Volume 1 Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook Third Edition Materials and Mechanical Design Edited by Myer Kutz JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. This book is printed on acid-free paper. ࠗϱ Copyright ᭧ 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. 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TJ151.M395 2005 621—dc22 2005008603 Printed in the United States of America. 10987654321 To Sol, Dorothy, and Jeanne, in Blessed Memory vii Contents Preface ix Vision Statement xi Contributors xiii PART 1 MATERIALS 1 1. Carbon and Alloy Steels 3 Bruce L. Bramfitt 2. Stainless Steels 39 James Kelly 3. Aluminum Alloys 59 J. G. Kaufman 4. Copper and Copper Alloys 117 Konrad J. A. Kundig and John G. Cowie 5. Selection of Titanium Alloys for Design 221 Matthew J. Donachie 6. Nickel and Its Alloys 256 Gaylord D. Smith and Brian A. Baker 7. Magnesium and Its Alloys 278 Robert E. Brown 8. Selection of Superalloys for Design 287 Matthew J. Donachie and Stephen J. Donachie 9. Plastics: Information and Properties of Polymeric Materials 335 Edward N. Peters 10. Composite Materials 380 Carl Zweben 11. Smart Materials 418 James A. Harvey 12. Overview of Ceramic Materials, Design, and Application 433 R. Nathan Katz 13. Sources of Materials Data 450 J. G. Kaufman 14. Quantitative Methods of Materials Selection 466 Mahmoud M. Farag PART 2 MECHANICAL DESIGN 489 15. Stress Analysis 491 Franklin E. Fisher viii Contents 16. An Introduction to the Finite-Element Method 557 Tarek I. Zohdi 17. Design for Six Sigma: A Mandate for Competitiveness 581 James E. McMunigal and H. Barry Bebb 18. TRIZ 612 James E. McMunigal, Steven Ungvari, Michael Slocum, and Ruth E. McMunigal 19. Computer-Aided Design 642 Emory W. Zimmers, Jr., and Technical Staff of Enterprise Systems Center 20. Data Exchange Using STEP 725 Martin Hardwick 21. Engineering Applications of Virtual Reality 732 Xiaobo Peng and Ming C. Leu 22. 762 Maury A. Nussbaum and Jaap H. van Diee¨n 23. Electronic Materials and Packaging 782 Warren C. Fackler 24. Design Optimization: An Overview 819 A. Ravi Ravindran and G. V. Reklaitis 25. Design for Manufacturing and Assembly with Plastics 847 James A. Harvey 26. Failure Modes: Performance and Service Requirements for Metals 860 J. A. Collins and S. R. Daniewicz 27. Failure Analysis of Plastics 925 Vishu H. Shah 28. Failure Modes: Performance and Service Requirements for Ceramics 942 Dietrich Munz 29. Mechanical Reliability and Life Prediction for Brittle Materials 962 G. S. White, E. R. Fuller, Jr., and S. W. Freiman 30. Total Quality Management in Mechanical Design 980 B. S. Dhillon 31. Reliability in the Mechanical Design Process 1000 B. S. Dhillon 32. Lubrication of Machine Elements 1024 Bernard J. Hamrock 33. Seal Technology 1161 Bruce M. Steinetz 34. Vibration and Shock 1204 Singiresu S. Rao 35. Noise Measurement and Control 1230 George M. Diehl 36. Nondestructive Inspection 1253 Robert L. Crane and Jeremy S. Knopp Index 1307 Physical Ergonomics ix Preface The first volume of the third edition of the Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook is comprised of two major parts. The first part, Materials, which has 14 chapters, covers metals, plastics, composites, ceramics, and smart materials. The metals covered are carbon, alloy, and stain- less steels; aluminum and aluminum alloys; copper and copper alloys; titanium alloys; nickel and its alloys; magnesium and its alloys; and superalloys. Chapters on some of these ma- terials, such as ceramics, smart materials, and superalloys, are updated versions of chapters that have appeared in the Handbook of Materials Selection (Wiley, 2002), and they are entirely new to the Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook. The intent in all of the materials chapters is to provide readers with expert advice on how particular materials are typically used and what criteria make them suitable for specific purposes. This part of Volume I concludes with a chapter on sources of materials data, the intent being to provide readers with guidance on finding reliable information on materials properties, in addition to those that can be found in this volume, and a chapter on analytical methods of materials selection, which is intended to give readers techniques for specifying which materials might be suitable for a particular application. The second part of Volume I, Mechanical Design, which has 22 chapters, covers a broad range of topics, including the fundamentals of stress analysis, the finite-element method, vibration and shock, and noise measurement and control and then moving into modern methodologies that engineers use to predict failures, eliminate defects, enhance quality and reliability of designs, and optimize designs. There are chapters on failure analysis and design with all classes of materials, including metals, plastics and ceramics, and composites. I should point out that, to a large extent, the two parts of Volume I go hand in hand. After all, it is useful to know about the properties, behavior, and failure mechanisms of all classes of materials when faced with a product design problem. Coverage in the second part of Volume I extends to lubrication of machine elements and seals technology. Chapters in this part of Volume I provide practitioners with techniques to solve real, practical everyday problems, ranging from nondestructive testing to CAD (computer-aided design) to TRIZ (the acronym in Russian for Theory of Inventive Problem Solving), STEP [the Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data is a comprehensive International Organization for Standardization standard (ISO 10303) that describes how to represent and exchange digital product infor- mation], and virtual reality. Topics of special interest include physical ergonomics and elec- tronic packaging. While many of the chapters in Volume I are updates or entirely new versions of chapters from the second edition of the Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook and the Handbook of Materials Selection, a number of chapters—on Six Sigma, TRIZ, and STEP—are new ad- ditions to this family of handbooks. Contributors of the chapters in Volume I include pro- fessors, engineers working in industry and government installations, and consultants, mainly from North America, but also from Egypt, the Netherlands, and Germany. xi Vision for the Third Edition Basic engineering disciplines are not static, no matter how old and well established they are. The field of mechanical engineering is no exception. Movement within this broadly based discipline is multidimensional. Even the classic subjects on which the discipline was founded, such as mechanics of materials and heat transfer, continue to evolve. Mechanical engineers continue to be heavily involved with disciplines allied to mechanical engineering, such as industrial and manufacturing engineering, which are also constantly evolving. Advances in other major disciplines, such as electrical and electronics engineering, have significant impact on the work of mechanical engineers. New subject areas, such as neural networks, suddenly become all the rage. In response to this exciting, dynamic atmosphere, the Mechanical Engineers’Handbook is expanding dramatically, from one volume to four volumes. The third edition not only is incorporating updates and revisions to chapters in the second edition, which was published in 1998, but also is adding 24 chapters on entirely new subjects as well, incorporating updates and revisions to chapters in the Handbook of Materials Selection, which was published in 2002, as well as to chapters in Instrumentation and Control, edited by Chester Nachtigal and published in 1990. The four volumes of the third edition are arranged as follows: Volume I: Materials and Mechanical Design—36 chapters Part 1. Materials—14 chapters Part 2. Mechanical Design—22 chapters Volume II: Instrumentation, Systems, Controls, and MEMS—21 chapters Part 1. Instrumentation—8 chapters Part 2. Systems, Controls, and MEMS—13 chapters Volume III: Manufacturing and Management—24 chapters Part 1. Manufacturing—12 chapters Part 2. Management, Finance, Quality, Law, and Research—12 chapters Volume IV: Energy and Power—31 chapters Part 1: Energy—15 chapters Part 2: Power—16 chapters The mechanical engineering literature is extensive and has been so for a considerable period of time. Many textbooks, reference works, and manuals as well as a substantial number of journals exist. Numerous commercial publishers and professional societies, par- ticularly in the United States and Europe, distribute these materials. The literature grows continuously, as applied mechanical engineering research finds new ways of designing, con- trolling, measuring, making and maintaining things, and monitoring and evaluating technol- ogies, infrastructures, and systems. Most professional-level mechanical engineering publications tend to be specialized, di- rected to the specific needs of particular groups of practitioners. Overall, however, the me- chanical engineering audience is broad and multidisciplinary. Practitioners work in a variety of organizations, including institutions of higher learning, design, manufacturing, and con- xii Vision for the Third Edition sulting firms as well as federal, state, and local government agencies. A rationale for an expanded general mechanical engineering handbook is that every practitioner, researcher, and bureaucrat cannot be an expert on every topic, especially in so broad and multidiscipli- nary a field, and may need an authoritative professional summary of a subject with which he or she is not intimately familiar. Starting with the first edition, which was published in 1986, our intention has always been that the Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook stand at the intersection of textbooks, re- search papers, and design manuals. For example, we want the handbook to help young engineers move from the college classroom to the professional office and laboratory where they may have to deal with issues and problems in areas they have not studied extensively in school. With this expanded third edition, we have produced a practical reference for the me- chanical engineer who is seeking to answer a question, solve a problem, reduce a cost, or improve a system or facility. The handbook is not a research monograph. The chapters offer design techniques, illustrate successful applications, or provide guidelines to improving the performance, the life expectancy, the effectiveness, or the usefulness of parts, assemblies, and systems. The purpose is to show readers what options are available in a particular situation and which option they might choose to solve problems at hand. The aim of this expanded handbook is to serve as a source of practical advice to readers. We hope that the handbook will be the first information resource a practicing engineer consults when faced with a new problem or opportunity—even before turning to other print sources, even officially sanctioned ones, or to sites on the Internet. (The second edition has been available online on knovel.com.) In each chapter, the reader should feel that he or she is in the hands of an experienced consultant who is providing sensible advice that can lead to beneficial action and results. Can a single handbook, even spread out over four volumes, cover this broad, interdis- ciplinary field? We have designed the third edition of the Mechanical Engineers’Handbook as if it were serving as a core for an Internet-based information source. Many chapters in the handbook point readers to information sources on the Web dealing with the subjects addressed. Furthermore, where appropriate, enough analytical techniques and data are pro- vided to allow the reader to employ a preliminary approach to solving problems. The contributors have written, to the extent their backgrounds and capabilities make possible, in a style that reflects practical discussion informed by real-world experience. We would like readers to feel that they are in the presence of experienced teachers and con- sultants who know about the multiplicity of technical issues that impinge on any topic within mechanical engineering. At the same time, the level is such that students and recent graduates can find the handbook as accessible as experienced engineers. xiii Contributors Brian A. Baker Special Metals Corporation Huntington, West Virginia H. Barry Bebb ASI San Diego, California Bruce L. Bramfitt Research Laboratories International Steel Group, Inc. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Robert E. Brown Magnesium Monthly Review Prattville, Alabama J. A. Collins The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio John G. Cowie Copper Development Association New York, New York Robert L. Crane Wright Patterson Air Force Base Dayton, Ohio S. R. Daniewicz Mississippi State University Starkville, Mississippi B. S. Dhillon University of Ottawa Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Jaap H. van Diee¨n Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands George M. Diehl Machinery Acoustics Phillipsburg, New Jersey Matthew J. Donachie Rennselaer at Hartford Hartford, Connecticut Stephen J. Donachie Special Metals Corporation Huntington, West Virginia Warren C. Fackler Telesis Systems Cedar Rapids, Iowa Mahmoud M. Farag The American University in Cairo Cairo, Egypt Franklin E. Fisher Loyola Marymount University Los Angeles, Calaifornia and Raytheon Company El Segundo, California S. W. Freiman National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg, Maryland E. R. Fuller, Jr. National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg, Maryland Bernard J. Hamrock The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio [...]... Gaithersburg, Maryland Emory W Zimmers, Jr Lehigh University Bethlehem, Pennsylvania Tarek I Zohdi University of California Berkeley, California Carl Zweben Devon, Pennsylvania Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook 1 MATERIALS PART Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook: Materials and Mechanical Design, Volume 1, Third Edition Edited by Myer Kutz Copyright  2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc CHAPTER 1 CARBON AND ALLOY STEELS... 513 446 392 345 302 266 (654) 560 4 81 4 21 3 71 327 286 253 — 2075 17 60 14 80 12 50 10 80 950 840 Figure 10 Hardenability curves for (a) SAE / AISI 10 45 and (b) SAE / AISI 414 5 showing depth of hardness with distance from the quenched end of a Jominy bar (Source: ASM Handbook, Vol 1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys, ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073-0002, 19 97,... com- Figure 11 Iron–chromium equilibrium phase diagram (Source: ASM Handbook, Vol 20, Materials Selection and Design, ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073-0002, 19 97, p 365.) 20 Carbon and Alloy Steels Figure 12 Effect of carbon in solid solution on the yield strength of iron (Source: ASM Handbook, Vol 20, Materials Selection and Design, ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073-0002, 19 97, p... / AISI 414 5 steel in Fig 10 b These steels are similar except that the low-alloy steel has chromium and molybdenum additions as shown below: C Mn Si Cr Mo 0.42 / 0. 51 0.42 / 0.49 0.50 / 1. 00 0.65 / 1. 10 0 .15 / 0.35 0 .15 / 0.35 — 0.75 / 1. 20 — 0 .15 / 0.25 As can be seen from the hardenability bands, the higher manganese, chromium, and molybdenum additions in the SAE / AISI 414 5 steel produced a much... Carbon and Alloy Steels Figure 7 Isothermal transformation diagram of SAE / AISI 10 80 steel showing the beginning and end of transformation curves with temperature and time (Source: ASM Handbook, Vol 1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys, ASM International, Materials Park, OH 440730002, 19 90, p 12 8.) Martensite is a form of ferrite that is supersaturated with carbon In... steels are 4 Role of Alloying Elements in Steel 21 Figure 13 Effect of carbon on the tensile and notched impact properties of ferrite–pearlite steels (Source: ASM Handbook, Vol 20, Materials Selection and Design, ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073-0002, 19 97, p 367.) used in applications requiring excellent wear resistance, e.g., in rock crushers and in railway track connections where two rails... ferrite grain boundaries (a) 500X and (b) 200X Marshalls etch 3 Development of Steel Properties 11 (a) (b) Figure 4 (a) Photomicrograph of an SAE / AISI 10 08 steel showing ferrite grains and pearlite (dark) and (b) photomicrograph of an SAE / AISI 10 20 steel showing ferrite grains with an increased amount of pearlite (a) and (b) both 200X 4% picral ϩ 2% nital etch 12 Carbon and Alloy Steels Figure 5 Scanning... curve or band A hardenability band for medium-carbon Society of Automotive Engineers / American Iron and Steel Institute (SAE / AISI) 10 45 steel is shown in Fig 10 a The two curves that form the band represent the maximum and minimum hardness values from many Jominy tests To illustrate the concept of hardenability, compare the hardenability band for SAE / AISI 10 45 steel to low-alloy SAE / AISI 414 5 steel... steel contains 18 % Cr and 8% Ni Austenitic manganese steel (Hadfield steel) contains 12 % Mn with 1% C The Mn and C allow austenite to be stable at room temperature Because of this ability, nickel and manganese are, therefore, called austenite stabilizers Other elements are ferrite stabilizers, e.g., chromium, silicon, and molybdenum A ferrite-stabilizing element expands the ferrite phase field, and the austenite... ferrite and austenite, discussed above One way to understand the effect of carbon is to examine the iron–carbon diagram (Fig 1) This is a binary (two-element) diagram of temperature and composition (carbon content) constructed under near-equilibrium conditions In this diagram, as carbon is added to iron, the ferrite and austenite phase fields expand and contract depending upon the carbon level and temperature . Instrumentation and Control, edited by Chester Nachtigal and published in 19 90. The four volumes of the third edition are arranged as follows: Volume I: Materials and Mechanical Design 36 chapters Part 1. Materials 14 . permeability, and machinability. Reprinted from Handbook of Materials Selection, Wiley, New York, 2002, by permission of the publisher. Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook: Materials and Mechanical Design, Volume. Volume 1 Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook Third Edition Materials and Mechanical Design Edited by Myer Kutz JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. This