of attack and decay would ideally be adapted to the vehicle’s speed Elsewhere in the world AM has been used satisfactorily in the mobile service, and single-sideband (SSB) modulation—despite its more complex receiver implementation—has been applied to reduce spectrum occupancy Communications receivers in this band are generally designed for high sensitivity, a high range of signals, and strong interfering... include heavy rain and solar outages (in the case of space-to-earth transmissions) The majority of satellite links operate in either the C-band (4 to 6 GHz) or the Ku-band (11 to 14 GHz) Attenuation of signals resulting from meteorological conditions, such as rain and fog, is particularly serious for Ku-band operation, but less troublesome for C-band systems The effects of galactic and thermal noise... given at the website Basic Radio Considerations 14 Communications Receivers Figure 1.7 The process of amplitude modulation: (a) AM waveform, (b) power density spectrum (LSB = lower sideband and USB = upper sideband.) s(t) = A [1 + ms in (t)] cos ( 2 π f t + θ) (1.5) where A is the amplitude of the unmodulated carrier and ms in (t) > – 1 A sample waveform and a power density spectrum are shown in Figure... various transition shapes and tabulates noise and occupied bandwidths The digital equivalents of FM and PM are frequency-shift keying (FSK) and phase-shift keying (PSK), respectively These modulations can be generated by using appropriately designed baseband signals as the inputs to a frequency or phase modulator Often, however, special modulators are used to assure greater accuracy and stability Either . website. Source: Communications Receivers: DSP, Software Radios, and Design Many radio communications systems are much more complex than the simplex and du- plex links shown in Figures 1.1 and 1.2. For. end of the path. In addition to FM and television broadcast services, this band handles much of the land mobile and some fixed services, and some aeronautical and aeronavigation services. So long. bandwidth; to 1/100, the 20 dB band - width; and so on. Another bandwidth reference that is often encountered, especially in receiver design, is the noise bandwidth. This is defined as the bandwidth