The Genesis of East Asia 221 B.C.–A.D 907 A S I A N I N T E R A C T I O N S A N D C O M PA R I S O N S General Editor Joshua A Fogel Sovereign Rights and Territorial Space in Sino-Japanese Relations: Irredentism and the Diaoyu/Senkaku Islands Unryu Suganuma The I-Ching in Tokugawa Thought and Culture Wai-ming Ng The Genesis of East Asia, 221 B.C.–A.D 907 Charles Holcombe Charles Holcombe The Genesis of East Asia 221 B.C.–A.D 907 A S S O C I AT I O N F O R A S I A N S T U D I E S and U N I V E R S I T Y Honolulu O F H AWA I ‘ I P R E S S Asian Interactions and Comparisons, published jointly by the University of Hawai‘i Press and the Association for Asian Studies, seeks to encourage research across regions and cultures within Asia The series focuses on works (monographs, edited volumes, and translations) that concern the interaction between or among Asian societies, cultures, or countries or that deal with a comparative analysis of such Series volumes concentrate on any time period and come from any academic discipline © 2001 Association for Asian Studies, Inc All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 06 05 04 03 02 01 library of congress cataloging-in-publication data Holcombe, Charles The Genesis of East Asia, 221 b.c.–a.d 907 / Charles Holcombe p cm.—(Asian interactions and comparisons) Includes bibliographical references and index isbn 0-8248-2415-6 (cloth : alk paper)—isbn 0-8248-2465-2 (pbk : alk paper) East Asia—History I Title II Series ds514 h65 2001 950 — dc21 00-066664 University of Hawai‘i Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources designed by teresa w wingfield for g& s typesetters, inc printed by the maple-vail book manufacturing group contents series editor’s preface vii acknowledgments ix maps x East Asia in the Early Han Dynasty x East Asia circa a.d 500 xi Maritime Asia in the Sixth Century xii O N E introduction T W O China, Plural 11 The Sinification of China (How China Became Chinese) 18 “The More Things Change ”: The Tenacity of Diversity 25 E PLURIBUS SERICUM T H R E E civilizing mission: conceiving east asia 30 Mission Civilisatrice 38 The Diplomatic Order 53 Back from Babel: The Kanji Sphere 60 F O U R beyond east asia: global connections Foreign Trade 78 Buddhist Internationalization 94 78 vi contents F I V E nuclear implosion 109 The Fourth-Century “Barbarization” of Northern China Re-Genesis: Urban Nomads, Sui and Tang 128 S I X before vietnam 145 Southern Yue 145 Imperial Entrepôt 151 Orphan Empire 155 S E V E N the birth of korea 165 Chinese Colonies 165 Native Diversity 168 Singular Korea 173 E I G H T japan: insular east asia 183 Immigration 183 Becoming Japanese 194 A Separate Sun—Japan’s All-under-Heaven 201 N I N E conclusion: sinification and its discontents endnotes 229 select bibliography index 325 263 215 116 series editor’s preface We are extremely pleased to present Charles Holcombe’s work, The Genesis of East Asia, 221 b.c.–a.d 907, the third volume in our series, Asian Interactions and Comparisons Holcombe’s is neither an original monograph nor a textbook in the traditional sense of the term but more like a synoptic history of the first millennium of East Asian history, corresponding to the first millennium of imperial Chinese history East Asia here consists of what we today dub China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam—all toponyms of considerably later vintage It is a Sinocentric history, but only in the sense that the great Chinese empire formed the core around which the elites of Japan, Korea, and Vietnam forged their identities This sort of work has long been needed—and we still need a sequel for the second millennium—now that the old standard, East Asia: Tradition and Transformation by John K Fairbank, Edwin O Reischauer, and Albert M Craig, has become outdated in the face of the enormous volume of scholarship produced around the world since its publication While not a textbook in the mold of East Asia: Tradition and Transformation, Holcombe’s book may be used in that capacity More important, though, Holcombe shows us that there is much that can be learned at all levels by adopting a comparative approach to East Asian history Whether we agree, for example, that early Japanese history resembles Chinese history is beside the point; what is incontestable is the fact that we learn much about both histories through such a comparison While sensitive to the plaints and underlying causes of modern nationalism, Holcombe has not allowed this to determine his expla- viii series editor’s preface nations of premodern history Thus, many readers may not be entirely prepared, for example, for his description of the emergence of the first Vietnamese state in 939 While his view accords with recent scholarship on the subject, it flies in the face of the nationalist Vietnamese narrative of 1,000 years of Chinese oppression We leave it to readers to make up their own minds on this particularly contentious topic as well as others presented in this volume J O S H U A A F O G E L , S E R I E S E D I T O R acknowledgments Special thanks (in alphabetical order) to Arano Yasunori, Andy Burstein, C S Chang, Patricia Crosby, Bob Dise, Judy Dohlman, Lou Fenech, Joanne Goldman, Vickie Hanson, He Qinggu, Reinier Hesselink, Rich Newell, Chawne Paige, Peng Wei, Victor Xiong, and the ever-reliable staff of the interlibrary loan office at Rod Memorial Library And, above all, thanks to Jen and Andrea Any mistakes or misunderstandings are entirely my own Research in East Asia in 1994 and 1996 was facilitated by two University of Northern Iowa Summer Research Fellowships A most satisfying culmination to this project came with the opportunity to spend the autumn of 1999 teaching and refining some of this material at the University of Michigan 318 bibliogr aphy ics, and Politics in the Six Dynasties) Suzhou daxue xuebao: zhe she ban (1990.3) Wu Zhuzhu “Haomen zhengzhi zai nanfang de yizhi: Wang Dao de ‘kui-kui zhi zheng’” (The Transplantation of Magnate Politics to the South: The “Confused Government” of Wang Dao) Fujian shifan daxue xuebao: zhe she ban (1992.2) Wyatt, David K Thailand: A Short History New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982 Xia Yingyuan “Shin-Kan kara Zui-To jidai no Chu-Nichi bunka koryu” ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ (Sino-Japanese Cultural Exchange from the Qin-Han to the Sui-Tang ¯ Periods) Nitchu bunka koryushi sosho, 1: rekishi Ed by Oba Osamu and ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ Wang Xiaoqiu Tokyo: Taishukan shoten, 1995 ¯ Xiao Qiqing “Bei-Ya youmu minzu nanqin ge zhong yuanyin de jiantao” (A Review of Various Reasons for the Southward Incursions of the North Asian Nomadic Peoples) Shihuo yuekan, 1.12 (1972) Xie Haiping Tang-dai liu Hua waiguoren shenghuo kaoshu (A Study of the Lives of Foreigners Who Lived in China during the Tang Dynasty) Taibei: Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan, 1978 Xing Tie “Liang-Jin nanbeichao shiqi de hudeng zhidu” (The Household Ranking System of the Two Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties Period) Hebei shiyuan xuebao: she ke ban (1991.4) Xiong Deji “Wei-Jin nanbeichao shiqi jieji jiegou yanjiu zhong de jige wenti” (Several Problems in the Study of Class Structure in the Wei-Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties Period) Wei-Jin Sui-Tang shi lunji, Ed by Huang Lie Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1981 Xiong Tieji and Wang Ruiming “Qin-dai de fengjian tudi suoyouzhi” (The Feudal Landholding System of the Qin Dynasty) Yunmeng Qin jian yanjiu Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1981 Xiong, Victor Cunrui “The Land-Tenure System of Tang China—A Study of the Equal-Field System and the Turfan Documents.” T’oung pao, 85 (1999) Xu Lianda and Lou Jing “Han-Tang keju yitong lun” (On the Similarities and Differences between the Examination Systems of Han and Tang) Lishi yanjiu (1990.5) Xu Shaohua “Chu Culture: An Archaeological Overview.” Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China Ed by Constance A Cook and John S Major Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999 Xu Xianyao “Dongya wenxian zhong de shanggu Riben Guojia,” pts 1–3 (The Japanese State of High Antiquity in East Asian Literature) Zhongguo yu Riben, 79 – 81 (1966) ——— “Sui-Wo bangjiao xinkao: Wo shi chao Sui bingfei suowei duideng waijiao” (A New Study of Sui-Japanese Interstate Relations: The Japanese Embassies to Sui Were Really Not What Are Called Equal Foreign Relations) Tang-dai yanjiu lunji, vol Ed by Zhongguo Tang-dai xuehui 1964; 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reaction against, 29, 140, 162, 208 See also Sinification Aston, William, 98 Austroasiatic/Austronesian, 11, 19, 60 – 61, 101, 185 autonomy, 24 –26 Aya and Hata, 191–192 Bo Juyi (Po Chü-i), 45 Boodberg, Peter, 132 Book of Changes, 107, 197 Book of Poetry, 40 Book of Rites, 42– 43, 45, 47 books, 4, 48, 225; burning of, 17–18, 214 borders: “imperial overstretch,” 25; Korean, 169, 178, 180; northern, 121; passes, 79, 89; Vietnam, 23, 145, 150 –151, 218 Britain, 153 Buddhism: in East Asia, 95–98, 105, 113; and Indianization of Southeast Asia, 98 –100; in Japan, 106 –107, 188 –189; in Korea, 96, 98, 105–106; and maritime trade, 87, 89, 92–93; and Sinification, 94, 107; and Taoism, 96; universals, 76 –77, 105– 106 Bunkyo hifuron, 97 ¯ be, 197–198 See also private retainers Beckwith, Christopher, 48 Bell Dance, 173 Bodhisattva Vows, 95 Bodhisena, 98 cannibalism, 28, 91, 154 Canton, 25, 28 –29, 53, 55, 87– 89; and bronze drums, 218; and Feng Ang, 158; within Lingnan, 145, 147, 152; re-named, 156; rise of, 159; in Southern Han dy- 326 index nasty, 161; in Southern Yue kingdom, 148 –149, 154 cavalry, 39, 110 –111, 123–126, 141–142 Central Plain, 8, 10 –11, 21, 55, 219 –220; “barbarian conquest” of, 22, 41 Cham/Champa, 51, 90, 101–102, 106, 157, 159, 163, 201, 219 Chang, K C., Chang Po-go, 91–92 Chen An, 51 Cheng-Han state, 124 –125, 141 China: assimilation of diverse populations, 22; and Buddhism, 97– 98; comparisons with Rome, – 10, 48, 84, 90, 111, 116 –119, 122, 137, 168; economy of, 4, 79 – 80, 83– 89; local autonomy, 24 –26, 122, 125, 155–158; name of, –9; origins of, 8, 11; Qin unification of, 17; southern expansion, 5, 13, 21; universalism, 40 – 41, 44, 120 Chinese: civilization, 10 –11; classical written language, 5, 8, 14, 22, 67, 72, 75–76, 181, 225; dialects of, 22, 27, 60, 67, 166; script, 5, 8, 61– 63; spoken language, 11, 60, 127, 138; states, 9; tones, 96 –97 “Chinese Mind, The,” 51 Chinhan, 73, 172–173, 178 Chinhung, King, 95 ˘ Ch’oe Sung-no, 45 ˘ Chu, 13–14, 20, 40, 149, 164, 185; dialect, 27 Chu ci, 14 civilization (wenhua), 63 civilizing mission, 40, 48, 51, 221, 226 classic texts, 5– 6, 75, 95, 106 –107; in Cheng-Han state, 125 clothing: in Japan, 224; nomad, 46; nudity, 51, 110, 152; Qiang, 28; in Silla, 46, 107, 179; Uighur, 29; Xianbei, 137; Yue, 21 Coedès, George, 100 coins: in China, 119, 217; in Japan, 80 – 81; in Vietnam, 163 commerce: and corrupt officials, 85, 87– 88; government regulation of, 79 – 80, 82– 84, 88 – 91; international, 85– 89, 91– 92, 101, 216; in Japan, 81; in Korea, 80; and Uighurs, 24, 91 See also maritime trade; Silk Roads Confucianism, 31–35; classics of, 5– 6; as educational process, 47; in Han dynasty, 35–36, 42; and hierarchy, 43; humanism of, 40; in Japan, 33–34, 37–38, 194 – 195, 201, 203–208; and Legalism, 36, 135; and minimalist government, 34 –35, 37, 205, 216 See also universalism creole, 199 Cumings, Bruce, 222 Darwin, Charles, 220 Di tribe, 122, 124 –125 dialects: of Chinese, 22, 27; of Japanese, 199; of Korean, 73, 169 Diamond, Jared, Dinh Bo Linh, 162 diplomatic equality, 58 –59 disease, 21, 33, 94, 157, 159 –160, 162 diversity, 4, 6, 11, 217–220; in China, 18, 26; of prehistoric Korea, 169; of Warring States, 12; among Yue, 19 See also tribal minorities Dong Son, 145–146, 149, 151, 154, 218 Dong Zhongshu, 18, 32–35, 47, 135 index Dunhuang, 76, 94, 105, 116 Dunxun, 101 Eberhard, Wolfram, 11 education, 47– 49, 52; during conquest dynasties, 127; in Japan, 68 –70, 192, 207, 209; in Silla, 179 –180 Egypt, 8, 64, 86 “eight atrocities” (hachi gyaku), 205 Emishi, 213 Ennin, 89, 104, 180, 217 “Equitable Fields” ( juntian), 133– 137, 216; comparisons with Japan, 202–203, 209 Erudites, 68, 187 estates, 134, 209 –210 ethnocentricity, 49 –50 ethnogenesis, Eurasiatic (languages), 60 – 61, 185 evolution, 220 famines, 33, 37, 125, 179 Farris, William Wayne, 198 fashions, 128 –129, 137 Feng Ang, 158 filial piety, 43, 127, 179, 205–207; Classic of, 42– 43, 206 –208 Flame Shouldered Buddha, 93 fortifications, 123–124, 173 Fujiwara Atsumitsu, 46 Fujiwara no Muchimaro, 207 Funan, 51, 100 –101, 184 Ganjin ( Jianzhen), 106 –107 Gao Huan, 143 Gao Pian, 91 Genji, The Tale of, 45, 72, 224 Germanic invasions, 117–118 Ghost Gate Pass, 159 global interaction, 4, 78 –79, 85– 89, 91–94, 97–101, 106, 208, 327 216 –217, 222 See also westernization Gongsun family, 129 –130, 155, 173–174 great buddha statue of Nara, 95, 98, 189, 211 grottoes, 105, 130 Guangdong/Guangzhou See Canton Guanyin, 99 Guan zi, 13 Gu Huan, 105 guo, 12 Hainan island, 150 –152, 158 hairstyles, 20, 28, 165 Han dynasty: administration in Korea, 21–22, 165, 167–168; and commerce, 83; Confucianism in, 31, 35–36, 42; demilitarization, 40; education, 47– 48; and land ownership, 134; local autonomy, 26, 122–123; as multiethnic empire, 120, 122; as name for China, 61 Han Yu, 43 Heian period, 38, 69, 72, 108, 217, 224 Helian Bobo, 76 Hellenistic civilization, 5, 16, 211 Herodotus, hierarchy, 43 household registration, 16, 83, 133–134, 136, 192, 202, 217 Hsu, Cho-yun, 12 Hu peoples, 21, 91, 98, 106, 110, 124, 126 –129, 137, 215; “the Five Hu,” 114, 119 –120 Huai nan zi, 51 Huntington, Samuel, 51 ideograph, 63 idu, 75 “imperial overstretch,” 25, 167 328 index immigrants: to China, 23, 120; to Japan, 70 –71, 82, 142, 185–193, 197 Inariyama sword, 69 –71 India: Buddhist mission, 97–98; and commerce, 86, 89, 91–93; Indianization of Southeast Asia, 98 –101; Magadhan Empire, 15 intermarriage, 29 “internationalization,” 227 Intrigues of the Warring States, 14, 16 Japan: as All-under-Heaven (tenka), 211–214, 225; and Buddhism, 98, 106 –107, 188 –189; centralization of, 82, 189 –193, 201; Chinese language in, 68 – 69, 200; and commerce, 80 – 83; Confucianism in, 33–34, 37–38, 194 –195, 201, 203–208; embassies, 201–202, 208, 212; Heian period, 38, 69, 72, 108, 209; Korean immigrants, 70 –71, 82, 185–193; Meiji period, 16; as Middle Kingdom, 9; name of, 72–73, 198; and Persia, 94; Shinto, 196 –197; surnames, ¯ 193; tribute, 57; warriors, 142, 210; women, status of, 196, 224; writing in, 5, 69 –72, 192, 196; and Yue, 56, 184 –185 Japanese language, 185, 199 –200; as Eurasiatic, 60; in semmyo, 71; ¯ in The Tale of Genji, 45, 72 See also kanji Jiangnan, 21–22, 25–27 Jiang Tong, 50 jiaohua, 47– 48, 108, 207 Jiaozhi/Jiaozhou, 29, 86 – 87, 152, 155; decline of, 159; divided, 156; during Tang, 157 kana, 61, 63– 64, 71–72, 200 Kang Senghui, 92 Kang Sengyuan, 23 kanji, 61– 66, 70 –76, 100, 140, 196, 198, 200, 227 karamono, 191 Kawakatsu Yoshio, 88 Kaya, 73 Kennedy, Paul, 25 Kim In-mun, 59 “king,” 56 –57, 74, 130 –131, 155, 161–162, 177 Koguryo, 133, 167; and Buddhism, ˘ 105–106; demise of, 59; King Kwanggaet’o, 174; origins of, 56 –57, 129, 170 –171, 173–174; Sinification of, 174; tribute, 58 Koken, Empress, 206 –207 ¯ Kokinshu, 72 ¯ kokuji, 66 Korea: and Buddhism, 98; and Chinese administration, 21–22, 167–168; Chinese invasions of, 58, 167–168; in Japan, 70 –71, 82, 142, 185; languages of, 60, 73, 166, 169; name of, 167; population, 219; prehistoric cultures, 169; in Tang, 24; sadae, 59; Sinification of, 181–182; surnames, 74; Wiman, 165–166; writing in, 5, 75 See also Koguryo; Koryo; Paekche; Silla ˘ ˘ Koryo, 45, 181 ˘ kosogan, 74 ˘˘ Kukai, 47, 97–98, 104 ¯ Kumaraj¯va, 77 ¯ ı Kunlun, 91, 189 Kushana, 113 ¯ Kwanggaet’o, 174, 188 laissez-faire, 84, 216 law, codes of: in China, 35–36; in Japan, 68, 70, 192, 202, 206; in Northern Wei, 133, 136 –137; in Silla, 57, 179 Ledyard, Gari, 82 index Legalism, 15–16, 31, 133–134, 192, 203; and Confucianism, 36, 135; Confucian criticism of, 32, 35 li, 35, 41– 43, 52, 79, 119, 179, 181, 203–208 See also ritual Liang, Emperor Wu of, 95–96, 105 Liao (Lao) tribes, 28 –29, 154 Liaodong, 129 –130, 155, 157, 165–167, 173 Linghu Defen, 36 Lingnan, 22, 27, 29, 49, 55, 145– 147, 150 –155; divided, 156 lingua franca, 67, 101, 199 Li Te, 125 literature, 32, 48, 69 Liu Chou, 124 Liu Cong, 126 Liu Xinru, 94 Liu Zongyuan, 18, 27 Li Zefen, 119, 124 local culture, 6, 11, 44 – 46 See also autonomy; “native” tradition loose rein prefectures ( jimi zhou), 24 loyalty: as Confucian virtue, 43, 179, 195, 206; of tribal chieftains, 23 Lü, Empress, 90 Lu Ji, 48 Ly Bi, 156 Mahan, 73, 172, 175–176 Mair, Victor, 97 Malgal, 52, 80, 172, 176, 180 Man tribes, 23–25, 28 –29, 49 Manchu, 113 Manichaeism, 24, 108 Mannheim, Karl, 207 Manyoshu, 81 ¯ ¯ maritime trade, 86 – 89, 91–92; Indian, 91–92, 101; in Japan, 81– 82; at Jiaozhi, 152, 158 –159; Sillan, 80, 91–92 marriage, 27, 80, 127, 137, 152, 172, 195 Maspero, Henri, 152 329 Ma Yuan, 121 Meiji Japan, 16, 226 –227 Mencius, 32 Middle Kingdom, –9, 16, 51 military, 32–33, 38 – 40 See also cavalry Miller, Roy Andrew, 197 Mimana, 186 Min, 107 Miyoshi Kiyotsura, 205, 209 moral example, government by, 32– 34, 36 –37, 203, 205, 216 mourning, 36, 138, 179 Mugulü, 114 “Mulan,” 139 Munmu, King, 59 Murong Xianbei, 127, 130 –132, 170, 172, 174 mutiny, 160 Nagaya, Prince, 106 Nanzhao, 116, 159 national identity, –7, 49 –50, 116, 222, 225; as “accumulated practice,” 14; and burning of histories, 17–18; Chinese, –10, 18, 50, 124, 128 –129; Confucian universalism, 40 – 41, 44, 50 –51; Germanic, 117–118; Japanese, 208 –209, 227; Korean, 165– 167, 178, 181–182; national languages, 60; on steppe, 111–114, 132–133; Qin as semi-Chinese state, 16; Vietnamese, 41, 146, 161–162, 218; Xianbei, 138, 142–143 “native” tradition, 63, 72, 163–164, 194, 196 –197, 200, 211, 222–225 Ngo Quyen, 161–162 Nihon, 72–73, 198 Nihon ryoiki, 81 ¯ Nihon shoki, 98, 189, 192, 196, 204 nom, 66 330 index nomads, 109 –112, 115, 128; and cavalry, 39, 110 –111, 121, 123– 126, 141–143; in Southwest China, 20 non-action (wu-wei), 34 –35 Northern Wei dynasty, 54, 58, 74, 95–96, 114, 131–132; and Equitable Fields, 135–137; and law codes, 136 –137; Sinification of, 74, 133, 137–141 See also Tuoba Xianbei ¯ Omi no Mifune, 198 Paekche, 80; and Buddhism, 96, 98, 106, 176; demise of, 59, 176; and Funan, 101; and Japan, 187– 188; king of, 56 –57; language, 70, 175; origins of, 175–176; and Southern dynasties, 106, 177; tribute, 58; writing in, 73 Parhae, 52, 172 Piggott, Joan, 69, 204, 212 Piqian, 99 Pirenne, Henri, 117–118 Pollack, David, 45, 70, 222–223 polo, 29 population: migration, 22, 120, 152, 159, 170; registered, 21, 26, 28, 219; relocation of, 133, 141, 148 portents, 33–34, 206 posthumous titles, 179, 198, 211 printing, 96 private retainers, 26 Pulleyblank, Edwin, 132 Puyo, 129, 171–172, 175, 185 ˘ Pyonhan, 172–173, 178 ˘ Qiang tribes, 23–24, 28, 115, 125 Qieyun, 67– 68 Qin: administration of, 17; and commerce, 85; conquest by, 10, 17, 147; criticism of, 18, 32; kingdom of, 12; Legalist innovations, 16 –17, 31, 134; as semiChinese state, 16; and Yue, 20 – 21, 147–149 Qin Shi Huangdi, 15, 17, 214; and conquest of Yue, 147; death of, 18; stone inscriptions, 17; tomb of, 18 race, 119 –120, 124, 128, 132, 142, 147, 170, 218, 226 rebellion, 28 –29, 159 –160 See also An Lushan; Trung sisters regional integration, 48 Rhie, Marylin Martin, 93 ritsuryo, 202–203, 205, 209 ¯ ritual, 33–34, 36, 42; in Northern Wei dynasty, 133, 137 See also li Rome: art, 94; and Britain, 153; citizenship, 9; comparisons with China, –10, 48, 84, 111, 116 – 119, 122, 137, 226; and Hellenistic civilization, 5, 16; internal diversity, 168, 208; literacy, 48; in Southeast Asia, 100; trade regulations, 90; war with Carthage, 15 Ruan-ruan (Rouran), 114, 143 sacrifices, animal, 95–96 sadae, 59, 223 Saicho, 56, 104 –106, 208 ¯ sakuho, 53, 60 ¯ Samguk sagi, 73–74, 179, 181, 187, 219 Samguk yusa, 73, 180 –181 Sanskrit, 76, 97, 99 –100, 103–104 sarong, 51, 102, 110 semmyo, 71 ¯ Seng You, 40 – 41, 76 –77 “Seventeen Article Constitution,” 203–204 seven treasures, 92 Shanyu, 126 index Shen Yue, 28 Shi ji, 16, 26, 120 Shi Le, 76, 126 –128 Shinto, 196 –197 ¯ Shi Xie, 155–156 shogun, 210 Shoku Nihongi, 71 Silk Roads, 86 – 87, 105, 109 –110, 113, 116 Silla: and Buddhism, 96, 105; clothing, 46, 107; and commerce, 79 – 80, 82, 91–92; king of, 57, 74, 179; language, 73, 178; origins of, 178; Sinification of, 179; tribute, 58; unification by, 59, 180 Sima Qian, 84 – 85 Sinification, 55, 77, 94, 100, 219; of Chu, 13; during Han dynasty, 22; of Japan, 222–224; of Korea, 181–182, 222–223; of Lingnan, 152–153; of Nanzhao, 116; of Northern Wei dynasty, 74, 133, 137–141; reaction against, 140, 143, 208, 226; of Silla, 179; of Xiongnu, 123 Six Statutes of Tang, 36 Southern Han dynasty, 161 Southern Yue kingdom, 90, 147– 150, 154, 158, 161 Spring and Autumn Annals, 32, 35, 50 “spring of avarice,” 88 ´ ı Sr¯vijaya, 101 steppe, 11, 30, 39, 109 –115, 143; languages of, 112, 114 stereotypes, regional, 13, 27 Sugawara no Fumitoki, 206 Sugawara no Kiyogimi, 224 Sugawara no Michizane, 208 Taika coup, 107, 212 Taiwan, 88, 201 Talas, battle of, 24 Tang dynasty: cosmopolitanism of, 23–24, 129, 144; Equitable 331 Fields, 136; geographic extent, 24; Koreans in, 180; local autonomy, 157–158; rebellions, 29; ritual, 36, 42; and Tibet, 115–116; tribal minorities, 24 –25 See also An Lushan Tang Taizong, Emperor, 23, 37–38, 89, 167 Tan’gun, 169 Tang Yongtong, 92 Taoism, 96, 105, 196 tattoos: in Japan, 184; in Korea, 173; in Yue, 20, 148 taxes, 16, 23–24, 28, 84, 95, 127, 133–135; Confucian ideal of, 35, 205; remissions of, 34, 37, 83 “ten abominations” (shi e), 36, 205 tenka See tianxia tenno, 198, 212–213 ¯ Theoderic, 117 Theravada, 93 ¯ “three heads” system, 133 Tian Chou, 26 tianxia, 10, 39, 52–53; and Japan, 211–214, 225; and Han dynasty, 120; and Qin dynasty, 17 Tibet, 29, 43, 52, 54, 76, 108, 110, 114 –116 Tiele, 114 tones (of Chinese language), 96 – 97, 200 translation, 77, 107 tribal minorities: in China, 6, 24 – 25, 28, 120 –128; and education, 48 – 49, 208; in Lingnan, 150 – 151, 154, 160 tribute, 52–54, 56 –59, 87, 162, 170 –171, 191, 210, 213 Trung sisters, 23, 121, 151 Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, Tsuda Sokichi, 194 ¯ Tuoba Xianbei, 74, 114, 123, 130 – 133, 135–144, 209 See also Northern Wei dynasty 332 index Turfan, 54, 58, 76 Türks, 58, 114 –115, 215 Tuyuhun, 131–132 Twitchett, Denis, 94 Uighur, 24, 29, 76, 91, 108, 114 – 115, 215–216 uji, 198 unification, 9, 15 universalism, 6, 10, 40 – 41, 46 – 47, 55; Buddhist, 76 –77; Confucian, 40 – 41, 44, 50 –51; polarities within, 44 – 46, 69; Qin standardization, 17 Xia, 12, 14, 40, 55 Xianbei, 55, 74, 110, 121, 129 – 133, 197; language, 132, 138, 140, 144 See also Northern Wei dynasty; Tuoba Xianbei Xiaowen, Emperor, 137, 143 Xiongnu, 30, 76, 112–115, 120 – 121, 125–127, 130, 141, 165; Sinification of, 123; and Xianbei, 132–133 Xun Zi, 14, 42 Van-lang, 146, 154 vernacular, 5, 99 –100, 103 Vietnam: Chinese settlement of, 152; comparison with Roman Britain, 153; Confucian universalism, 41; descent from Sage Kings, 55; independence, 161; languages, 19, 60, 152; as Middle Kingdom, 9; name of, 150; origins of, 6; and Qin, 20, 147; Sinification of, 152–153; southward expansion of, 163; and Tang dynasty, 157–161; and tribes, 25, 154 –155; writing in, 5, 67 See also Yue vocabulary, 75, 100, 200, 212 Yamanoue monument, 71 Yan: Warring States kingdom of, 12–13, 165–166, 184; Murong kingdoms, 131 Yang Xiong, 166 Yan Zhitui, 67 Yemaek, 129, 133, 171 Yijing, 104, 110 Ying Xiao, 110 Yue, 127, 146; assimilation of, 19, 49; “Great Yue,” 161; “Hundred Yue,” 14, 55; languages, 14 –15, 19; modern legacies, 27; prehistoric cultures, 20, 81, 169, 173, 184; and Qin conquest, 20 –21, 147; settlement of Southeast Asia, 20; Southern Yue kingdom, 90, 147–150, 158 Yunmeng, 17–18 Wa, 73, 184, 187, 190 Wang Chong, 21 Warring States: belligerence of, 15; border passes, 89; diversity of, 12, 19; trade, 85– 86 westernization, 221, 226 –227 Wiman, 165–166, 186 “woman’s hand,” 72 Won’gwang, 179 ˘ Wright, Arthur, 26 writing, 5, 8, 22, 61– 66, 69 Zhang Binglin, 15 Zhang Hua, 152 Zhao Tuo, 148 –149, 154, 156, 158, 161 zhongguo, –9, 132, 213, 225; as royal capital, 10 Zhou: colonization of Chu, 13; conquest, 10; as formative era, 12; vassalage, 53; and Yue, 20 Zhuge Ke, 26 Zuo zhuan, 50 ... library of congress cataloging-in-publication data Holcombe, Charles The Genesis of East Asia, 221 b. c. ? ?a. d 907 / Charles Holcombe p cm.—(Asian interactions and comparisons) Includes bibliographical... designated Asia altogether 2 the genesis of east asia According to the so-called father of history, Herodotus (ca 484 – 428 b. c. ), Asia began at the Nile and extended only as far as India ? ?East. .. widely scattered island archipelagoes As a final absurdity, East Asia? ? ?the subregion that includes quintessentially “Asian” China and Japan—actually falls outside of the scope of what was originally