“Complicity with Evil” by the same author A Heart Turned East: Among the Muslims of Europe and America Hitler’s Secret Bankers: The Myth of Swiss Neutrality During the Holocaust Seduced by Hitler: The Choices of a Nation and the Ethics of Survival Milosevic: A Biography City of Oranges: Arabs and Jews in Jaffa “Complicity with Evil” The United Nations in the Age of Modern Genocide Adam LeBor Yale University Press New Haven & London Copyright © 2006 by Adam LeBor All rights reserved This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publishers Set in Minion Roman type by Integrated Publishing Solutions Printed in the United States of America by R R Donnelley, Harrisburg, Virginia Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data LeBor, Adam “Complicity with evil” : the United Nations in the age of modern genocide / Adam LeBor p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-300-11171-2 (cloth : alk paper) ISBN-10: 0-300-11171-1 (cloth : alk paper) United Nations United Nations Secretariat Genocide Security, International I Title II Title: United Nations in the age of modern genocide JZ4971.L43 2006 341.23—dc22 2006017319 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources 10 in memoriam Z.ydowska Organizacja Bojowa Zydowski Zwi≤zek Wojskowy Warsaw Ghetto, January–May 1943 No failure did more to damage the standing and credibility of United Nations peacekeeping in the 1990s than its reluctance to distinguish victim from aggressor —Executive summary of the United Nations 2000 report on its peacekeeping operations Contents Preface ix Acknowledgments xv List of Abbreviations Introduction xviii Part I o n e A Safe Area 23 two Master Drafters 44 t h r e e Countdown 71 f o u r The Fall 92 f i v e Recently Disturbed Earth 112 viii Contents Part II s i x Silence in the Secretariat 135 s e v e n A Rwandan Reprise 157 e i g h t Genocide, or Maybe Not 182 n i n e A Will and a Way 204 t e n A Meager Reckoning 229 e l e v e n Command Responsibility 254 Appendix 281 Notes 291 Select Bibliography 301 Index 307 Preface This book takes its title, “Complicity with Evil,” from the United Nations’ report on its peacekeeping operations during the 1990s, published in August 2000 The report was commissioned by Secretary General Kofi Annan, who convened a high-level panel of diplomats, military officers, and humanitarian officials with experience of UN operations in crisis zones The authors proposed new approaches for peacekeeping after the failures in Srebrenica and Rwanda, so as to confront the challenges of the post–Cold War world of conflicts fought by rogue states and anarchic militias The report’s fifty-four pages contain a series of detailed recommendations about the conduct of future operations, and an outline of institutional and attitudinal changes needed within member states, the Security Council, and the Secretariat—the permanent body of UN officials—to make peacekeeping more dynamic and effective Probably the document’s most important sentence is contained in its executive summary: “Impartiality for United Nations operations must therefore mean adherence to the principles of the Charter: where one party clearly and incontrovertibly is violating its terms, continued equal treatment of the parties by the United 312 diplomats, 16, 59, 235; Darfur crisis and, 189; Rwanda genocide and, 170–71, 177; safe havens and, 47; of Sorbonne school, 28; Srebrenica massacre and, 126 disease, 9, 39 Doyle, Leonard, 60–61 Dujarric, Stéphane, 269 Dutchbat (Dutch UN troops in Bosnia), 71–72, 86, 124, 256, 270; corruption of Bosnian officials and, 75, 76; fall of Srebrenica and, 93–95, 95, 97, 98–106, 234; mission of, 72–73; Serb massacre of civilians and, 110–11, 115, 116, 125–26, 127 See also UN troops Economic and Social Council (ESC), Egeland, Jan, 135–37, 138, 154, 156; on humanitarian aid and protection, 227–28; presentation to Security Council, 164, 171; refugee camps in Darfur and, 191; refused entry to Sudan, 262; on Security Council agenda, 160; on Sudan sanctions, 213 Egypt, 138, 207–8 Einsatzgruppen, of Nazi SS, 117 El Mujahed detachment (Bosnian army), 243, 250 Erdemoviª, Drazen, 118–21, 239 ˇ Erdos, André, 18, 27–28, 29, 40; on ˝ P5 and Bosnia, 30–31, 47–48; on Srebrenica, 41, 42 Ethiopia, 15 ethnic cleansing, 8, 82, 171, 264; in Bosnia, 26, 37, 123, 230; in Darfur, 9, 145, 146, 163, 196, 287, 289; Index Janjaweed militia and, 136; journalistic coverage of, 114; military action against, 54; neutrality as abetting of, 83; rape as part of, 152; Serbs as victims of, 130; Yugoslav army and, 89 European Community (EC), 17, 26, 28, 257 European Union (EU), 34, 124, 130, 241, 262–63, 269; collapse of communism and, 25; Peacebuilding Commission and, 274 exclusion zones, 64, 66, 97 Eyewitness to a Genocide (Barnett), 170 failed states, 216 Fejziª, Safet, 24 Fighting for Peace (Rose), 63 First World War, 10, 15, 47, 165 Foukara, Abderrahim, 187, 189, 207 France, 32, 39; Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims) and, 45; cooperation with Britain in Bosnia, 48, 53–54, 63; Darfur crisis and, 185–86, 212; fall of Srebrenica and, 106–7; history of Balkans and, 47; International Criminal Court (ICC) and, 221–22; as member of P5, 6; military action against Bosnian Serbs, 131, 132; Mobutu regime in Congo and, 215; nonintervention policy in Bosnia, 58, 68; oil interests in Sudan, 186; Rwanda genocide and, 167, 181, 251; safe areas and, 41, 52, 53; shift in Bosnia policy, 89; UN troops in Bosnia, 37, 43, 266 Index Franken, Maj Robert, 116–17, 125–26, 270 Fréchette, Louise, 163 Frewer, Barry, 36 Fur ethnic group, 138, 140, 148, 200; ethnic cleansing of, 146, 147; as Muslims, 205 Galbraith, Peter, 17, 78; on massacres in Bosnia, 128–29; on NATO air strikes in Bosnia, 131; on need for intervention in Bosnia, 81–82; on neutrality as appeasement, 83; as witness to genocide, 79–80 Ganiª, Ejup, 26, 90 Garang, John, 143, 162 gas, poison, 15–16 General Assembly, 4, 165, 259, 260; Genocide Convention and, 11; regional groups of, 5, 6; votes in, Geneva Conventions, 39, 80, 105, 117, 159, 250 genocide, 7, 10; Armenian, 123; in Bosnia, 8, 16, 118; in Darfur (Sudan), 8, 136, 145, 198, 243, 279; definition of, 11, 201; neutrality as abetting of, 83; prevention of, 265, 267; in Rwanda, 11, 17, 157, 165; Security Council’s incoherent response to, 56; war crimes tribunal indictments for, 239–40 Georgia, nation of, 13 Germany, 27, 274 Gharekan, Chinmaya, 59, 84 Gojkoviª, Brano, 119, 120 Gorazde, city of, 37, 82, 91, 149, 256; ˇ Bosnian Serb assault on, 66–70, 97; as UN safe area, 45 313 Gosh, Gen Salah Abdallah, 224, 253 Goulding, Marrack, 14, 26, 31, 33, 235, 292n1:1; as head of DPA, 62; on UN neutrality, 35 Greece, 31 Groen, Capt Jelte, 100–101, 270 Guantánamo Bay (Cuba), U.S base at, 206 Gulf War (1991), 87, 256 Gutman, Roy, 33 Habyarimana, Juvénal, 167, 169, 186 Hadˇ ihasanoviª, Enver, 243, 250 z Hajjaji, Najat al-, 258 Hamas, 144, 225 Hammarskjöld, Dag, 14, 159 Hannay, David, 44–45, 47, 48; on British policy in Bosnia, 54–55; fall of Srebrenica and, 109–10; on Peacebuilding Commission, 274; post-UN career, 256; on Rwanda genocide, 170, 173, 176; safe areas and, 273 Harland, David, 270, 271–72 Hayes, Brig Vere, 36 Hicks, Peggy, 115, 128 Hilal, Sheikh Musa, 146, 147, 279 Hitler, Adolf, 47 Holbrooke, Richard, 17, 50, 132; Dayton peace settlement and, 230, 231; on mission creep, 248–49; on West’s lack of resolve in Bosnia, 234 Holocaust, Nazi, 11, 220, 277 human rights, 5, 82, 126, 218; UN Charter and, 4; UN commitment to defend, 265; UN membership and, 262, 263; West versus Middle East over, 259 314 human rights abuses: accountability for, 232; in Bosnia, 123, 124; in Darfur, 136, 153, 154, 205; genocide and, 201; investigated by International Criminal Court, 221; in Sudan, 140; Sudanese rebel armies and, 161; United States accused of, 206; in Zimbabwe, 259–60 Human Rights Day, 158, 182 Human Rights Watch: on “abusers club” at UN, 258, 259; Bosnia and, 115; on China’s oil interests in Sudan, 193; Darfur and, 146, 147, 152, 197; Rwanda genocide and, 18 Hungary, 27 Hurd, Douglas, 17, 53, 56; on air strikes, 89–90; on British intervention in Bosnia, 256–57; on Darfur, 245; Dayton peace settlement and, 230; on General Rose’s policy in Bosnia, 87; NatWest Markets and, 235–36; on peace and justice, 231–32, 233; on U.S policy in Bosnia, 79 Hussein, Saddam, 31, 46, 206, 208, 256; atrocities of, 80; “oil-forfood” program and, 272 Hutus, 11, 12, 165; arms caches of, 169, 170, 171, 180, 255, 285, 286; militia killings, 175, 176, 179–80, 181; moderate, 167; in refugee camps in Congo, 215, 216 IDPs (internally displaced persons), 137, 149, 152–53, 188, 244; AMIS civilian police and, 202–3; in Khartoum, 288; numbers of, 287; relief aid and, 199 India, 6, 13, 27, 267, 274 Index Institute of War and Peace Reporting, 243 intelligence, U.S., 67, 81, 113, 223, 224, 252 Interahamwe militias, 165, 167, 179, 186, 284–85 International Commission of Inquiry (ICI), 151–53, 194, 205; Annan and initiation of, 159, 269; failure to describe genocide in Darfur, 200–201, 220; on rape as weapon of war, 152–53; report on Darfur, 148, 298n4; on Sudanese government culpability, 242–43 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), 28, 36, 117, 124, 164, 175 international community, 242, 269; Bosnia and, 82, 85, 109; Darfur and, 137, 153, 155, 184, 188, 244, 288; Rwanda genocide and, 171 International Court of Justice, International Criminal Court (ICC), 201, 220–21, 232–33, 247, 266, 279 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 60, 118, 221, 250, 278; Arkan and, 233; “command responsibility” and, 243; genesis of, 237–38; indictments by, 230, 237–40; as model for possible Darfur tribunal, 242 International Crisis Group, 142, 190, 269 International Development Committee, 161–62 International War Crimes Tribunal Rwanda (ICTR), 219–20, 242 Index Iran, 13, 57, 72, 78, 250, 275 Iraq, 205, 208, 247, 266; atrocities of Saddam Hussein, 80; invasion of Kuwait, 31; “oil for food” program and, 62, 272–73; safe havens for Kurds in, 46; U.S.-led invasion (2003), 206–7, 211, 245; war with Iran, 13 Islam: in Bosnia, 207, 249–51; conflict with West, 245–46; in Darfur, 140, 190, 205 Ismail, Mustafa Osman, 209 isolationism, 249 Israel, 13, 136, 206, 209, 261; Darfur refugees in, 208; UN criticism of, 260 Italy, Fascist, 15–16 Ivory Coast, 13 Izetbegoviª, Alija, 60, 63, 102–3, 152, 230 Janjaweed militia, 9–10, 137, 194, 278; AMIS troops and, 202; assault on IDP camps, 226; atrocities of, 148–50, 287; call for disarmament of, 184; cooperation with Sudanese military, 145, 148, 154, 164, 242–43, 288, 298n4; ethnic cleansing campaign of, 136, 163; genocide and, 145, 191, 198; incursions into Chad, 186; Khartoum’s promise to disband, 209; mockery of victims by, 152; Muslim victims of, 205; as para-state, 227; rape as weapon of war and, 150–53, 163, 197; Security Council resolutions and, 195; Sudanese government strategy and, 142, 145–46; suppression of rebel 315 armies and, 141; UN sanctions and, 279; Western inaction and, 244 See also Darfur region (Sudan) Janvier, Gen Bernard, 87, 88, 94, 98, 99, 130, 270; close air support (CAS) and, 104, 106; fall of Srebrenica and, 101–2, 106; guidelines on air power, 98; meeting with General Mladiª, 106–7; meeting with Miloseviª, 112; ˇ policy on military action, 107, 108; Srebrenica massacres and, 118 Japan, 6, 267, 274 Jarrah, Ziad, 250 “Jean-Pierre” (Hutu militia leader), 167–68, 169 Jews: Arab/Muslim conspiratorial view of, 205–6, 209; Nazi massacres of, 77, 121 Jonah, James, 167 Joseph, Ed, 80, 264–65 journalists, 2, 3–4, 33, 41–42, 60–61, 114 Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), 141, 144, 161, 202, 209 Kabila, Joseph, 216 Kabila, Laurent, 215, 216 Kagame, Paul, 181, 186, 215, 296n8:5 Kailek (Darfur), attack on, 148–49, 151, 153 Kandiª Natasa, 278 ˇ Kapila, Mukesh, 18, 135, 197, 278; Darfur crisis publicized by, 162–64, 165; death threats against, 163; document on human rights abuses in Darfur, 281, 286–89; on financing of Darfur war, 316 Kapila, Mukesh (continued) 246; human rights investigations by, 153–56; on Security Council agenda, 160–61; on UN failure in Darfur, 272 Kaplan, Robert, 57 Karadjordje (Djordje Petroviª), 123 Karadziª, Radovan, 66, 88, 169, 282; ˇ assault on Gorazde and, 68; Dayˇ ton peace settlement and, 230; international community confronted by, 283; media attention and, 235; meetings with UN officials, 78; Miloseviª and, 137; ˇ NATO air strikes and, 64, 130; U.S policy in Bosnia and, 57; as wanted war criminal, 239, 240, 241–42 Karremans, Lt Col Thom, 86, 94, 95, 97, 98; close air support (CAS) and, 13, 100, 101, 102; fall of Srebrenica and, 99, 100, 101, 102; meeting with General Mladiª, 105–6 Kashmir, 35 Keane, Feargal, 222 Keating, Colin, 18, 40, 63, 84; Rwanda genocide and, 172, 173, 175, 177–78, 179; on UN use of force, 247–48; UNAMIR force in Rwanda and, 176 Kenya, 138, 162 Keraterm concentration camp, 242 Kertész, Imre, 119 Khalid, Masood, 205 Khartoum, 136, 138; International Criminal Court (ICC) and, 232; regime change in, 144; UN officials in, 157 Index Kigali, Rwanda, 169, 176, 179, 186, 255 Kingori, Joseph, 117 Klein, Jacques, 219 Kosovo, 19, 207, 221, 236, 252 Kristof, Nicholas, 186–87 Krstiª, Gen Radislav, 237, 239, 240, 276 Kubara, Amir, 243 Kurds, 46, 80 Kutum Province (Darfur), 146–47 Kuwait, 31, 34, 272 Lake, Tony, 175 Lapresle, Gen Bertrand de, 69, 79, 87, 107 law, international, 10, 13, 34, 178; commitment to enforcement of, 267; definition of genocide, 201; theoretical debate about genocide and, 220; war crimes tribunals and, 240 le Hardy, Lt Col C A., 87 League of Nations, 10, 15–16, 19–20, 165 Lemkin, Rafael, 10–12 Liberia, 13, 218–19, 221, 266 Libya, 138, 142, 258, 261, 275 Life of My Choice, The (Thesiger), 139 Ôúdz ghetto, 77 Lubbers, Ruud, 73 Lusaka accords, 216 Maass, Peter, Macedonia, 25, 251 Mackenzie, Gen Lewis, 60, 292n2:3 Maclean, Fitzroy, 48 Major, John, 34, 48, 129 Index Malloch-Brown, Mark, 163 malnutrition, deaths from, Marker, Jamsheed, 52, 54 Martiª, Milan, 88, 89, 282 Masalit ethnic group, 138, 200, 205 mass graves, 9, 114 “Maybe Airlines,” 1–2 Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 257, 261, 277 Médecins Sans Frontières [Doctors Without Borders] (MSF), 75–76, 175 media, influence of, 85, 205; legitimacy conveyed on outlaw regimes, 235; Serbian television, 110, 111, 124; Srebrenica massacre videotapes, 277–78 Méndez, Juan, 226–27, 261 Mendiluce, José Maria, 118 Menkerios, Haile, 140, 141, 143–44, 187–88, 233–34 Mérimée, Jean-Bernard, 47, 48, 54, 55, 109, 273 Miloseviª, Slobodan, 16, 25, 38, ˇ 62, 282; assault on Gorazde and, ˇ 68, 69; corrupt regime of, 123; Dayton peace settlement and, 230–31; death of, 240; elected president of Serbia, 139; General Mladiª as Frankenstein monster of, 227; on impartiality of United Nations, 23; indicted by war crimes tribunal, 239; intelligence of, 256; Kosovo war and, 236; NATO air strikes in Bosnia and, 283; paramilitary units and, 123, 137; peace talks and, 89; regime toppled (2000), 207, 252; Serbs of Krajina and, 130; on status of Bosnia-Herzegovina, 30; 317 Sudanese officials compared to, 137, 140, 141, 143, 210, 221, 224; UN hostages and, 107 Milovanoviª, Gen Manojlo, 79 Milstein, Mark, 37, 78 mission creep, 24849 Mitterrand, Franỗois, 48, 87, 186 Mladiª, Gen Ratko, 39, 57, 122, 137, 179; assault on Gorazde and, 66, ˇ 67, 68, 69; Bihaª assaulted by, 129; Dayton peace settlement and, 230; fall of Srebrenica and, 93, 94, 95, 109, 110; indicted by war crimes tribunal, 239, 240; Janjaweed compared to, 149; meetings with UN commanders, 78; Miloseviª and, 89; mockˇ ery of victims and, 152; NATO air strikes and, 69, 70, 79, 97, 132; no-fly ban and, 46; siege of Srebrenica and, 73, 82, 102, 103–7; Somalia conflict and, 49; Srebrenica massacre and, 118, 122, 124; UN troops and, 65–66, 68, 98, 202, 234; as wanted war criminal, 241–42 Mobutu Sese Seko, 215 “Mogadishu line,” crossing of, 64, 107 Montenegro, 25, 31, 241 MONUC (UN Mission in Congo), 204, 216–19 Morillon, Gen Philippe, 32, 39, 46, 96 Moussa, Amr, 210 Mubarak, Hosni, 208 Mugabe, Robert, 259 Muhammad, Prophet, Danish cartoons of, 207, 262 318 Mukhabarat (Sudanese intelligence service), 145, 224, 253 Musa, Sheikh Hilal, 139, 147 Muslim Brotherhood, 139 Mussolini, Benito, 15 Naivasha accords, 10, 18, 184, 195; Arab and Muslim view of, 206; autonomy of south Sudan and, 143; Darfur refugees and, 207; implications for Darfur, 162; officials’ fear of jeopardizing, 156, 163; oil interests and, 225; peacekeeping force and, 185; as template for solving Darfur crisis, 187–88; United Nations and, 211 Namibia, 13 Nash, Gen Bill, 237, 241 National Islamic Front (NIF), 139–40, 159, 233 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 17, 25, 48, 57, 202, 269; actions in wake of Srebrenica massacre, 129, 130–32; airpower in Bosnia, 54, 62, 64, 67, 69, 97; bombing of Serbia, 207, 251; Darfur crisis and, 246, 279; Dayton peace settlement and, 234, 237; fall of Srebrenica and, 95, 100, 102, 104; increasing role in Bosnian war, 67; relations with United Nations, 70, 81, 83–85; Rwanda genocide and, 180, 181; Serbian antiaircraft weapons and, 86; Serbian military equipment destroyed by, 67–68; split over Bosnia intervention, 251; UN troops held Index hostage by Serbs and, 107; weaponry in Bosnia, 65 NatWest Markets, 235–36 Nazism, 11, 47, 77; Nuremberg trials and, 242; Rwanda genocide compared to, 181; Serbian atrocities compared to, 117, 121–22 Ndiaye, Waly Bacre, 166 Netherlands, 71, 94 Neville-Jones, Pauline, 235 New York City, 8, 18–19, 85 New Zealand, 18, 40, 63, 178–79 Nicolai, Maj Gen Cees, 94, 95 Nigeria, no-fly zones, 46, 54, 79, 107, 212 No Power to Protect: the African Union Mission in Sudan (Refugees International report), 202 Non-Aligned Caucus (NAC), 35, 39, 52, 282; Franco-British policy in Bosnia and, 53–54; safe areas and, 45, 46 North Korea, 247, 260 Nuremberg trials, 242 O’Brien, Jim, 238 Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), 5, 155, 158, 164, 172 oil interests, 225–26 Okun, Herb, 26 Omarska concentration camp, 242 Operation Deliberate Force, 131–32, 158 Operation Flash, 89 Operation Murambatsvina, 259 Operation Turquoise, 186 Ordinary Men (Browning), 121 Index Organisation of African Unity, 184 Oric, Nasir, 38–39, 73, 87, 152; indicted by war crimes tribunal, 240; relief supplies and, 74; Srebrenica fighters and, 125 Oslo accords, 136 Ottoman Empire, 10, 122, 123 Owen, David, 17, 29, 34, 47; on bombing of Belgrade, 252; peace plan with Cyrus Vance, 49; regrets about Bosnia policy, 257; on safe-areas policy, 44, 55–56 P3 (Britain, France, United States), 40 P5 (permanent members of Security Council), 6, 9, 18, 29, 265; appearance of humanitarian action and, 45; combat mission of UN troops in Bosnia and, 85; Darfur crisis and, 159, 163, 201, 203; marginalization of Bosnia and, 36; Rwanda genocide and, 177; safe areas and, 52–54; Secretariat of United Nations and, 58; siege of Srebrenica and, 39; UN secretary general and, 269; as victors of Second World War, 47 See also Security Council Pakistan, 13, 52, 53, 54, 184, 223; Darfur crisis and, 193, 204–5; Human Rights Council and, 275 Palestine Liberation Organization, 136, 144 Palestine/Palestinian Territories, 205, 258–59, 261 Palestinians, 225 paramilitary forces, 15, 23–24, 123, 145 Payne, Rep Donald, 225–26 319 peacekeeping operations, 13–15, 63; in Congo, 216–19; in Liberia, 218–19; protection of civilians and, 275; in Sudan, 212 See also UN troops; UNPROFOR Peacekeeping Operations, Department of (DPKO), 6, 37, 213; Annan and, 61–62, 254–55; Best Practices Unit, 270; Bosnian war and, 31, 32–33; Darfur crisis and, 199; demilitarization of Bosnian forces and, 46; fall of Srebrenica and, 96, 108; NATO split with UN and, 83, 85, 158; Rwanda genocide and, 167–68, 170–71; safe areas and, 47, 55; Srebrenica massacre and, 123, 126–27; UNPROFOR and, 268 People’s Defense Force (PDF), 147, 154 Pérez de Cuellar, Javier, 27, 28 Perisiª, Gen Momãilo, 239 ˇ Petroviª, Ibro and Hasan, 125–26 Physicians for Human Rights, Poland, 77, 121 Political Affairs, Department of (DPA), 5, 6, 7, 62, 154, 267; African division, 140; Bosnian Serb leaders and, 235; Darfur crisis and, 138, 155, 163, 187, 199, 211; Rwanda genocide and, 167 Popoviª, Dragan, 250–51 Popular Arab and Islamic Conference (PAIC), 144 Postcards from the Grave (Suljagic), 74 Powell, Gen Colin, 51, 182, 197–200, 206, 222 Power, Samantha, 149 320 Prendergast, John, 142, 190, 222, 232–33, 247, 269 Prendergast, Kieran, 154, 163 Prosper, Pierre-Richard, 195–96, 198, 210, 219–20, 222–23 Public Information, Department of (DPI), 91 Qaeda, al-, 144, 224, 250, 251 Rabin, Yitzhak, 136, 231 rape, as weapon of war, 113, 117, 163, 197, 200, 287; genocide and, 220; rape camps, 61, 150; terrorinspiring effect of, 150–53 ˇ Raznatoviª Z ljko (Arkan), 122, 145, ˇ 147, 233 refugees: in Bosnia, 38, 75, 113; from Darfur, 145, 158, 191, 196–97, 207–8, 278 Refugees International, 202, 203 regime change, 253 relief supplies, 34, 41, 74, 198; British policy in Bosnia and, 55; in Darfur, 155; military protection of aid convoys, 64–65, 86; Serbian blockades and, 97; as weapon of war, 191–92 Renssen, Raviv van, 98–99 Report of the International Commission of Inquiry, 200 Republic of Serb Krajina (RSK), 26, 39, 129–30 Republika Srpska (Serb Republic in Bosnia), 118, 230 Reserve Police Battalion 101, German, 123 Rice, Condoleezza, 222 Rieff, David, 37 Riza, Iqbal, 84, 96, 255; Darfur crisis Index and, 163; fall of Srebrenica and, 127; “oil-for-food” corruption and, 273; Rwanda genocide and, 168, 169, 170, 268; UNAMIR’s mandate and, 174 rogue regimes, 15 Rohde, David, 106 Rome Statute, 221 Rose, Gen Michael, 63, 64, 87, 131, 158, 169; assault on Gorazde and, ˇ 66, 67–68; close air support (CAS) ordered by, 80–81; meetings with Serbian commanders, 66, 78; on UN mission in Bosnia, 83 Rumkowski, Mordechai, 77 Russia, 5, 31, 35, 158, 258; as ally of Serbia, 40, 49; attitude toward intervention in Bosnia, 49; Darfur crisis and, 194, 205, 226, 246–47, 279; history of Balkans and, 47; Human Rights Council and, 275; as member of P5, 6; role in Bosnian war, 39–40; safe areas and, 52, 53; threat of veto by, 246–47 Rwanda, 7, 11, 12, 17, 155, 163, 214; AMIS troops in Darfur from, 202; anniversary of genocide, 165; comparison with Somalia, 50; Congolese wars and, 215, 216, 218; Dallaire’s “genocide fax” to DPKO, 284–86; ethnic groups of, 165; French role in, 181, 186, 251; lessons from, 267; peacekeeping operations in, 14; seat on Security Council, 172–73, 175; UN reluctance to recognize genocide in, 13; warnings of genocide, 165–71, 173 Index Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), 165, 181, 186, 285, 296n8:5 Sablière, Jean-Marc de la, 226 Sabotage Unit, 10th, 118–21, 239 Sacirbey, Muhamed “Mo,” 33, 36, 53–54, 90, 93 safe areas, 8, 24, 45–47; liberated by Croatian forces, 129; military action to protect, 54–56, 64, 81; “protected” areas and, 40–41; Serbs’ strategic attack on, 97–98 Sanbar, Samir, 91 sanctions, 6, 14, 16, 160; on Iraq, 80, 272; on Serbia, 31, 54, 236; on Sudan, 160, 161, 192–95, 199, 209, 211, 232, 246, 247, 262, 278–79 Santayana, George, Sarajevo, 1, 2, 32, 35, 91; BoutrosGhali in, 29; bread queue massacre in marketplace, 60, 130, 256; Butmir suburb, 3; cease-fire and, 64; civilians targeted in, 60; defensibility of, 56; mafia gangs in, 76–77; shelled by Serbian forces, 97, 130, 281–82; siege of, 4, 36, 67, 149; Sniper’s Alley, 2; UN corruption in, 37; as UN safe area, 45 Saudi Arabia, 57, 72, 165, 250, 251, 275 Schmitz, Peter, 62, 96, 123, 255 Scorpions (Serb militia), 23–24, 229, 277 Second World War, 4, 6, 10–11, 109, 265; Jewish ghettos in Poland during, 77, 121; P5 as victors of, 47 Secretariat, 4, 6, 7, 8, 17; appointment of Annan and, 158–59; Brahimi report and, 213, 214; bureaucracy of, 8; Darfur crisis 321 and, 138, 155, 212; failures of UN and, 264; NATO airpower in Bosnia and, 265; P5 and, 265; principle of neutrality and, 35; relationship with Security Council, 213, 254, 269; Rwandan genocide and, 18, 166, 170, 171, 179; safe areas and, 52, 55, 57–59; Security Council and, 7; split with UNPROFOR, 90; Srebrenica massacre and, 126–27 secretary general (SG), 6–7 Security Council, 3, 4, 8, 41; African Union troops for Darfur and, 189; Arab and Muslim bloc and, 205; Bosnian war and, 26–27; chamber of, 29–30; concentration camps in Bosnia and, 33–34; Congo wars and, 216; Darfur crisis and, 157, 160–61, 184, 192, 226, 228, 278–79; Egeland’s briefing on Darfur disaster, 135–36, 138, 164, 171, 184; fall of Srebrenica and, 101, 108–9; fate of Bosnia and, 114; first- and second-class members of, 29; genocide in Bosnia and, 43; incoherent response to genocide, 56; peacekeeping operations and, 14, 213; permanent members, 6; realpolitik and, 8–9; reluctance to recognize genocide, 13; Rwanda genocide and, 166, 170, 174, 176, 179, 180, 183; safe areas and, 52; Srebrenica mission, 45; Sudan’s north-south conflict and, 155, 194–95; veto power of P5 in, 6, 208, 212, 221, 222, 246–47 See also P5 (permanent members of Security Council) 322 Selassie, Haile, 15–16, 19–20 self-hate, 122 Serbia, 105, 241; corruption of Miloseviª regime, 123; European ˇ Union membership and, 241; Greater Serbia, 25; Kosovo war and, 251; NATO bombing of, 207, 252; ruled by Ottoman Empire, 122, 123; Russia as ally of, 40, 49 See also Yugoslavia, former Serbs, Bosnian, 1, 2, 78; air strikes against, 16, 61, 67; Arkan’s Tigers, 93, 97; assault on Srebrenica and, 72; atrocities as spur to Islamic radicalism, 249–50; black market items bought from, 75; Bosniak civilians murdered by, 113–21, 126, 128, 129, 229–30; British warplane shot down by, 68, 130; BSA (Bosnian Serb Army), 108, 282, 283; cease-fire with Bosnian government, 64; cultural similarity to Bosniaks, 122; Dayton peace settlement and, 230–31; Dutch UN troops attacked by, 93–94, 100–102; fall of Srebrenica and, 96–97, 99; Janjaweed militia compared to, 137; military defeat of, 129; murder of POWs by, 9, 23–24; as primary aggressors, 48, 60; safe areas and, 46, 97–98; Srebrenica massacre and, 236–37; Sudanese officials compared to, 191–92; UN neutrality and, 35, 42, 59; UN resolutions and, 52; UN troops and, 65–66, 88, 98, 106–7, 282; as victims, 240, 243; weaponry of, 66, 79, 81, 86, 97; Yugoslav army support for, 159 Index Sevan, Benon, 272 Shake Hands with the Devil (Dallaire), 186 Sharia (Islamic law), 143 Shattuck, John, 113 Shehhi, Marwan al-, 250 Shelley, Christine, 177 Short, Clare, 19 Sierra Leone, 218, 221 Silajdziª, Haris, 131 ˇ Silverstein, Ken, 224 Simms, Brendan, 77–78 Situation (play by Karadziª), 242 ˇ Slovenia, 25, 47, 56, 122 Smith, Adm Leighton, 107, 131 Smith, Gen Rupert, 87, 88; fall of Srebrenica and, 94, 96, 99, 103; meeting with Miloseviª, 124; ˇ NATO air strikes and, 130–32, 282, 284 Solong, Suleiman, 140 Somalia, 28, 49–50, 64, 173, 248, 255 Sontag, Susan, 37 South Africa, 183, 217, 258 Soviet Union, 13 Spain, 52 Srebrenica, 7, 8, 17, 85, 148, 277; civilians massacred in, 113–21; Clinton administration’s aloofness and, 265–66; conditions in besieged city, 73–77, 93; disarmament of, 45–46; Dutch UN troops in, 71–72; fall to Serbian forces, 92, 94–97, 127; indefensibility of, 56; lessons from, 213, 267; massacre as impetus for war crimes tribunal, 236–37, 239, 241; NATO intervention and, 57; salt deprivation in, 73–74; Serbian Index paramilitaries’ attack on, 23–24, 38–40; starvation in, 71; survivors of massacre, 257, 276; UN failures in, 254, 270–71; as UN safe area, 24, 37, 40–41, 109; UN’s abandonment of, 20 State Department, U.S.: Bosnian war and, 51; Darfur crisis and, 196, 198; Rwanda genocide and, 158, 174, 177; Sudan and, 225; war crimes tribunal for former Yugoslavia and, 238 Stewart, Col Bob, 65 Sudan, 9, 18, 136, 275; Arab and Islamic UN bloc and, 210–11; Arab population, 137, 138, 140, 141, 162; bin Laden in, 223; black African population, 138, 140; border tensions with Chad, 187; government culpability for Janjaweed crimes, 242–43; history and geography, 138–40; International Criminal Court (ICC) and, 232–33; Iraq war and, 206–7, 208, 245; “Jihadi card” and, 245–46; as member of UN Human Rights Commission, 165, 172, 258, 259; methodology of genocide in, 137; military forces, 137, 145, 202, 226, 288; Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs, 163, 164; National Unity government, 162; north-south conflict in, 143, 144, 153, 155, 161, 162, 187, 212; oil industry, 193, 199, 212, 225–26, 246; sanctions on leaders of, 278; as UN member state, 228 See also Darfur region (Sudan); Janjaweed militia; Naivasha accords 323 Sudan, Oil, and Human Rights (Human Rights Watch), 193 Sudan Liberation Army (SLA), 141, 161, 202, 209 Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), 142–43, 162, 187, 225 Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM), 18, 187 Suez crisis (1956), 13 suicide bombers, Palestinian, 259, 274 Suljagic, Emir, 74 Suljiª, Osman, 74 superpowers, 8, 13, 17, 263 Surra, village of, 148 Syria, 275 Tadiª, Dusko, 242 ˇ Taha, Ali Osman, 224 Taiwan, 247 Task Force Eagle, 237 Taylor, Charles, 221 terrorism, 210, 223–25, 249–51, 274 Tharoor, Shashi, 26–27, 31, 37; in Annan’s cabinet, 254–55; on desperate situation of Srebrenica, 71; fall of Srebrenica and, 96, 127; meetings with Serbian commanders, 68, 78; on safe areas, 55; safe areas and, 46; shift in position on Bosnia, 83–84; on weakness of UNPROFOR, 85–86 Thesiger, Wilfred, 139, 146–47 Tibet, 49, 247 Tito and Titoism, 30, 38, 47 torture, 140, 152, 200, 206, 242 Trusteeship Council, 4–5 Tudjman, Franjo, 47, 230 Turabi, Hassan al-, 139–40, 144, 209 Turajlic, Hakija, 35 324 Turbo-folk music, in Serbia, 122 Türk, Danilo, 56 Turkey, 47, 78 Tutsis, 11, 165; in Congo, 215; plans to massacre, 168, 285; Rwandan government hate campaign against, 166, 167 Tuzla, city of, 24, 45, 56; reports of Srebrenica massacres and, 115, 129; shelled by Serbian forces, 97–98; Srebrenica survivors in, 257; UN regional command in, 93, 95, 128; UN troops in, 65–66 Uganda, 165, 215, 216, 218 UN military observers (UNMOs), 66, 68, 93 UN troops, 1–2, 4, 72; aid operations and, 37; British, 63–65, 78; casualties among, 82, 98–99; in Congo, 216–19; criminal activities committed by, 3; French, 35, 107; held hostage, 98, 282; in Rwanda, 167, 174, 176; Scandinavian, 65–66; in Sudan, 10; withdrawn from Bosnian Serb territory, 129, 130 See also Dutchbat (Dutch UN troops in Bosnia) UNAMIR (UN Assistance Mission to Rwanda), 166–69, 171, 173–77, 218, 285; African Union troops in Darfur compared to, 203; collapse of, 175–77; reinforcement of, 179, 180 UNESCO (UN Scientific, Educational and Cultural Organization), 260 Unfinest Hour (Simms), 77–78 UNHCR (United Nations High Index Commissioner for Refugees), 5, 36, 46, 80, 276–77; Darfur refugees and, 207; fall of Srebrenica and, 92; Srebrenica massacres and, 117, 118 United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), United Nations Operation Somalia (UNOSOM), 50 United Nations (UN): ambassadors to, 17, 18, 33, 35, 50–52, 56, 230, 256; Arab and Islamic bloc at, 210–11; Commission on Human Rights (CHR), 257–58, 259, 261, 273, 274–75; Darfur crisis and, 136, 138, 153–54, 164–65, 172, 187–88, 211–12, 232, 262; Development Programme, 163, 266; establishment of, 4; failures of, 264; founding ideals of, 17–18, 19, 82, 159, 266; Humanitarian Affairs, Department of, 6; humanitarian law and, 219–20; member states, 2, 4, 5–6; neutrality as principle of, 35, 42, 58, 256; New York headquarters, 18–20, 28, 58–59, 61, 263, 276; Peacebuilding Commission, 273, 274; peacekeeping operations, 13–15; Permanent Representatives, 47; principal bodies, 4–5; relations with NATO, 70, 81, 83–85; reluctance to confront Bosnian Serb army, 107–8; Rwanda genocide and, 165, 166, 170, 174, 177, 181; Srebrenica massacre and, 123–24, 127–29; superpower politics at, 17; trust territories, 5; viability, in long term, 261; war crimes tribunals 325 Index and, 237, 238; warlords and, 26; World Food Programme (WFP), 158 See also General Assembly; Peacekeeping Operations, Department of (DPKO); Secretariat; Security Council United States, 5, 11, 12, 35; accused of human rights abuses, 261; ambassador to United Nations, 50–51, 230; Annan supported by, 158; Cold War and, 13; Darfur crisis and, 185, 194–99, 226, 279; Dayton peace settlement and, 230, 234; diplomats, 34; Holocaust Museum (Washington, D.C.), 277, 278; International Criminal Court (ICC) and, 221–22; Iraq war and, 206–7, 211; as member of P5, 6; “mission creep” as inhibiting factor, 248–49; oil interests in Sudan, 225–26; role in Bosnian war, 48, 49, 50–52, 83, 131; Rwanda genocide and, 173, 174–75, 178, 183; Somalia intervention, 49–50, 64, 248; strained relations with United Nations, 84, 98; terrorist attacks on, 250; UN budget and, 272 United Task Force (UNITAF), 50 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 4, 7, 261, 267 UNMIK (UN mission in Kosovo), 19 UNMIL (UN mission to Liberia), 218–19 UNMIS (UN peacekeepers in Sudan), 212 UNPROFOR (UN protection force for the Former Yugoslavia), 1, 8, 128, 137, 161, 218, 268; Akashi’s defense of, 255–56; AMIS force in Darfur compared to, 202, 203; appeasement of Serbs, 80; assault on Gorazde and, 66; ˇ Bosnian Serb Army (BSA) and, 282; British Foreign Office and, 48; casualties in Bosnian war, 159; comparison with African Union forces in Darfur, 189, 190; cooperation with Bosnian Serbs, 42; demilitarization of Bosnian forces and, 46; end of Bosnia war and, 132; fall of Srebrenica and, 94–96, 96, 103–5; humanitarian record of, 82–83; neutrality principle and, 58–59; P5 and, 32; Rose as commander, 63; safe areas and, 46–47, 52, 55, 64, 88; Sarajevo airport and, 3, 32, 37; Serb atrocities in Bosnia and, 33, 34; siege of Sarajevo and, 36; Srebrenica massacre and, 39, 117, 124, 126; UNAMIR compared to, 166; weakness of, 31, 85 Uwilingiyimana, Agathe, 174 Vance, Cyrus, 49 Vance-Owen peace plan, 34, 49 Venezuela, 18, 53, 54 Vietnam War, 52 Vojna Linija (Military Line) faction, 25 Voorhoeve, Joris, 101, 104, 126 Vukovar, Croatia, Wadi al-Aqiq (bin Laden’s construction company), 223 war crimes, 26, 60, 67, 130, 147 326 war crimes tribunals See International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY); International War Crimes Tribunal Rwanda (ICTR) Warrell, Helen, 243 water supplies, destruction of, 145 weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), 206 Weschler, Joanna, 259 Willem Alexander, crown prince of the Netherlands, 126 Williams, Michael, 48, 68–69, 91, 161, 252, 267 Willum, Bjørn, 168, 171, 173 Wolf, Rep Frank R., 191 World Bank, 195 World Food Programme (WFP), World Health Organization, 244, 260 Wörner, Manfred, 64, 66, 67, 68, 70 Yeltsin, Boris, 40 Yishan, Zhang, 193 Index Yugoslav army (JNA), 25, 73, 130, 137, 159 Yugoslavia, former, 1, 9, 16, 88; arms embargo against, 192; break-up of, 49; comparison with Sudan, 137, 142; Dayton peace settlement and, 236; partisans in Second World War, 47; wars in, 24–26 Z-740 cable, 88 Zaghawa ethnic group, 138, 152, 200; in Chad, 187; ethnic cleansing of, 146, 147; as Muslims, 205 Zagreb, Croatia, 1, 8, 32, 79, 89, 106 Zaire, 186, 215 Zametica, Jovan, 130–31 ˇ Z epa, city of, 37, 59, 149; black market and, 75; indefensibility of, 56; shelled by Serbian forces, 97; as UN safe area, 45 Zimbabwe, 165, 215, 217, 258, 259–60, 275 Zoellick, Robert, 235 ... Hitler: The Choices of a Nation and the Ethics of Survival Milosevic: A Biography City of Oranges: Arabs and Jews in Jaffa ? ?Complicity with Evil? ?? The United Nations in the Age of Modern Genocide. .. Security Council and the Secretariat is crucial to understanding the United Nations in the age of modern genocide Their symbiotic entwining has helped shape the United Nations? ?? failures in Bosnia, Rwanda,... Lemkin During the 1930s, Lemkin lobbied the United Nations? ?? predecessor, the League of Nations, for passage of international laws against the destruction of a people and its culture Lemkin, in