The UN Secretary-General and Moral Authority The UN Secretary-General and Moral Authority Ethics and Religion in International Leadership kent j kille, editor Georgetown University Press  washington, d.c Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C www.press.georgetown.edu © 2007 by Georgetown University Press All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The UN Secretary-General and moral authority : ethics and religion in international leadership / edited by Kent J Kille    p cm  Includes bibliographical references and index  ISBN-13: 978-1-58901-180-9 (alk paper)   International relations — Moral and ethical aspects Political leadership — Moral and ethical aspects United Nations Secretary-General I Kille, Kent J JZ1306.U55 2007 172.4 — dc22 2007011204 This book is printed on acid-free paper meeting the requirements of the American National Standard for Permanence in Paper for Printed Library Materials 14  13  12  11  10  09  08  07   9  8  7  6  5  4  3  First printing Printed in the United States of America To the vision of Harold Guetzkow and In memory of Charles S McCoy Contents Acknowledgments ix Introduction kent j kille 1 Moral Authority and the UN Secretary-General’s Ethical Framework kent j kille Seeking Balance: The Secretary-General as Normative Negotiator dorothy v jones 39 The House That Trygve Lie Built: Ethical Challenges as the First UN Secretary-General james p muldoon jr 67 The UN Charter, the New Testament, and Psalms: The Moral Authority of Dag Hammarskjöld alynna j lyon 111 U Thant: Buddhism in Action a walter dorn 143 6 An Ethical Enigma: Another Look at Kurt Waldheim michael t kuchinsky 187 7 Religion, Ethics, and Reality: A Study of Javier Perez de Cuellar barbara ann rieffer-flanagan and david p forsythe 229 A Realist in the Utopian City: Boutros Boutros-Ghali’s Ethical Framework and Its Impact anthony f lang jr 265 Politics and Values at the United Nations: Kofi Annan’s Balancing Act courtney b smith 299 10 The Secular Pope: Insights on the UN Secretary-General and Moral Authority kent j kille 337 Contributors 355 Index 361 Acknowledgments The first and most important acknowledgment is to Harold Guetzkow Dr Guetzkow initiated the project that produced this volume and ensured generous funding that supported research, travel, and meetings He stressed the need for a detailed examination of the religious and moral values of the UN secretaries-general while encouraging us to present the study in a manner that would be accessible to a range of interested r ­ eaders The authors of this volume hope we have been able to live up to his impressive vision The initial guidelines for this study were developed by the editor in conjunction with Dr Guetzkow and the late Charles McCoy at the Center for Ethics and Social Policy of the Graduate Theological Union in B ­ erkeley, California We were also assisted at this early juncture by an advisory committee consisting of Edwin Epstein, Mark Juergensmeyer, Jack ­Sawyer, Courtney Smith, Robert Traer, and William Trampleasure The first full meeting of the contributors was held in August 2004 at Seton Hall University’s John C Whitehead School of Diplomacy and International Relations As the research progressed, follow-up meetings and paper presentations took place at the annual meetings of the International Studies Association–Southern Region in 2004, the International Studies Association in 2005 and 2006, the Academic Council on the United Nations System in 2005 and 2006, and the American Political Science Association in 2006, as well as the Centre for the Study of Religion and Politics at the University of St Andrews in 2005 Although they are directly referenced in the relevant chapters, we want to offer our great thanks to those close to the secretaries-general who agreed to be interviewed for this volume — Guri Lie Zeckendorf, Thant Myint-U, Rafee Ahmed, Diego Cordovez, James Jonah, Albert Rohan, Samir Sambar, Paul Wee, Jean-Marc Coicaud, Michael Doyle, Patrick Hayford, Robert Orr, Kieran Prendergast, Lamin Sise, and Gillian Sorensen — as well as those individuals who wished to remain anonymous but who provided important information ix 356  Contributors Movement, and to the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees He served as president of the Human Rights Committee of the International Political Science Association, as vice president of the International Studies Association, and as a member of the Committee on Scientific Freedom and Responsibility of the American Association for the Advancement of Science He has written more than seventy-five publications on different aspects of international relations, including Human Rights in International Relations (Cambridge University Press, 2000; translated into Chinese, Turkish, Korean, and Bulgarian), Human Rights and Comparative Foreign Policy (United Nations University Press, 2000) (editor), The United States and Human Rights (University of Nebraska Press, 2000) (editor), The United Nations and Changing World Politics, with Thomas Weiss, Roger Coate, and Kelly-Kate Pease, 5th ed (Westview Press, 2007), Human Rights and Diversity: Area Studies Revisited (University of Nebraska Press, 2004) (coeditor with Patrice McMahon), and The Humanitarians: The International Committee of the Red Cross (Cambridge University Press, 2005) In the fall of 2003 the Midwest section of the International Studies Association presented him with the Quincy Wright Distinguished Scholar Award in honor of his lifetime professional achievements Dorothy V Jones is a scholar-in-residence at the Newberry Library, Chicago At the University of Chicago, where she received her PhD, she studied with the international historian Akira Iriye A two-year MacArthur Foundation postdoctoral fellowship allowed her to pursue the study of ethics and international affairs, as did service on the board of trustees of the Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs and on the editorial advisory board of the council’s scholarly journal, Ethics and Inter-­ national Affairs She has also been an associate professor in the History Department of Northwestern University Her book Toward a Just World (University of Chicago Press, 2002) won the Jervis-Schroeder Prize of the history and politics section of the American Political Science Association Her writing on the UN secretary-general includes a 1994 article titled “The Example of Dag Hammarskjöld: Style and Effectiveness at the UN” and chapters in Ethics and Statecraft: The Moral Dimension of Interna-­ tional Affairs (Praeger, 2004) and The Adventure of Peace: Dag Hammarskjöld and the Future of the UN (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) Her current projects include a study of restraints on the use of force, and research for two entries in The ­Dictionary of Transnational History, to be published by Palgrave Macmillan Contributors  357 Kent J Kille is an associate professor in the Department of Political Science and the chair of the International Relations Program at The College of Wooster He has teaching and research interests in international organization, political leadership, peace studies, national identity, and active learning He is the author of From Manager to Visionary: The ­Secretary-­General of the United Nations (Palgrave Macmillan, 2006) and has written articles for International Studies Perspectives, International Studies Review, and Political Psychology He is an associate editor of the International Journal of Peace Studies and served as special editor of the autumn/winter 2004 issue, “Putting the Peace Tools to Work: Essays in Honor of Chadwick F Alger.” Michael T Kuchinsky is an assistant professor at Gardner-Webb University He received his BA from Wittenberg University with a double major in political science and religion He received his MDiv from the Lutheran School of Theology in Chicago, his MA in political science from University of Richmond, and his PhD in government and international studies from the University of South Carolina He has served as chaplain for Newberry College, project coordinator for the Africa Food Security Project at the Bread for the World Institute, and as vice president of the Luther Institute He has also taught at Columbia College, George Washington University, Goucher College, Hood College, and Newberry College Anthony F Lang Jr is a senior lecturer in the School of International Relations at the University of St Andrews He has taught at the American University in Cairo, Yale University, Bard College, and Albright College, and served as a program officer at the Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs He currently serves on the editorial board of the journal Ethics and International Affairs His research and teaching focus on international political theory, with particular attention to the use of military force, humanitarian intervention, and U.S foreign policy He has written one book, Agency and Ethics: The Politics of Military Intervention (State University of New York Press, 2002), edited or coedited four other books, written several book chapters — including “Conflicting Narratives, Conflicting Moralities: The United Nations and the Failure of Humanitarian Intervention” and “The United Nations and the Fall of Srebrenica: Meaningful Responsibility and International Society” — and published articles in PS: Politics and Political Science, European Journal of International Rela-­ tions, Cambridge Review of International Affairs, and International Relations His current work focuses on punishment and justice at the global level 358  Contributors Alynna J Lyon is an assistant professor in the Department of Political Science at the University of New Hampshire She received her PhD from the University of South Carolina in 1999 Her research focuses on ethnic identity, conflict, peacekeeping, and international organizations Her recent articles include “Revisiting the Lessons of Multilateral Peacekeeping: A Critical Analysis of UNAMIR and KFOR” in Global Society, “International Influences on the Mobilization of Violence in Kosovo and Macedonia” in the Journal of International Relations and Development, and “Policing After Ethnic Conflict” in Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management James P Muldoon Jr is a senior fellow at the Center for Global Change and Governance of Rutgers University–Newark, conducting research on international diplomacy and international organizations Prior to joining the center, he was a senior research fellow at the Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs (1999–2000), visiting scholar at the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences in China (1996 –99), and director of education programs with the United Nations Association of the United States of America (1986 –96) His publications include the edited Multilateral Diplomacy and the United Nations Today, 2d ed (Westview Press, 2005) and The Architecture of Global Governance: An Introduction to the Study of Inter-­ national Organizations (Westview Press, 2004) He lectures on diplomacy and international affairs around the world and has contributed to major newspapers and academic journals on contemporary international relations and global issues He holds a BA from St Louis University and an MA in political science from Miami University (Ohio) Barbara Ann Rieffer-Flanagan is an assistant professor at Central Washington University Her research and teaching interests revolve around religion, democracy, and human rights She has written on the relationship between religion and nationalism and the human rights violations that result from this connection in international relations She has also published articles on the promotion of democracy and American foreign policy She is currently working on a book on the International Committee of the Red Cross Courtney B Smith is an associate professor at the John C Whitehead School of Diplomacy and International Relations at Seton Hall University, where he also serves as associate dean of academic affairs and director of Contributors  359 the United Nations Intensive Summer Study Program His teaching and research interests center on international organizations, specifically the United Nations He has published articles on global consensus building, Security Council reform, the UN secretary-general, peacekeeping, the relationship between the United States and the United Nations, the UN Year of Dialogue Among Civilizations, and teaching about the United Nations His book Politics and Process at the United Nations: The Global Dance was published by Lynne Rienner in 2005 Index Abi-Saab, Georges, 310 abortion, 251, 252 Afghanistan, 249–51 Agenda for Democratization ( Boutros-Ghali), 5, 266, 274 –75, 287–89 Agenda for Peace ( Boutros-Ghali), 277, 286 Aideed, Mohammed, 276, 277, 278, 279 Albright, Madeline, 308 Algeria, 167 Anglican faith, 14, 303 Annan, Kofi, 5, 46 – 47, 291; assessments of secretary-generalship, 299–300, 301, 328–29; career development, 47; conflicting responsibilities, 301; Darfur crisis and, 5, 323–25; early life and education, 302–3, 342; election to secretary-generalship, 315; external constraints on secretary-generalship, 312–18, 328, 348; on Hammarskjöld, 136; influence of personal values on actions and decisions, 299, 302, 316 –29, 343, 346; Iraq issues during secretarygeneralship, 319–22; leadership style, 300 –301; Millennium Development Goals and, 325–27; on moral authority of secretary-generalship, 9, 317–18; moral values, 15, 305–9; Nobel Peace Prize, 299–300; perception of office of secretary-general, 299, 316; personal qualities, 306 –7, 309–12; professional disappointments, 300, 306; relationship with U.S., 314 –16, 321–22, 326 –27; religious and spiritual beliefs, 14, 302–5, 339; as under-secretary-general, 300; UN organizations reforms undertaken by, 327–28 Annan, Kojo, 328 Annan, Nane, 306, 309–10, 311 Argentina, 242 Arias Plan, 245, 246 arms control and disarmament, 234 –35, 243– 44; Lie’s twenty-year peace program, 88–89 Article of UN Charter, Article 97 of UN Charter, 7–8 Article 98 of UN Charter, 8, 241, 260n44 Article 99 of UN Charter, 8, 41, 54, 68, 92, 130, 169, 241 Article 100 of UN Charter, 8–9, 23, 125 Article 101 of UN Charter, 23, 125 astrology, 174 Atlantic Charter, 77, 105n42 Atomic Energy Commission, 88 Auden, W H., 52 Aulén, Gustaf, 112, 118, 121 Austria, 189, 191, 196, 216 Austrian Example, The ( Waldheim), 196 Avenol, Joseph, 53 Balkans conflict (1992), 279–82 see also Srebrenica Ban Ki-Moon, 9–10, 25–26n9, 347, 349, 353–54nn3– 4 Barash, David, 16 Barros, James, 11–12, 74 –75, 98, 109n104, 132 Baudot, Jacques, 10 Beame, Abraham, 150 –51 Benedict XV, Pope, 190, 220n11 Bernadotte, Folke, 101–2 Biafra, 164, 177 Bingham, June, 148– 49 Birch, Bruce, 217 Bolton, John, 326 Booth, Ken, 18 Bosnia, 5, 306, 318 see also Balkans conflict (1992) Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, 5, 46 – 47, 54, 315; Agenda documents, 5, 266, 274 –75, 286 – 89; belief in human goodness, 271–72; 361 362  Index Boutros-Ghali, Boutros (continued ) early life and education, 265, 266 – 67, 268– 69, 341, 349; ethical framework, 265–74, 288, 346; influence of ethical framework in secretary-generalship of, 266, 278–79, 289–92, 343; perception of United Nations, 56; philosophy of international law, 272–74, 289; in postconflict reconciliation in Cambodia, 274 –75, 282–86; professional development, 270; realism in decisions of, 265, 266; religious and spiritual beliefs, 14, 266 –70, 338, 339, 348; Rwandan genocide and, 291–92; scholarship, 270 –71; UN peacekeeping operations, 274, 275–86 Boy Who Bowed to God, The ( Hammarskjöld ), 114 Brown, Mark Malloch, 300 –301 Buddhist beliefs: Thant’s, 4, 59, 143– 44, 149, 151–54, 163, 166, 171, 174, 175, 177, 178–79, 185nn147, 343; UN Charter and, 154; on use of force, 158 Bunche, Ralph, 147, 153, 160 – 61 Burma, 143, 149, 158, 168, 175 Bush (G H.) administration, 246 Bush (G W.) administration, 252, 322 Butler, Richard, 308 Cambodia, 5, 266, 274 –75, 282–86 Cambon, Jules, 45 Can Institutions Have Responsibilities? C ­ ollective Moral Agency and International Relations ( Erskine), 19–20 Carlson, John, 16 Carr, E H., 271 Carrington, Lord, 280 Carter, Jimmy, 57–59 Casals, Pablo, 52 Catholicism, 338, 339; central beliefs, 231–32; commitment to disarmament, 234 –35; family planning initiatives and, 251; liberation theology, 233; mysticism in, 118; Perez de Cuellar’s, 4 –5, 232–35, 252, 257; social action tradition, 190, 200; United Nations Charter and, 232–33; Waldheim’s, 4, 189–90, 200, 211, 212; World War II and, 190 –91, 220n11 Central America, 244 – 48, 255 Challenge of Peace, The ( Waldheim), 189 charity, 232 Chesterman, Simon, 328–29 Chiang Kai-shek, 83, 84 China, 252; Communist uprising, 83–85; taking of U.S airmen (1954 ), 127–28, 140n69; Tiananmen Square massacre, 254; UN membership, 168 Chinmoy, Sri, 156 –57, 176 Chou En-Lai, 83, 127, 140n69 Christianity, 161, 338; Carter’s, 57, 58–59 see also Catholicism; Coptic Christian beliefs; Lutheran faith civil rights movement, U.S., 306 Clinton administration, 276 Coicaud, Jean-Marc, 18, 272 Cold War, 345; Hammarskjöld’s secretarygeneralship and, 125–27; Lie’s secretarygeneralship and, 67, 68, 69, 81–85, 100, 101; Lie’s twenty-year peace program, 86 –91; members’ commitment to UN and, 241– 42; post–Cold War UN, 313–14; Thant’s secretary-generalship and, 143, 166, 170, 177 Commission on Global Governance, 24 conflict resolution see peace and conflict resolution Congo, 4, 130 –32, 146, 154, 159– 64, 170, 177, 300 Contadora peace plan, 244 – 45 Convention on the Law of the Sea, 174 Coptic Christian beliefs, 5, 14, 266 – 67, 268, 269, 338, 339 Cordier, Andrew, 91, 123 Cordovez, Diego, 250, 263n79 Cox, Michael, 18 Cripps, Stafford, 144 Cuban missile crisis, 153, 165 cultural influences in development of e ­ thical framework, 341 Cyprus, 4, 201–2, 213–14, 215 Dag Hammarskjöld: A Spiritual Portrait (Stolpe), 112 Dag Hammarskjöld: The Statesman and His Faith ( Van Dusen), 112 Dag Hammarskjöld’s White Book (Aulén), 112 Darfur, 5, 323–25 debt relief, 235 Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, 17, 209 Index  363 decolonization, 165, 205– 6 democracy: Boutros-Ghali’s ethical framework, 5, 266, 269, 273–74, 288–89; peace and, 288 Derso, Alois, 45 de Soto, Alvaro, 247 diplomacy: Annan’s, 308–9, 310, 312; ethics and, 19; Hammarskjöld’s, 120, 127–28, 129, 131, 132, 136; Perez de Cuellar’s, 254 –55; Thant’s, 145, 167, 177; within United Nations, 55; Waldheim’s, 201, 202, 204 –5, 206, 207, 214 disarmament see arms control and d ­ isarmament Dorn, A Walter, doubt, 58 Drummond, Eric, 48, 53 Dulles, John Foster, 129 Dunne, Tim, 18 economic development, 215; Annan’s e ­ fforts, 325–27; Boutros-Ghali’s c ­ oncepts, 286 –87; human rights and, 208–9; influence of secretary-general, 325; Lie’s poverty eradication efforts, 95–97; Lie’s twenty-year peace program, 89–90; Perez de Cuellar’s values, 235; social conflict and, 244 educational attainment, 341– 42 Egypt: history of religion in, 267; Israel and, 203, 204, 205; Nasser presidency, 126, 164 – 65, 169, 177–78; Suez crisis, 49, 128–30 see also Middle East election administration/monitoring, 246, 283, 284, 285–86 El Salvador, 245, 247– 48, 256 environmental issues, 173–74 Erskine, Toni, 19–20 ethical framework: Annan’s, 5, 302–9; assessment, 20; Boutros-Ghali’s, 5, 265–74, 278–79, 288; definition, 2, 20; development of, 340 – 42, 349; experiential influences, 342; external influences on decision making and, 21, 57–58, 255–56, 344 – 46, 348; Hammarskjöld’s, 4, 111–13, 115, 119–20, 123–24, 132–37, 341, 346; Lie’s, 3– 4, 69–78; model of influences and impacts, 21–22, 344; Perez de Cuellar’s, 4 –5, 229–30, 231–38, 255–57; religious values in, 20 –21, 36n89; research challenges, 346 – 48; research goals, 2; research needs, 352; in secretary-general’s decision making, 22–24, 342– 44, 346 –52; significance of, in international affairs, 352, 353; Thant’s, 143– 44, 146, 177; variation among secretaries-general, 5, 337– 46, 349; Waldheim’s, 4, 188, 198–200, 341 see also moral values; religious values Ethics and Statecraft: The Moral Dimension of International Affairs (  Nolan), 19 evil, concept of, 304 –5 external code, 3; Annan’s secretaryg ­ eneralship and, 301, 312–18; BoutrosGhali’s secretary-generalship and, 265, 279, 283, 286, 289; decision-­making influence, 39, 60, 255–57; ethical framework and, 3, 21, 57–58, 344 – 46, 348; feedback from interaction with ethical framework, 346; Lie’s secretarygeneralship and, 102; Perez de Cuellar’s secretary-generalship and, 239, 255–56; of United Nations, 40, 48–52, 313 Falkland Islands/Isla Malvinas War, 242 family planning, 251–52 Foote, Wilder, 134 foreign affairs, generally: ethical and moral values in, 18–20, 34 –35n77; religious values in, 15–17, 18, 32n58 forgiveness/reconciliation: Boutros-Ghali’s ethical framework, 5, 265, 267, 269–70, 278–79; Hammarskjöld’s handling of Suez crisis, 128 Forsythe, David P., 4 –5 Fosdick, Raymond, 62 Fox, Jonathan, 2–3, 32n58 freedom, 235–36 Freedom of a Christian, The ( Luther), 118 Fröhlich, Manuel, 14 Gaglione, Anthony, 81, 96 –97 Gandhi, Mahatma, 144 Germany, Berlin crisis (1948), 82–83 Ghani, Ashraf, 9–10 Gilkey, Langdon, 216 –17 Goodrich, Leland, 309 Gopin, Marc, 16 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 242– 43, 247, 250 Gordenker, Leon, 13, 135, 314 364  Index Goulding, Marrack, 315 Gourevitch, Philip, 303, 318 Green, Rosario, 287 Gross, Ernest, 92 Grotius, Hugo, 273 Haig, Alexander, 242, 261n50 Hallie, Phillip, 216 Hammarskjöld, Agnes Almquist, 114 Hammarskjöld, Dag, 1, 4, 46 – 47, 54, 309; accomplishments, 135–36; Annan on, 136; career development, 47, 120; c ­ ommitment to United Nations, 123–24, 341, 345; concept of neutral ­integrity, 115, 122–23, 126; Congo conflict, 130 –32, 135, 159; death, 120; early life and education, 58, 113–15; election to UN secretary-generalship, 120 –21; ethical framework, 111–13, 115–16, 119–20, 123–24, 340, 341, 346; goals during UN tenure, 123; manifestations of ethical framework in UN, 132–37, 343, 345– 46; mediating U.S.–China disagreement, 127–28, 140n69; moral values, 14, 111, 116, 118–19; perception of office of s ­ ecretary-general, 121–23, 129; perception of United Nations, 56, 132–33; p ­ ersonal qualities, 115, 122; religious and spiritual beliefs, 14, 58, 113, 116 –18, 121, 134 –35, 338; Suez crisis (1956 ), 128–30; U.S anticommunist actions and, 125–27; writings, 111–12, 137n2 Hammarskjöld, Hjalmar, 113–14 Hammarskjöld, Sten, 114 Hazzard, Shirley, 14 Henneberger, Melinda, 304, 321 Hickerson, John, 91 High Commissioner for Human Rights, 10 –11 High Commissioner for Refugees, 300, 327 hijacking, airplane, 167 Hill, Charles, 268 Holbrooke, Richard, 300, 310 horoscopes, 174 human dignity: Annan’s ethical f ­ ramework, 5, 305–7; as liberal value, 235–36; Perez de Cuellar’s values, 236, 237; in religious and moral value s ­ ystems, 232; values of secretariesg ­ eneral, 340 human rights: Boutros-Ghali’s ethical framework, 5, 265, 274; economic d ­ evelopment and, 208–9; as liberal value, 235; Lie’s twenty-year peace program, 90; Perez de Cuellar’s values, 236, 237, 256 –57; religious, 188, 209; state sovereignty and, 253–54, 305– 6; United Nations principles, 50, 51; ­during Waldheim’s secretary-generalship, 207–9, 225n119 see also human dignity humility, Thant’s, 146 – 48 Hussein, Saddam, 248, 307, 328 Hymn to the United Nations, 52 idealism, 172–73 Ignatieff, George, 149–50, 151, 171 Imitation of Christ, The ( Kempis), 118 impartiality, 12–13, 29–30nn37– 40, 340, 351; Lie’s response to Korean invasion, 93–94; Perez de Cuellar’s, 237, 257; Thant’s, 166 – 67, 178 independence of secretary-general, 8–9, 12, 352 inner code, 3; decision-making influence, 39; external code and, 39 see also ethical framework integrity, 340, 352; concept of neutral integrity, 115, 122–23; definition, 12; of secretary-general, 12; Thant’s, 148– 49 International Court of Justice, 173, 185n142, 205 International Covenant on Civil and P ­ olitical Rights, 238 International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, 238 Iran, 81–82, 236, 248– 49 Iran-Contra affair, 245– 46 Iraq, 203; during Annan’s secretaryg ­ eneralship, 300, 308, 310, 319–22; death of UN staff in, 300, 322; Iran–Iraq War, 236, 248– 49; Kurdish population, 236 –37; oil-for-food scandal, 300, 310, 328; U.S invasion (2003), 300, 310 Ireland, 164 Islam, 268– 69 Israel, 169, 203, 204, 205 see also Middle East Jackson, Robert, 99 James, Alan, 68, 147 Index  365 Jebb, Gladwyn, 102n2 John Paul II, Pope, 235, 251, 273 Jonah, James, 12, 23, 214 Jones, Dorothy V., 3, 21 Jordan, 203 just war concept, 161– 62, 349–50 karma, 152 Kasavubu, Joseph, 130, 131 Kelen, Emery, 45 Kempis, Thomas Á, 118 Kennedy, John F., 165 Khrushchev, Nikita, 131, 165 Kille, Kent, 39 Kissinger, Henry, 203 Klackenberg, Henrik, 122 Korean War, 91–95, 107–8nn76 –77, 108n85 Kuchinsky, Michael T., Kuomintang group, 83 Kuper, Simon, 216 Kymlicka, Will, 235 Lang, Anthony F., Jr., Lavrov, Sergei, 315 leadership, religious values and, 16 League of Nations, 43, 44, 45, 48, 159 Lebanon, 203, 204, 205 liberal values, 235–37, 238, 258–59nn20 –21, 259n24, 271, 341, 346 Lie, Hulda, 69–70 Lie, Trygve, 3– 4, 42, 46 – 47, 54, 125, 170; accomplishments, 68, 102; antipoverty efforts, 95–97; challenges during UN secretary-generalship, 78, 81–85, 91–95, 99–100, 102; diplomatic skills, 74, 75–76; dismissal of U.S Secretariat members, 99, 109n104; early life and education, 69–70; election to UN ­secretary-­generalship, 78–79; e ­ stablishment of office of Secretariat, 97–99; ethical framework, 69–78, 340, 343; family life, 104nn14 –15; on global power relations, 76; goals of ­secretarygeneralship, 81; historical assessments of, 67– 68; on moral authority of secretary-­generalship, 9; moral values, 14, 77, 78; on neutrality, 94; perception of office of secretary-general, 79–80, 99–100, 101, 301; perception of UN, 67, 101–2; personal qualities, 68– 69, 76, 104n14; political development, 71–74; political environment during secretarygeneralship, 68, 69, 99, 101; professional development, 47, 69, 74 –78, 342; religious and spiritual beliefs, 14, 70 –71, 338, 339; resignation, 100 –101; response to Korean invasion, 91–95, 107–8n76; twenty-year peace program, 86 –91; World War II and, 74 –78 Lindenmayer, Elisabeth, 302 Linnee, Susan, 308 Lodge, Henry Cabot, Jr., 125 Lombardo, Caroline, 287, 288 Love, Janice, 18 Lubbers, Ruud, 327 Luis Jesus, Jose, 280 Lumumba, Patrice, 130, 131 Luther, Martin, 118 Lutheran faith, 133; Hammarskjöld’s, 4, 113, 114, 116, 117–20, 132, 338; Lie’s, 3, 14, 70 –71, 338; public righteousness in, 117; relationship with God in, 116 –17 Lyon, Alynna J., Maine, Henry, 60 Malik, Yakov, 83–84 Mao Zedong, 83 Markings ( Hammarskjöld ), 58, 111, 121, 127, 128, 132 Marshall Plan, 83, 106n61 Massignon, Louis, 268– 69, 338 Maung, Maung, 150 media relations, 172 meditation: Thant’s practice, 148, 151, 153, 163, 166; at the UN, 71, 132, 135, 156, 176, 178, 182n72 Mehrotra, Lakhan, 151 Meisler, Stanley, 311, 318 Meron, Theodor, 23 Mexico, 244 Middle East: Hammarskjöld’s peacekeeping force, 129–30; Six-Day War, 153, 169; UN history in, 202–3; Waldheim’s actions and policies, 4, 203–5, 213–14, 215 see also specific country Millennium Development Goals, 5, 325–27 Millennium World Peace Summit of Religious and Spiritual Leaders (2000), 17, 34n74 366  Index moral authority, 14, 77, 78; difficulties in assessing, 255; ethical framework, 2; of institutional actors, 20; ­international affairs scholarship, 1–3; office of s ­ ecretary-general, 7, 9–13, 317–18, 350 –51; Perez de Cuellar on secretarygeneralship, 229; personality as source of, 1; of United Nations, 10 moral values: Annan’s, 305–9; ­difficulties in assessing behavior, 253–54; H ­ ammarskjöld’s, 14, 111, 116, 118–19; in international affairs, 18–20; Lie’s, 14, 77, 78; pragmatism and, 192, 221n22, 221n24; religious beliefs and, 339; of secretaries-general, 14 –15, 338; Thant’s, 14 –15, 166, 340; in United Nations Charter, 77; Waldheim’s, 216 –18 see also ethical framework; religious values Morgenthau, Hans, 167 Moyser, Greg, 16 Muldoon, James P., Jr., 3– 4 Muller, Robert, 146, 151, 175 mysticism: Boutros-Ghali and, 267; H ­ ammarskjöld and, 4, 118, 139n34; Thant and, 174 Namibia, 4, 49–50, 205–7, 212, 213, 226n130, 237, 257 Narasimhan, C V., 12, 148, 153 Nardin, Terry, 36n89 Nassif, Ramses, 174 nationalism, 157 natural law, 272, 273 neutrality, 29n38, 351; Hammarskjöld’s conceptualization, 115, 122–23; in Hammarskjöld’s UN actions, 126; Lie on, 94; Swedish tradition, 115; Thant’s moral values, 166, 178 New International Economic Order, 208, 240 Newman, Edward, Nicaragua, 245– 47 Nigeria, 164, 177 Nobel Peace Prize, 147, 299–300, 307 Nolan, Cathal, 19, 22–23 Non-Aligned Movement, 143, 145 nongovernmental organizations: religious, 17; UN and, 288 North, Oliver, 245– 46 North Korea, 91–95 Nu, U, 144, 145, 150 O’Brien, Conor Cruise, 136 oil-for-food scandal, 300, 310, 328 Organization of American States, 245 Owens, Erik, 16 Pakistan, 169 Palestinian people, 203, 204 Panama, 244 Paul-Boncour, Joseph, 43– 44, 45– 46 Paul VI, Pope, 156 peace and conflict resolution: a ­ ccomplishments of UN, 62; Annan’s commitment to, 307–8; Annan’s ­ethical framework, 5; in Congo, 130 –32, 146, 154, 159– 64; democracy and, 288; Hammarskjöld’s commitment, 123–24; human ­history and, 60 – 61; just war ­concept, 161– 62, 349–50; Lie’s twenty-year peace program for UN, 86 –91; reconciliation and, 270; religious motivation for, 16; secretary-general’s authorities and responsibilities, 8; UN commitment to, 41, 60, 61, 101–2, 239; UN peacekeeping operations, 62, 89, 129–30, 159– 65, 168, 183n93, 201–5, 274, 275–86; use of force in, 154, 158–59; values of secretaries-general, 340; Waldheim’s efforts, 201–5 see also threats to peace and security Pearson, Lester, 130 Pendergrast, Kieran, 310 Perez de Cuellar, Javier, 4 –5, 46 – 47, 54, 282; Afghanistan crisis, 249–51; Central American interventions, 244 – 48, 255; commitment to aiding the less fortunate, 233–34; commitment to d ­ isarmament, 234 –35, 243– 44; commitment to human rights, 236, 237, 256 –57; commitment to peace, 256; commitment to state sovereignty, 254; discretion diplomacy of, 254 –55; dissolution of Soviet Union and, 242– 43, 255–56; early life and education, 231; election to secretary-generalship, 239– 40; ethical framework, 229–30, 231–38, 340, 341, 345; Falkland Islands/Isla ­Malvinas War and, 242; impartiality, 237, 257; Index  367 influence of personal values on s ­ ecretary-generalship, 229, 230, 236 –37, 255–57, 343; Iran–Iraq War and, 248– 49; liberal values, 235–37, 346; management style, 253; perception of office of secretary-general, 229, 230 –31, 240 – 41; personal qualities, 237–38, 257; political constraints on decisions and actions, 230 –31, 240 – 44; professional development, 231, 236; religious values, 232–35, 252, 339; UN budget problems, 252–53; on UN Charter, 239; UN population control and family planning initiatives, 251–52 personal qualities: significance of, in p ­ erformance of secretaries-general, 61– 62; as source of moral authority, 1; variation among secretaries-general, 56 –57 see also ethical framework; moral values; religious values pietism, 3, 70, 103n10 Pius XI, Pope, 190, 220nn11–12 Pius XII, Pope, 191, 220nn11–12 population control, 251–52 positivism, 272 Powell, Colin, 315–16 power relations among states: Lie’s p ­ erception, 76; Waldheim’s conceptualization, 196 pragmatism, 172–73, 353n1; Annan’s, 323, 324; characteristics of, 212; moral, 192, 221n22, 221n24; vs moral advocacy, 255; Waldheim’s, 4, 188, 189–90, 200, 212–15, 340 Protitch, Dragon, 91 racial discrimination, 165; U.S civil rights movement, 306 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, 153, 156 Ramo, Joshua Cooper, 304 Ranarriddh, Norodom, 285 Rasmussen, Larry, 217 Rau, Benegal, 91 Reagan administration, 245– 46, 247, 248; withholding of UN funds, 251–52 reconciliation see forgiveness/reconciliation Religion and Public Policy at the UN, 13, 14, 17 Religion Counts, 17 religious human rights, 188, 209 religious values: Annan’s, 14, 302–5; Boutros-Ghali’s, 14, 266 –70; in ethical framework, 20 –21, 36n89, 341; ­Hammarskjöld’s, 14, 58, 113, 116 –18, 121, 134 –35; international affairs ­scholarship, 18, 32n58, 352; in international relations, 15–17; Lie’s, 70 –71; moral values and, 339; Perez de Cuellar’s, 232–35, 252, 339; political leadership and, 16; public action and, 57, 58– 60, 117–20, 121, 132, 176 –77, 190, 211; religious upbringing and, 20 –21; of secretaries-general, 13–14, 338, 348– 49; significance of, in political science, 31–32n55; as source of conflict, 16; Thant’s, 59, 143– 44, 151–57, 171, 174 –75, 176 –77, 178–79, 185n147; W ­ aldheim’s, 211–12; in workings of United Nations, 16 –18, 33n68, 71, 132–33, 175–76 see also specific religion Rengger, Nicholas, 19 Rhodesia, 165 Rice, Condaleeza, 316 Richardson, Eliot, 246 Rieff, David, 307–8, 318 Rieffer-Flanagan, Barbara Ann, 4 –5 Rivlin, Benjamin, 11, 17–18, 313–14 Riza, Iqbal, 310 –11 role expectations, 4, 21, 345– 46 Rosenau, James, 24 Rovine, Arthur, 11, 24 Ruggie, John, 311–12 Rusk, Dean, 42, 171 Rwanda, 266, 291–92, 300, 306, 318 Sacred and the Sovereign: Religion and I ­ nternational Politics (Carlson, Owens), 16 Sadat, Anwar, 203, 204 –5 Salim Salim, 240 Schweitzer, Albert, 114, 154 secession, 162 secretary-general of United Nations, office of: annual report, 8, 81, 172–73, 208, 241; authorities and responsibilities, 7–9, 11, 39– 40, 41, 49–56, 64n22, 80 –81, 164, 313; characteristics of ­officeholders, 46 – 48, 56 –57; commitment to peace, 61; conflicting responsibilities in, 301; employment practices, 188, 210 –11; 368  Index secretary-general of United Nations (continued ) establishment of office staff and infrastructure, 97–99; independence, 8–9, 12; influences on decision making, 39; manifestations of ethical framework in, 22–24, 342– 44, 346 –52; moral a ­ uthority, 7, 9–13, 350 –51; moral values of ­secretaries-general, 14 –15; personal qualities of secretaries, 56 –57, 61– 62; relationships within United Nations, 54 –56; religious values of secretariesgeneral, 13–14; as representative of global interests, 11, 22–23; scholarship on religious and moral influence in, 1–3, 15, 16 –17, 19–20; Security Council and, 8, 82, 168– 69, 314; visibility and strength of advocacy, 11–12, 80 –81 see also A ­ nnan, Kofi; Ban Ki-moon; BoutrosGhali, Boutros; Hammarskjöld, Dag; Lie, Trygve; Perez de Cuellar, Javier; U Thant; Waldheim, Kurt Security Council: disunity in, 44, 55; emergency meetings, 108n78; issue of Chinese representation in UN, 83–85; secretary-general’s authorities and responsibilities, 8, 54, 82, 168– 69, 314 self-examination, 58 Shawcross, William, 302, 304, 316, 318 Sihanouk, Prince, 285 Six-Day War, 153, 169 Smith, Courtney B., social democracy, 73–74 socialism, 71–74 Söderblom, Lars Olof, 114 Somalia, 5, 266, 274, 275–79, 306 South Africa, 165, 205–7, 237 South Korea, 91–95 sovereignty principles: Boutros-Ghali’s ethical framework, 5, 266, 272–73, 274; human rights principles and, 253–54, 305– 6; Perez de Cuellar’s ­commitment, 236; Thant’s decision ­making, 164 – 65, 177–78; in UN Charter, 77 Soviet Union, 101, 106n62; in ­Afghanistan, 249–51; Berlin crisis (1948), 81–82; C ­ entral American interests, 245; C ­ hinese representation in UN and, 83–85; Congo conflict, 131–32; d ­ issolution, 242– 43, 255–56; Iranian complaint to UN (1946 ), 81–82; Korean War and, 92, 93–94; Thant’s criticism of, 170 Spaak, Paul-Henri, 78 Srebrenica, 266, 291, 300 staff of secretary-general, 8–9, 97–99 Stammers, Neil, 72–73 Stevenson, Adlai, 143, 153 Stolpe, Sven, 112, 113, 121 Sudan see Darfur Sun Yat-sen, 144 superstition, 174 Sutterlin, James, Sweden: neutrality tradition, 115 Syria, 203, 204 Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 154 Thant, U, 1, 4, 14, 46 – 47, 346; accomplishments and legacy, 176 –77, 178–79; career development, 144 – 46; challenges during secretary-generalship, 144, 157–58, 177–78; criticism of member states, 170; detachment and equanimity, 149–51, 153; early life and education, 47, 144 – 45; election to secretary-generalship, 143, 146 – 47; humility, 146 – 48; impartiality, 166 – 67, 178; integrity, 148– 49; media relations, 172; memoirs, 157; moral values, 14 –15, 166, 340; perception of office of secretary-general, 167– 69, 172–73, 178, 180n14; personal costs of UN service, 170 –72; personal qualities, 146 –51; politics and, 149, 172; recommendations for UN reform, 173–74; religious and spiritual beliefs, 59, 143– 44, 151–57, 171, 174 –75, 176 –77, 178–79, 185n147, 338, 343; superstitious practices, 174; thoughts on use of force, 158–59, 163– 65, 349–50; UN Congo m ­ ission, 159– 64, 170, 177; unfulfilled goals for UN, 175–76; Vietnam War and, 42, 158, 165, 170, 171–72 Tharoor, Shashi, 302, 308, 314 Thaung, U, 149 threats to peace and security: just war c ­ oncept, 161– 62, 349–50; role on United Nations, 41; secretary-general’s authorities and responsibilities, 8, 41; UN response to Korean War, 91–95, 107–8n76 see also peace and conflict resolution Index  369 Thurman, Robert, 17 tolerance, 154; Boutros-Ghali’s ethical framework, 5, 265, 267, 269 Traub, James, 10 Trudeau, Pierre, 164 Truman administration, 83 Tshombe, Moise, 131, 148, 160, 162, 181n28, 183n91 Undén, Osten, 115 UNESCO see United Nations, ­Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) United Kingdom, 242 United Nations: Annan’s organizational reforms, 327–28; Boutros-Ghali’s Agenda documents and, 286 –89; commitment to peace, 41, 60, 61, 239; commitment to social welfare, 232; Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO), 10; enforcement ­capacity, 43– 44, 159, 173, 174; headquarters, 98; historical context and legacy, 40, 42– 46, 48– 49, 50 –51; membership, 89, 173, 185n144, 314; moral authority, 10; ­national interest vs international i ­nterest, 52–53; peacekeeping operations, 62, 89, 129–30, 159– 65, 168, 183n93, 201–5, 274, 275–86; post–Cold War demand for services, 313–14; religion and, 16 –18, 33n68, 71, 132–33, 175–76; response to North Korean invasion, 91–95, 107–8n76, 108n85; Rwandan genocide and, 291–92; stand-by force, 174; Thant’s recommendations for r ­ eforms, 173–74; Universal Ethics P ­ roject, 10; withholding of funds and dues from, 252–53 see also secretarygeneral of United ­Nations, office of; S ­ ecurity Council; United Nations Charter United Nations Charter, 4, 61, 77, 344 – 45; Boutros-Ghali’s interpretation, 272; Buddhist beliefs and, 154; declaration of 1970 on relations among states, 51, 64n18; goals, 41; Hammarskjöld’s c ­ ommitment, 123–24, 345; human d ­ ignity as principle of, 23; liberal values in, 238; Perez de Cuellar’s personal values and, 5, 239, 345; purposes and principles, 49, 77; religious values and, 232–33; secretaries’-general c ­ ommitment to, 352; secretary-general’s authorities and responsibilities, 7–9, 11, 12, 39– 40, 41, 49–52, 53, 54, 56, 64n22, 164, 313; Thant’s commitment, 154, 167 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 90, 238, 263n96 Urquhart, Brian, 14 –15, 65n29, 116, 118, 121, 147– 48, 149, 150, 160, 197, 305 Usborne, David, 310 U Thant: The Search for Peace ( Bingham), 148– 49 Vacher, France, 151 Valera, Eamon de, 144 van Boven, Theo, 236, 237, 254 Van Dusen, Henry P., 112 Venezuela, 244 Vieira de Mello, Sergio, 322 Vietnam War, 42, 158, 165, 170, 171–72, 210 Volcker, Paul, 328 Waldheim, Kurt, 4, 46 – 47, 60, 148, 238, 239– 40; accomplishments and legacy, 214 –15, 217–18; challenges during s ­ ecretary-generalship, 187–88, 196, 200 –201; conflicting assessments of, 187–88, 195, 217–18, 218–19n3; Cyprus mission, 201–2, 213–14, 215; early life and education, 188–89, 192–93; ethical framework, 188, 198–200; human rights campaigns, 207–9, 225n119; ­influence of religious beliefs in ­secretaryg ­ eneralship, 211–12, 346; Middle East e ­ fforts, 203–5, 213–14, 215; moral values, 15, 216 –18, 227nn136 –137; Namibian involvement, 205–7, 226n130; perception of office of ­secretaryg ­ eneral, 9, 192, 197–98; perception of UN role, 197; pragmatism of, 4, 188, 189–90, 200, 212–15, 340; professional d ­ evelopment, 196, 222n39; religious and spiritual ­beliefs, 14, 189–90, 200, 338, 339; staffing policies of Secretariat, 210 –11, 213; in World War II, 15, 189, 193–95, 216 –17, 342 Warner, Daniel, 18 370  Index wealth, global disparity, 157 weapons of mass destruction, 88–89, 234 –35, 244 Webel, Charles, 16 Wilson, Woodrow, 238 World Council of Churches, 33–34n70, 114 World Council of Religious Leaders, 17–18 World War II, 342, 353n2; Catholic Church and, 190 –91, 220n11; Lie’s experiences, 74 –78; Waldheim’s experiences, 15, 189, 193–95, 216 –17, 342 Zacher, Mark, 123, 124 .. .The UN Secretary-General and Moral Authority The UN Secretary-General and Moral Authority Ethics and Religion in International Leadership kent j kille, editor Georgetown University Press? ??... within the growing call for a better understanding of ethics in international affairs Given the call for the secretary-general to serve as a moral authority in the international system, studying... in the study of international relations,” which points to the need for further understanding of the impact of religion on international leadership. 63 Given the significant place of religion in