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Hailed on its initial publication as a realworld, practical handbook, the second edition of Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations continues to make the same basic point: water and wastewater operators must have a basic skill set that is both wide and deep. They must be generalists, wellrounded in the sciences, cyber operations, math operations, mechanics, technical concepts, and common sense. With coverage that spans the breadth and depth of the field, the handbook explores the latest principles and technologies and provides information necessary to prepare for licensure exams. Expanded from beginning to end, this second edition provides a noholdsbarred look at current management issues and includes the latest security information for protecting public assets. It presents indepth coverage of management aspects and security needs and a new chapter covering the basics of blueprint reading. The chapter on water and wastewater mathematics has tripled in size and now contains an additional 200 problems and 350 math system operational problems with solutions. The manual examines numerous realworld operating scenarios, such as the intake of raw sewage and the treatment of water via residual management, and each scenario includes a comprehensive problemsolving practice set. The text follows a nontraditional paradigm based on realworld experience and proven parameters. Clearly written and user friendly, this revision of a bestseller builds on the remarkable success of the first edition. This book is a thorough compilation of water science, treatment information, process control procedures, problemsolving techniques, safety and health information, and administrative and technological trends.
Handbook of Third Edition Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Handbook of Third Edition Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations Frank R. Spellman CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2014 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20130305 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-5338-5 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. 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Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com v Contents Foreword xxxvii Preface to Third Edition xxxix Preface to First and Second Editions xli To the Reader xliii Author xlv Water: The New Oil? xlvii SECTION I Water and Wastewater Operations: An Overview Chapter 1 Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations 3 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Sick Water 3 1.3 Publicly Owned Treatment Works: Cash Cows or Cash Dogs? 5 1.4 The Paradigm Shift 6 1.4.1 A Change in the Way Things Are Understood and Done 6 1.5 Multiple-Barrier Concept 8 1.5.1 Multiple-Barrier Approach and Wastewater Operations 8 1.6 Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations 9 1.6.1 Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations 9 1.6.2 Privatization and/or Reengineering 11 1.6.3 Benchmarking 12 1.6.3.1 What Benchmarking Is 13 1.6.3.2 Potential Results of Benchmarking 13 1.6.3.3 Targets 13 1.6.3.4 Benchmarking Process 13 1.6.3.5 Benchmarking Steps 13 1.6.3.6 Collection of Baseline Data and Tracking Energy Use 14 1.6.3.7 Baseline Audit 15 1.6.4 Technical vs. Professional Management 17 1.6.5 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability 18 1.6.5.1 Sustainable Water/Wastewater Infrastructure 19 1.6.5.2 Maintaining Sustainable Infrastructure 19 1.6.5.3 Water/Wastewater Infrastructure Gap 20 1.6.5.4 Energy Efciency: Water/Wastewater Treatment Operations 20 Chapter Review Questions 20 References and Recommended Reading 21 Chapter 2 Water/Wastewater Operators 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Setting the Record Straight 24 2.3 Computer-Literate Jack or Jill 24 2.4 Plant Operators as Emergency Responders 25 2.5 Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions 25 2.6 Operator Certication and Licensure 26 Chapter Review Questions 27 References and Suggested Readings 27 vi Contents Chapter 3 Upgrading Security 29 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Consequences of 9/11 29 3.3 Security Hardware/Devices 31 3.3.1 Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices 31 3.3.1.1 Aboveground Outdoor Equipment Enclosures 31 3.3.1.2 Alarms 32 3.3.1.3 Backow Prevention Devices 33 3.3.1.4 Barriers 34 3.3.1.5 Biometric Security Systems 36 3.3.1.6 Card Identication/Access/Tracking Systems 37 3.3.1.7 Fences 38 3.3.1.8 Films for Glass Shatter Protection 39 3.3.1.9 Fire Hydrant Locks 39 3.3.1.10 Hatch Security 39 3.3.1.11 Intrusion Sensors 40 3.3.1.12 Ladder Access Control 40 3.3.1.13 Locks 40 3.3.1.14 Manhole Intrusion Sensors 41 3.3.1.15 Manhole Locks 41 3.3.1.16 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Personnel and Packages 41 3.3.1.17 Reservoir Covers 42 3.3.1.18 Security for Side-Hinged Doors 42 3.3.1.19 Valve Lockout Devices 43 3.3.1.20 Security for Vents 44 3.3.1.21 Visual Surveillance Monitoring 44 3.3.2 Water Monitoring Devices 45 3.3.2.1 Sensors for Monitoring Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Contamination 45 3.3.2.2 Chemical Sensors: Arsenic Measurement System 46 3.3.2.3 Chemical Sensor: Adapted BOD Analyzer 46 3.3.2.4 Chemical Sensor: Total Organic Carbon Analyzer 46 3.3.2.5 Chemical Sensors: Chlorine Measurement System 47 3.3.2.6 Chemical Sensors: Portable Cyanide Analyzer 47 3.3.2.7 Portable Field Monitors to Measure VOCs 48 3.3.2.8 Radiation Detection Equipment 48 3.3.2.9 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Water Assets 49 3.3.2.10 Toxicity Monitoring/Toxicity Meters 50 3.3.3 Communication and Integration 50 3.3.3.1 Electronic Controllers 50 3.3.3.2 Two-Way Radios 50 3.3.3.3 Wireless Data Communications 51 3.3.4 Cyber Protection Devices 51 3.3.4.1 Antivirus and Pest-Eradication Software 51 3.3.4.2 Firewalls 52 3.3.4.3 Network Intrusion Hardware and Software 52 3.4 SCADA 53 3.4.1 What Is SCADA? 54 3.4.2 SCADA Applications in Water/Wastewater Systems 54 3.4.3 SCADA Vulnerabilities 54 3.4.4 Increasing Risk 56 3.4.5 Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities 56 3.4.6 Cyber Threats to Control Systems 57 3.4.7 Securing Control Systems 57 3.4.8 Steps to Improve SCADA Security 58 Chapter Review Questions 61 References and Recommended Reading 61 viiContents Chapter 4 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.2 Pumping System Energy Conservation Measures 63 4.2.1 Pumping System Design 64 4.2.2 Pump Motors 65 4.2.2.1 Motor Efciency and Efciency Standards 66 4.2.2.2 Motor Management Programs 66 4.2.2.3 Innovative and Emerging Technologies 67 4.2.3 Power Factor 67 4.2.4 Variable Frequency Drives 69 4.2.4.1 Energy Savings 69 4.2.4.2 Applications 69 4.2.4.3 Strategies for Wastewater Pumping Stations 69 4.3 Design and Control of Aeration Systems 69 4.3.1 ECMs for Aeration Systems 70 4.3.1.1 ECMs for Diffused Aeration Systems 70 4.3.1.2 ECMs for Mechanical Aerators 72 4.3.2 Control of the Aeration Process 72 4.3.2.1 Automated DO Control 72 4.3.3 Emerging Technologies Using Control Parameters Other than DO 85 4.3.3.1 Respirometry 85 4.3.3.2 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance 85 4.3.3.3 Critical Oxygen Point Control Determination 86 4.3.3.4 Off-Gas Analysis 86 4.3.4 Innovative and Emerging Control Strategies for Biological Nitrogen Removal 86 4.3.4.1 SymBio ® 86 4.3.4.2 Bioprocess Intelligent Optimization System (BIOS) 87 4.4 Blowers 87 4.4.1 High-Speed Gearless (Turbo) Blowers 89 4.4.2 Single-Stage Centrifugal Blowers with Inlet Guide Vanes and Variable Diffuser Vanes 89 4.4.3 New Diffuser Technology 90 4.4.3.1 Fine Bubble Aeration 90 4.4.3.2 Fine Bubble Aeration Application Examples 90 4.4.4 Preventing Diffuser Fouling 91 4.5 Innovative and Emerging Energy Conservation Measures 91 4.5.1 UV Disinfection 92 4.5.1.1 Design 93 4.5.1.2 Operation and Maintenance 94 4.5.2 Membrane Bioreactors 94 4.5.3 Anoxic and Anaerobic Zone Mixing 95 4.5.3.1 Hyperbolic Mixing 95 4.5.3.2 Pulsed Large Bubble Mixing 96 Chapter Review Question 97 References and Recommended Reading 97 Chapter 5 Water/Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology 99 5.1 Setting the Stage 99 5.2 Treatment Process Models 99 5.2.1 Additional Wastewater Treatment Models 99 5.2.1.1 Green Bay, Wisconsin, Metropolitan Sewerage District 99 5.2.1.2 Sheboygan, Michigan, Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant 101 5.2.1.3 Big Gulch Wastewater Treatment Plant 102 5.2.1.4 City of Bartlett, Tennessee, Wastewater Treatment Plant 103 5.2.1.5 Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission Western Branch WWTP, Prince Georges County, Maryland 104 viii Contents 5.2.1.6 San Jose/Santa Clara, California, Water Pollution Control Plant 105 5.2.1.7 Waco, Texas, Metropolitan Area Regional Sewer System Wastewater Treatment Facility 107 5.3 Key Terms, Acronyms, and Abbreviations Used in Water and Wastewater Operations 108 5.3.1 Denitions 109 5.3.2 Acronyms and Abbreviations 115 Chapter Review Questions 116 References and Recommended Reading 117 SECTION II Water/Wastewater Operations: Math, Physics, and Technical Aspects Chapter 6 Water/Wastewater Math Operations 121 6.1 Introduction 121 6.2 Calculation Steps 121 6.3 Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols 121 6.4 Basic Water/Wastewater Math Operations 121 6.4.1 Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median 121 6.4.2 Units and Conversions 124 6.4.2.1 Temperature Conversions 124 6.4.2.2 Milligrams per Liter (Parts per Million) 125 6.4.3 Area and Volume 125 6.4.4 Force, Pressure, and Head 125 6.4.5 Flow Conversions 127 6.4.6 Flow Calculations 128 6.4.6.1 Instantaneous Flow Rates 128 6.4.6.2 Instantaneous Flow into and out of a Rectangular Tank 128 6.4.6.3 Flow Rate into a Cylindrical Tank 129 6.4.6.4 Flow through a Full Pipeline 129 6.4.6.5 Velocity Calculations 129 6.4.6.6 Average Flow Rate Calculations 130 6.4.6.7 Flow Conversion Calculations 130 6.4.7 Detention Time 130 6.4.8 Hydraulic Detention Time 131 6.4.8.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days 131 6.4.8.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours 131 6.4.8.3 Hydraulic Detention Time in Minutes 131 6.4.9 Chemical Dosage Calculations 132 6.4.9.1 Dosage Formula Pie Chart 132 6.4.9.2 Chlorine Dosage 132 6.4.9.3 Hypochlorite Dosage 133 6.4.10 Percent Removal 134 6.4.11 Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor 134 6.4.12 Specic Gravity 135 6.4.13 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge 135 6.4.14 Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation 135 6.4.14.1 Calculating Feed Rate 135 6.4.14.2 Calculating Solution Strength 135 6.4.15 Filtration 136 6.4.15.1 Calculating the Rate of Filtration 136 6.4.15.2 Filter Backwash 136 6.4.16 Water Distribution System Calculations 136 6.4.16.1 Water Flow Velocity 136 6.4.16.2 Storage Tank Calculations 138 6.4.16.3 Distribution System Disinfection Calculations 138 6.4.17 Complex Conversions 139 ixContents 6.4.17.1 Concentration to Quantity 139 6.4.17.2 Quantity to Concentration 139 6.4.17.3 Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate 140 6.5 Applied Math Operations 140 6.5.1 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance 140 6.5.2 Mass Balance for Settling Tanks 140 6.5.3 Mass Balance Using BOD Removal 141 6.5.4 Measuring Plant Performance 141 6.5.4.1 Plant Performance/Efciency 142 6.5.4.2 Unit Process Performance/Efciency 142 6.5.4.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge 142 6.6 Water Math Concepts 142 6.6.1 Water Sources and Storage Calculations 142 6.6.2 Water Source Calculations 142 6.6.2.1 Well Drawdown 142 6.6.2.2 Well Yield 143 6.6.2.3 Specic Yield 143 6.6.2.4 Well Casing Disinfection 143 6.6.2.5 Deep-Well Turbine Pump Calculations 144 6.6.2.6 Vertical Turbine Pumps 144 6.6.3 Water Storage Calculations 144 6.6.4 Copper Sulfate Dosing Calculations 145 6.6.5 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations 145 6.6.5.1 Coagulation 145 6.6.5.2 Flocculation 146 6.6.5.3 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations 146 6.6.6 Chemical Usage Calculations 150 6.6.7 Sedimentation Calculations 151 6.6.7.1 Calculating Tank Volume 151 6.6.7.2 Detention Time 151 6.6.7.3 Surface Loading Rate 151 6.6.7.4 Mean Flow Velocity 152 6.6.7.5 Weir Overow Rate (Weir Loading Rate) 152 6.6.7.6 Percent Settled Biosolids 153 6.6.7.7 Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L) 153 6.6.7.8 Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day) 155 6.6.7.9 Determining Lime Dosage (g/min) 155 6.6.8 Filtration Calculations 155 6.6.8.1 Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm) 156 6.6.8.2 Filtration Rate 157 6.6.8.3 Unit Filter Run Volume (UFRV) 157 6.6.8.4 Backwash Rate 158 6.6.8.5 Backwash Rise Rate 159 6.6.8.6 Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal) 159 6.6.8.7 Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft) 159 6.6.8.8 Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm) 160 6.6.8.9 Percent Product Water Used for Backwashing 160 6.6.8.10 Percent Mud Ball Volume 160 6.6.8.11 Filter Bed Expansion 161 6.6.9 Water Chlorination Calculations 161 6.6.9.1 Chlorine Disinfection 161 6.6.9.2 Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) 161 6.6.9.3 Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual 162 6.6.9.4 Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Rate 164 6.6.9.5 Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate 165 6.6.9.6 Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions 165 6.6.9.7 Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite 165 x Contents 6.6.10 Chemical Use Calculations 166 6.6.11 Fluoridation Calculations 166 6.6.11.1 Water Fluoridation 166 6.6.11.2 Fluoride Compounds 166 6.6.11.3 Optimal Fluoride Levels 167 6.6.11.4 Fluoridation Process Calculations 168 6.6.12 Water Softening Calculations 172 6.6.12.1 Calculating Calcium Hardness as CaCO 3 172 6.6.12.2 Calculating Magnesium Hardness as CaCO 3 172 6.6.12.3 Calculating Total Hardness 172 6.6.12.4 Calculating Carbonate and Noncarbonate Hardness 173 6.6.12.5 Alkalinity Determination 174 6.6.12.6 Calculation for Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness 174 6.6.12.7 Recarbonation Calculation 175 6.6.12.8 Calculating Feed Rates 176 6.6.12.9 Ion-Exchange Capacity 176 6.6.12.10 Water Treatment Capacity 177 6.6.12.11 Treatment Time Calculation (Until Regeneration Required) 177 6.6.12.12 Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration 178 6.7 Wastewater Math Concepts 178 6.7.1 Preliminary Treatment Calculations 178 6.7.1.1 Screening 178 6.7.1.2 Grit Removal 179 6.7.2 Primary Treatment Calculations 181 6.7.2.1 Process Control 181 6.7.2.2 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate/Surface Overow Rate) 182 6.7.2.3 Weir Overow Rate (Weir Loading Rate) 182 6.7.2.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed (lb/day) 182 6.7.3 Trickling Filter Process Calculations 183 6.7.3.1 Hydraulic Loading 183 6.7.3.2 Organic Loading Rate 184 6.7.3.3 Recirculation Flow 184 6.7.4 Rotating Biological Contactor Calculations 184 6.7.4.1 Hydraulic Loading Rate 185 6.7.4.2 Soluble BOD 185 6.7.4.3 Organic Loading Rate 186 6.7.4.4 Total Media Area 186 6.7.5 Activated Biosolids Calculations 186 6.7.5.1 Moving Averages 186 6.7.5.2 BOD or COD Loading 187 6.7.5.3 Solids Inventory 187 6.7.5.4 Food-to-Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio) 187 6.7.5.5 Gould Sludge Age 189 6.7.5.6 Mean Cell Residence Time 189 6.7.5.7 Estimating Return Rates from SSV 60 190 6.7.5.8 Sludge Volume Index 190 6.7.5.9 Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids 191 6.7.5.10 Biosolids Waste Based on Mass Balance 191 6.7.5.11 Oxidation Ditch Detention Time 191 6.7.6 Treatment Ponds Calculations 192 6.7.6.1 Treatment Pond Parameters 192 6.7.6.2 Treatment Pond Process Control 192 6.7.6.3 Hydraulic Detention Time (Days) 192 6.7.6.4 BOD Loading 193 6.7.6.5 Organic Loading Rate 193 6.7.6.6 BOD Removal Efciency 193 [...]... Responsible for Drinking Water Quality? 673 Chapter Review Questions 674 References and Suggested Reading 676 Section V Wastewater and Wastewater Treatment Chapter 21 Wastewater Treatment Operations 681 21.1 Wastewater Operators 681 21.1.1 Wastewater Treatment Process: The Model 681 21.2 Wastewater Terminology and Definitions ... Safe Drinking Water Act 530 16.4 Water Quality Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 533 16.4.1 Physical Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 533 16.4.1.1 Solids 533 16.4.1.2 Turbidity 533 16.4.1.3 Color 537 16.4.1.4 Taste and Odor 537 16.4.1.5 Temperature 538 16.4.2 Chemical Characteristics of Water ... 686 21.4.1 Wastewater Sources 686 21.4.1.1 Generation of Wastewater 686 21.4.1.2 Classification of Wastewater 686 21.4.2 Wastewater Characteristics 687 21.4.2.1 Physical Characteristics 687 21.4.2.2 Chemical Characteristics 687 21.4.2.3 Biological Characteristics and Processes 688 21.5 Wastewater Collection Systems... of Disinfectants in Water Treatment 648 20.10.6.1 Minimization of Disinfection Byproduct Formation 649 20.10.6.2 Control of Nuisance Asiatic Clams and Zebra Mussels 649 20.10.6.3 Oxidation of Iron and Manganese 650 20.10.6.4 Prevention of Regrowth in the Distribution System and Maintenance of Biological Stability 650 20.10.6.5 Removal of Taste and Odors through Chemical... Non-Stormwater Discharges .618 19.8.8 Tool 8—Watershed Stewardship Programs 618 Chapter Review Questions 619 References and Recommended Reading .619 Chapter 20 Water Treatment Operations 621 20.1 Introduction 621 20.2 Waterworks Operators 621 20.3 Purpose of Water Treatment 622 20.4 Stages of Water. .. 18.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Water 602 18.5.2 Surface Water Hydrology 602 18.5.3 Raw Water Storage 602 18.5.4 Surface Water Intakes 602 18.5.5 Surface Water Screens 604 18.5.6 Surface Water Quality 604 18.6 Groundwater 604 18.6.1 Groundwater Quality 605 18.7 Groundwater under the... 594 References and Suggested Reading 594 Section IV Water and Water Treatment Chapter 18 Potable Water Source 599 18.1 Earth’s Blood 599 18.2 Introduction 599 18.2.1 Key Terms and Definitions 600 18.3 Hydrologic Cycle 600 18.4 Sources of Water 601 18.5 Surface Water ... Characteristics of Wastewater 542 16.4.3.1 Organic Substances 542 16.4.3.2 Inorganic Substances 543 16.4.4 Biological Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 544 16.4.4.1 Bacteria 544 16.4.4.2 Viruses 544 16.4.4.3 Protozoa 545 16.4.4.4 Worms (Helminths) 545 Chapter Review Questions 545 References and Suggested... 613 19.3 What Is a Watershed? .614 19.3.1 Water Quality Impacts 614 19.4 Watershed Protection and Regulations .614 19.5 A Watershed Protection Plan 614 19.6 Reservoir Management Practices .615 19.7 Watershed Management Practices 615 19.8 Eight Tools of Watershed Protection 615 19.8.1 Tool 1—Land Use Planning... Preservation and Storage 567 17.7.5 Standardization of Methods 568 17.8 Test Methods for Drinking Water and Wastewater 568 17.8.1 Titrimetric Methods 568 17.8.2 Colorimetric Methods 568 17.8.3 Visual Methods 568 17.8.4 Electronic Methods 568 17.8.5 Dissolved Oxygen Testing 568 17.8.5.1 Sampling and Equipment . Handbook of Third Edition Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Handbook of Third. First and Second Editions xli To the Reader xliii Author xlv Water: The New Oil? xlvii SECTION I Water and Wastewater Operations: An Overview Chapter 1 Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment. 19 1.6.5.3 Water/ Wastewater Infrastructure Gap 20 1.6.5.4 Energy Efciency: Water/ Wastewater Treatment Operations 20 Chapter Review Questions 20 References and Recommended Reading 21 Chapter 2 Water/ Wastewater