Green Energy and Technology I Pilatowsky ⋅ R.J Romero ⋅ C.A Isaza S.A Gamboa ⋅ P.J Sebastian ⋅ W Rivera Cogeneration Fuel CellSorption Air Conditioning Systems 123 I Pilatowsky, Dr S.A Gamboa, Dr P.J Sebastian, Dr W Rivera, Dr Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Centro de Investigación en Energía Cerrada Xochicalco s/n Colonia Centro 62580 Temixco Morelos México ipf@cie.unam.mx sags@cie.unam.mx sjp@cie.unam.mx wrgf@cie.unam.mx www.cie.unam.mx R.J Romero, Dr Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos Centro de Investigación en Ingeniería y Ciencias Aplicadas Avenida Universidad 1001 62210 Cuernavaca Morelos México rosenberg@uaem.mx www.uaem.mx C.A Isaza, Dr Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana Instituto de Energía, Materiales y Medio Ambiente Grupo de Energía y Termodinámica Circular 1, no.73-34 70-01, Medellín Colombia cesar.isaza@upb.edu.co www.upb.co ISSN 1865-3529 e-ISSN 1865-3537 ISBN 978-1-84996-027-4 e-ISBN 978-1-84996-028-1 DOI 10.1007/978-1-84996-028-1 Springer London Dordrecht Heidelberg New York British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number: 2011920835 © Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers The use of registered names, trademarks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made Cover design: eStudioCalamar, Girona/Berlin Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface The global energy demand increases every day with increase in population and modernization of the way of life The intense economic activity around the world depends largely on fossil fuel based primary energy The indiscriminate use of fossil fuel based energy has inflicted severe damage to air quality, caused water contamination, and environmental pollution in general The exploitation of renewable energy sources has been proposed as a solution to encounter the above mentioned global problems The major problems associated with the exploitation of renewable energy sources are their intermittency, high cost of energy conversion and storage, and low efficiency In addition, the wide spread utilization of renewable energy leads to the culture of energy saving and rational end use Hybrid systems based on different renewable energy sources are becoming more relevant due to the intermittency of single primary energy sources, the increase in the final efficiency in energy conversion in a hybrid system, and the final cost reduction Moreover, hybrid systems can satisfy the energy demand of a specific application un-interruptedly There are different types and combinations of hybrid energy systems presently employed around the world To mention a few, there are photovoltaic-wind energy systems, photovoltaic-thermal energy systems, wind-hydrogen-fuel cell systems, etc Combined heat and power (CHP) systems have been known for quite some time as a part of hybrid systems The advantage of this kind of system is its high efficiency, low cost compared to other hybrid systems, and low economic impact without sacrificing continuous energy supply to the load This book deals with a new concept in CHP systems where a fuel cell is used for generating electricity and the heat released during the operation of the cell is used for air conditioning needs For the CHP system considered in this book, we have chosen heat proton exchange membrane fuel cell in particular due to the temperature of the ejected and the air-conditioning needs of the CHP system For the authors to have a general understanding of the topic we have treated the energy and co-generation processes in detail The thermodynamic principles govv vi Preface erning energy conversion in general and fuel cells in particular have been treated briefly The principles of CHP systems have been explained in detail with particular emphasis on sorption air-conditioning systems The authors would like to thank María Angelica Prieto and María del Carmén Huerta for their collaboration in the English grammatical review and formatting, respectively Also the authors would like to thank Geydy Gutiérrez Urueta for her contribution in the revision and suggestions in the present work Mexico/Colombia December 2010 I Pilatowsky R.J Romero C.A Isaza S.A Gamboa P.J Sebastian W Rivera Contents Energy and Cogeneration 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Energy Concept 1.1.2 Energy and Its Impacts 1.2 Overview of World Energy 1.2.1 World Primary Energy Production and Consumption 1.2.2 Energy Consumption by the End-use Sector 1.2.3 World Carbon Dioxide Emissions 1.2.4 Energy Perspectives 1.3 Air Conditioning Needs 1.4 Cogeneration Systems 1.4.1 Centralized versus Distributed Power Generation 1.4.2 Cogeneration Technologies 1.4.3 Heat Recovery in Cogeneration Systems 1.4.4 Cogeneration System Selections 1.5 Cogeneration Fuel Cells – Sorption Air Conditioning Systems 1.5.1 Trigeneration 1.5.2 Fuel Cells in the Trigeneration Process References 1 7 11 12 13 14 16 17 19 20 22 22 23 24 Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Thermodynamic and Electrochemical Principles 2.2.1 Electrochemical Aspects 2.2.2 Thermodynamic Principles 2.3 Fuel Cell Efficiency 2.4 Fuel Cell Operation References 25 25 25 25 31 33 34 36 vii viii Contents Selected Fuel Cells for Cogeneration CHP Processes 37 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Fuel Cell Classification 37 3.2.1 The Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell 38 3.2.2 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells 43 3.2.3 Alkaline Electrolyte Fuel Cells 45 3.2.4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells 48 References 53 State of the Art of Sorption Refrigeration Systems 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Commercial Systems 4.2.1 Absorption Chillers 4.2.2 Adsorption Chillers 4.2.3 Absorption and Adsorption Small Capacity Systems 4.3 Systems under Development 4.4 Research Studies 4.4.1 Experimental Studies 4.4.2 Theoretical Studies References 55 55 56 57 59 60 61 62 62 66 70 Sorption Refrigeration Systems 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Thermodynamic Principles 5.2.1 Heat to Work Energy Conversion 5.2.2 Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle 5.3 Sorption Processes 5.3.1 Introduction 5.3.2 The Sorption Refrigeration Cycle 5.3.3 Sorption Refrigeration Cycle Efficiency 5.3.4 Sorption Work Fluids 5.4 Absorption Refrigeration Systems 5.4.1 Introduction 5.4.2 Working Substances 5.4.3 Absorption Refrigeration Cycles 5.5 Advanced Cycles 5.5.1 Multieffect Absorption Refrigeration Cycles 5.5.2 Absorption Refrigeration Cycles with a Generator/Absorber/Heat Exchanger 5.5.3 Absorption Refrigeration Cycle with Absorber-heat-recovery 5.6 Adsorption Refrigeration System 5.6.1 Adsorbent/Adsorbate Working Pair References 75 75 75 75 80 81 81 82 84 86 88 88 88 90 95 95 97 98 99 100 100 Contents ix Cogeneration Fuel Cells – Air Conditioning Systems 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Considerations for Cogeneration Systems Based on Fuel Cells and Sorption Air Conditioning 6.2.1 Coupling of Technologies 6.2.2 Concepts of Efficiency 6.3 Modeling of Cogeneration Systems Using Fuel Cells Promising Applications 6.3.1 Operation Conditions 6.3.2 Modeling of a Cogeneration System Using an Absorption Air Conditioning System with Water–Lithium Bromide as Working Fluid 6.3.3 Modeling of a Cogeneration System Using an Absorption Air Conditioning System with a Water–Carrol™ as Working Fluid 6.3.4 Modeling of a Cogeneration System Using an Absorption Air Conditioning System with Monomethylamine–Water as Working Fluid 6.4 Modeling of Trigeneration Systems 6.5 Conclusion References 103 103 Potential Applications in Demonstration Projects 7.1 Introduction 7.2 A New Era in Energy Revolution: Applications of Fuel Cells 7.2.1 Stationary Applications 7.2.2 Mobile and Transportation Applications 7.2.3 Portable Applications 7.2.4 Military Applications 7.2.5 Combined Heat and Power 7.3 Examples of Combined Heat and Electricity Use from Fuel Cells in Demonstration Projects 7.3.1 Stationary PAFC Cogeneration Systems 7.3.2 PEMFC in Mobile Systems 7.3.3 CHP Systems with Fuel Cells References 121 121 122 123 125 126 127 127 Profitability Assessment of the Cogeneration System 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Elements of Profitability Assessment 8.2.1 Time Value of Money 8.2.2 Annual Costs and Cash Flows 8.2.3 Capital Costs 8.2.4 Methods for Estimating Profitability 133 133 134 134 137 137 138 103 105 106 107 108 109 111 114 116 119 119 128 128 128 129 131 x Contents 8.3 Profitability Assessment of the Systems 8.3.1 Profitability Assessment of a PEM Fuel Cell 8.3.2 Profitability Assessment of a Compression Air Conditioning System 8.3.3 Profitability Assessment of an Absorption Air Conditioning System 8.3.4 Profitability Assessment for the PEMFC-CACS 8.3.5 Profitability Assessment for the PEMFC-AACS 8.3.6 Comparison of the Profitability Assessment of the PEMFC-AACS and the PEMFC-CACS 8.4 Conclusions References 141 141 143 145 148 149 151 153 153 Index 155 146 Profitability Assessment of the Cogeneration System By using Equation 8.31 and with the above considerations, the NPC for the compression air conditioning system is NPC = ∑ A TC + I0 = 19602.8 € (1 + i )n To calculate the EUAC the CRF is first calculated by using Equation 8.16 CRF = n 15 i (1 + i ) 0.07 (1 + 0.07 ) = = 0.1098 (1 + i )n − (1 + 0.07 )15 − Furthermore from Equation 8.35 the EUAC is EUAC = NPV ∗ CRF = 19602.8 € ∗ 0.1098 = 2152.4 € Figures 8.2–8.4 show the NPC and the EUAC versus the gas unit cost, the maintenance and operation costs, and the initial investment per unit of cooling capacity, respectively, for an absorption air conditioning system keeping constant all the other parameters reported in the economic assumptions In Figure 8.2 it can be seen that both economic parameters strongly depend on the gas unit cost The NPC varied from 16709–26836 €, while the EUAC varied from 1834–2946 € for a gas unit cost from 6–20 €/GJ, respectively Comparing the NPC and EUAC values with those obtained for the compression air conditioning system, reported in Figure 8.1, it can be observed that for the absorption system the economic parameters are considerably higher, which is mainly due to the higher initial costs Figure 8.3 shows the NPC and EUAC versus the maintenance and operation costs It can be seen that both parameters are increased by the increment of the maintenance and operation costs; however, this increment is considerably lower 30000 NPC NPC and EUAC (€) 25000 EUAC 20000 15000 10000 5000 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Gas unit cost (€/GJ) Figure 8.2 NPC and the EUAC versus the gas unit cost for an absorption air conditioning system 8.3 Profitability Assessment of the Systems 147 than that observed with the gas price In this case, the NPC varied from 17781 to 22331 € at 100 €/years and 600 €/years, respectively, while with the gas unit cost the NPC varied from 16709 to 26836 € Something similar can be observed with the EUAC values In Figure 8.4 it can be seen that the NPC and EUAC economic parameters depend strongly on the initial cost per unit of cooling capacity The net present cost varied from 17129 to 22076 €, while the EUAC varied from 1880 to 2424 € for initial costs per unit of cooling capacity from 800 to 1200 €/kWC, respectively 30000 NPC NPC and EUAC (€) 25000 EUAC 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Maintenance and operation costs (€/y) Figure 8.3 NPC and the EUAC versus the maintenance and operation costs for an absorption air conditioning system 25000 NPC EUAC NPC and EUAC (€) 20000 15000 10000 5000 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 Initial cost per unit of cooling capacity (€/kWC) Figure 8.4 NPC and EUAC versus the initial cost per unit of cooling capacity for an absorption air conditioning system 148 Profitability Assessment of the Cogeneration System 8.3.4 Profitability Assessment for the PEMFC-CACS In order to assess the profitability of the PEM fuel cell together with the conventional compression air conditioning system PEMFC-CACS the following assumptions were established Economic Assumptions The following basic assumptions are made for the profitability assessment of the PEM fuel cell system: 10 11 12 13 14 15 lifetime: 15 years; interest or discount rate, i: %; electricity inflation, iE: %; electricity unit cost CE: 0.14 €/kWh; cost of hydrogen, CH2: 10 €/GJ (fixed during project lifetime); initial cost per unit of energy of the PEM fuel cell I0,U: 1300 €/kWE; initial cost per unit of cooling capacity of the CACS, I0,U: 200 €/kWc; annual fixed costs of the PEM fuel cell, AFC: 2.5 % of I0; cost of the replacement of the individual fuel cells at and 10 years, CFCR: 25 % of I0; annual fixed costs of the CACS, AFC: 10 % of the initial cost I0; PEM fuel cells operating time (hours a year), TO: 2000 h years−1 (at maximum capacity); ACTR: 1200 h years−1; average annual PEM fuel cell efficiency, η : 0.4; average yearly compressor coefficient of performance, COP = 2.5; SV of the PEMFC-CACS, SV: 10 % of I0 Utilizing the calculated values for the PEM fuel cell and the compression air conditioning system in Sections 8.3.1 and 8.3.2, respectively and with the above economic assumptions, the NPC EUAC costs are the following The NPC NPC = ∑ A TC + I0 = 46915.1 € (1 + i )n and by using the capital recovery factor CRF from Equation 8.16, the EUAC is EUAC = NPV ∗ CRF = 46915.1 € ∗ 0.1098 = 5151.3 € Figure 8.5 shows the NPC and the EUAC versus the electricity unit cost for a compound system PEMFC-CACS It can be observed that the NPC varied from almost 44000 € at an electricity unit cost of 0.08 €/kWh to about 52000 € at 0.24 €/kWh The EUAC varied from 4800 to about 5700 € for the same electricity unit cost values 8.3 Profitability Assessment of the Systems 149 60000 55000 NPC EUAC 50000 NPC and EUAC (€) 45000 40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 Electricity unit cost (€/kWh) Figure 8.5 NPC and EUAC versus the electricity unit cost for the PEMFC-CACS 8.3.5 Profitability Assessment for the PEMFC-AACS In order to assess the profitability of the cogeneration system consisting of a PEM fuel cell coupled to an absorption air conditioning system PEMFC-AACS the following assumptions were considered Economic Assumptions The following basic assumptions are made for the profitability assessment of the PEM fuel cell system: 10 11 12 13 lifetime: 15 years; interest or discount rate, i: %; cost of hydrogen, CH2: 10 €/GJ (fixed during project lifetime); initial cost per unit of energy of the PEM fuel cell I0,U: 1300 €/kWE; initial cost per unit of cooling capacity of the AACS, I0,U: 1000 €/kWC; annual fixed costs of the PEM fuel cell, AFC: 2.5 % of I0; cost of the replacement of the individual fuel cells at and 10 years, CFCR: 25 % of I0; annual fixed costs of the AACS, AFC: % of the initial cost I0; PEM fuel cells operating time (hours a year), TO: 2000 h years−1 (at maximum capacity); annual cooling time required, ACTR: 1200 h; average annual PEM fuel cell efficiency, η : 0.4; average yearly absorption coefficient of performance, COP = 0.65; SV of the PEMFC-AACS, SV: 10 % of I0 150 Profitability Assessment of the Cogeneration System 60000 NPC EUAC NPC and EUAC (€) 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Maintenance and operation costs (€/y) Figure 8.6 NPC and EUAC versus the maintenance and operation costs for the PEMFC-AACS Utilizing the calculated values for the PEM fuel cell and the absorption air conditioning system in Sections 8.3.1 and 8.3.3, respectively, and considering that the cost of gas is equal to zero since all the energy needed for the operation of the absorption air conditioning system is provided by the heat released from the PEM fuel cell, and taking into account the above economic assumptions, the NPC and the EUAC are the following The NPC is NPC = ∑ A TC + I0 = 48222.5 € (1 + i )n and by using the CRF from Equation 8.16, the EUAC is EUAC = NPV ∗ CRF = 46915.1 € ∗ 0.1098 = 5294.8 € Figure 8.6 shows the NPC and the EUAC versus the maintenance and operation costs for a cogeneration system consisting of a PEM fuel cell coupled to an absorption air conditioning system It can be observed that the NPC varies from about 46400 € at a maintenance and operation cost of 100 €/years to almost 51000 € at 600 €/years The EUAC varies from 5100 to about 5600 € for the same maintenance and operation costs Figure 8.7 shows NPC and EUAC versus the initial cost per unit of cooling capacity for the PEM fuel cell coupled to an absorption air conditioning system It can be observed again that both the NPC and the EUAC economic parameters increase with the increment of the initial costs The NPC varies from almost 46000 € at 800 €/kWC to about 51000 € at 1200 €/kWC, while the EUAC varies from 5000 to almost 6000 € for the same initial costs 8.3 Profitability Assessment of the Systems 151 60000 NPC EUAC NPC and EUAC (€) 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 Initial cost per unit of cooling capacity (€/kWC) Figure 8.7 NPC and EUAC versus the initial cost per unit of cooling energy for the PEMFCAACS 8.3.6 Comparison of the Profitability Assessment of the PEMFC-AACS and the PEMFC-CACS In order to determine which of the analyzed systems is more profitable or under which conditions the proposed system is a better alternative from the economic point of view, in this section the PEMFC-AACS and the PEMFC-CACS are compared using the NPV, taking into consideration the economic assumption presented in the previous sections Figures 8.8 and 8.9 compare the NPC values for the PEMFC-AACS and the PEMFC-CACS versus the electricity unit price and maintenance and operation costs, and the electricity unit cost and the initial cost per unit of cooling capacity, respectively Figure 8.8 shows that the lowest NPC is obtained with the PEMFC-CACS at an electricity unit price of 0.08 €/kWh; however for higher values of the electricity price the NPC values increase more rapidly than those for the PEMFC-AACS with an increment of the maintenance and operation costs At the reference value of the electricity unit price of 0.14 €/kWh the NPC for the PEMFC-CACS is 46915 €, while for the PEMFC-AACS they are 46400 and 46856 € at a maintenance and operation cost of 100 and 150 €/years, respectively This means that for the electricity price of 0.14 €/kWh the PEMFC-AACS is more competitive if the maintenance and operation costs not exceed the 150 € per year The same way if the electricity price is 0.19 €/kW, the PEMFC-AACS is more competitive than the PEMFC-CACS whenever the maintenance and operation costs not exceed 450 € 152 Profitability Assessment of the Cogeneration System Maintenance and operation costs (€/y) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 53000 52000 51000 NPC (€) 50000 49000 PEMFC-AACS 48000 47000 reference value 46000 45000 PEMFC-CACS 44000 43000 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 Electricity unit price (€/kWh) Figure 8.8 Comparison of the NPC values for PEMFC-AACS and PEMFC-CACS versus the electricity unit price and the maintenance and operation costs Initial cost per unit of cooling capacity (€/kWC) 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 53000 52000 51000 NPC (€) 50000 49000 48000 PEMFC-AACS 47000 reference value 46000 45000 PEMFC-CACS 44000 43000 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 Electricity unit cost (€ /kWh) Figure 8.9 Comparison of the NPC values for PEMFC-AACS and PEMFC-CACS versus the electricity unit price and the initial cost per unit of cooling capacity per year Finally if the electricity price is 0.22 €/kW, then the PEMFC-AACS is always more competitive than the PEMFC-CACS Figure 8.9 shows the NPC for the PEMFC-AACS and PEMFC-CACS versus the electricity unit cost and the initial cost per unit of cooling capacity It can be observed that for electricity unit costs up to 0.11 €/kWh, the PEMFC-CACS always has lower NPC than for the PEMFC-AACS; however at the reference value References 153 of 0.14 €/kWh the PEMFC-AACS is more competitive for initial cost per unit of cooling energy lower than 900 € At the intersection point the PEMFC-AACS is a better alternative whenever the initial costs not exceed the 1050 €, and for an electricity cost of 0.22 €/kWh the PEMFC-AACS is always better 8.4 Conclusions As can be observed from the profitability assessment of the cogeneration system (conformed by a PEM fuel cell and an absorption air conditioning system), actually there are some conditions in which the proposed system is more profitable than a PEM fuel cell and a compression air conditioning system working independently The NPC analysis showed that for an electricity unit price lower than 0.12 €/kW the cogeneration system proposed by using an absorption system is not profitable with the proposed parameters However, if the electricity cost increases the cogeneration system it becomes a better alternative than the PEM fuel cell and the conventional compression system Even when in the profitability assessment for the reference case it was done taking an electricity price of 0.14 €/kWh, which is the average of the price in the EU, the electricity price varies for each country and in many of them the price is actually higher than the average value This means that for those countries it is currently a better alternative to select the cogeneration system instead of the PEM fuel cell and the conventional compression air conditioning system It is important to point out that in the present analysis relevant factors related to the use of clean energies such as CO2 bonus, incentives and preferential interest rates, others related to the size of the equipment and cost reduction due to higher production or market penetration, and other economic factors, were not taken into account Furthermore, it is clear that if these parameters are properly estimated for a specific project, the proposed cogeneration system will be even more profitable in a higher number of countries In conclusion, the proposed cogeneration system consisting of a PEM fuel cell coupled to an absorption air conditioning system is actually, under certain circumstances, a good alternative for use were electricity and cooling are required and it will be even more profitable in the near future with the increase on the electricity prices References Bar-On I, Kirchain R, Roth R (2002) Technical cost analysis for PEM fuel cells J Power Sources 109:71–75 Chang HP, Chou CL, Chen YS, Hou TI, Weng BJ (2007) The design and cost analysis of a portable PEMFC UPS system Int J Hydrogen Energy 32:316–322 154 Profitability Assessment of the Cogeneration System Farbir F, Gómez T (1996) Efficiency and economics of proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells Int J Hydrogen Energy 21(10):891–901 Holland FA, Siqueiros J, Santoyo S, Heard CL, Santoyo ER (1999) Water purification using heat pumps E & FN Spon, Taylor and Francis Group, London Tsuchiya H, Kobayashi O (2004) Mass production cost of PEM fuel cell by learning curve Int J Hydrogen Energy 29:985–990 Zoulias EI, Lymberopoulos N (2007) Techno-economic analysis of the integration of hydrogen energy technologies in renewable energy-based stand-alone power systems Renew Energ 32:680–696 Index A AACS, 109–113, 115, 116 Chillers, 57 refrigeration cycle, 90, 94, 95 refrigeration system, 88 Abdelmessih, 64, 70 Abdulateefet, 68 Absorption air conditioning system, 109, 111, 114 Activation loss, 28 Activation polarization, 28 Adsorbent/adsorbate working pairs, 100 Adsorption Chillers, 59 refrigeration system, ARS, 99 Advanced cycles, 95 AFC, 27, 38, 46–48 AHP, 105–108, 111, 116, 118, 119 Air conditioned, 105, 106 Air conditioning, 89, 94 Ajib and Gunther, 63 Albright, 89 Alkaline, 38, 45–47, 50 Alkaline electrolyte fuel cells, 45 Alkaline fuel cell, 27 Ammonia/barium chloride, 64 Ammonia/water, 56, 59, 61–68, 70, 72 Ammonia–water system, 89 Andrew D., 87 Andrews, 88, 101 Annual amount of tax, 137 cash flow, 137, 139, 140 cash income, 137, 138 costs and cash flows, 137 Annuity due, 135 of a future worth, 136 of a present worth, 136 Aosol, 56, 62 Apollo and Orbiter, 45 Appleby A.J., 31, 52, 53 ARC with absorber-heat-recovery, 98 ARC with GAX, 97 Arivazhagan, 63, 71 Aronson, 89, 100 Aviation, 126 Avista Labs, 125 B Ballard Power Systems, 39 Bar-on, 133, 153 Bipolar plates, 42 Blytas and Daniels, 89 Bourouis, 65, 71 Broad, 57 Bruno, 68, 71 Buffington, 87, 89, 101 C Cabot®, 40 Caeiro, 63, 71 Capital costs, 137 recovery factor, 136, 141, 143, 144, 146, 150 Carbon powder, 40 155 156 Carnot cycle, 77–80, 85 Carrier Co, 56, 111 Centralized vs distributed power generation, 16 Century, 56 Cerezo, 66, 71 Chang, 133, 154 Chase et al., 28 Chekir, 69, 71 Chillii, 59 CHP, 35, 39, 41 systems, 120–122, 127 systems with fuel cells, 129 Classified by the operating temperature, 37 Clausius, 76, 101 Climatewell, 56, 58, 61 Climatic change problem, Coal, 8, 11 Coefficient of performance, 78, 85, 92 COP, 95, 97–99, 106, 108, 109, 118, 119, 122 Cogeneration, 1, 5, 14, 16–22, 37, 43, 103, 109–113, 115, 116, 119 systems, 14, 19, 20, 107, 120, 121 Colibri, 56 Combined heat and power, 127 Commercial, 9, 20 Common electrodes used in alkaline fuel cells, 47 Continuous absorption cycle, 91 Coupling of technologies, 105 CRF, 136, 141, 143, 144, 150 D Daido Hospital, 130 Daimler Chrysler, 126, 129 DC power supply, 124 DCFRR, 140 De Lucas, 64, 71 DEC, 53, 55, 56 Department of Energy, 125 Devault and Marsala, 96 Dicks A., 48, 53 Direct methanol fuel cell, 38, 43 Distributed generation, 124 Di-thermal cycle, 76, 77 DMFC, 38, 43, 44 DOE, 125 Dohle H., 44, 53 Double-effect, 56, 57, 68, 73 Dueñas, 89, 101 Dupont Co., 39 Index E EAW, 56, 59, 60 Ebara Ballard, 125 Ecole Nationale d’Ingénieurs de Monastir, 63 Eding and Brady, 87 Efficiency of cogeneration, 108 Eggers-Lura, 89, 101 Eiseman B.J., 89 Electrochemical aspects, 25 Electrochemical reactions, 25, 27, 28, 38, 49 Electrochemical redox reactions, 38 Electrode and assemblies, 40 components and catalyst, 49 Elements of profitability assessment, 134 Emergency backup power, 126 Energy and development, and economy, and environment, consumption by end-use sector, conversion, 75 perspectives, 12 policy, Research Center, 63 resources, 2, 4, 6, 9, 15 world overview, Energy savings and efficient use of energy, Entropie, 56 Entropy, 77–79 EOC, 108–115, 119 Equivalent tons of petroleum, Equivalent uniform annual cost, 141 Estimating profitability, 138 Ethylene glycol/water, 64 EUAC, 141, 143, 144, 146, 147, 149, 150 European Union, 13 Ezzine, 63, 71 F Farbir and Gómez, 133 Fernández-Seara, 70 Fiji Electric Advanced Technology Co Ltd, 130 First law of thermodynamics, Fixed capital costs, 137, 138 Ford, 126, 129 Foulkes F.R., 52, 53 Fraunhofer ISE, 60 Index Fuel cell, 14, 18, 19, 23, 24, 26–29, 31– 35, 37–53, 55 classification, 37 efficiency, 33 energy, 124 in alkaline medium, 122 operation, 34 scooters, 125 technologies, 125 Future worth, 134, 135 G Gas diffusion electrodes, 49 GAX, 67, 71, 72 GBU GmbH, 59 GE Microgen, 125 Gemini Space Vehicle, 121 General Electric, 38 Generator/absorber/heat exchanger, 97 Geothermal, Gibbs-free energy, 26 Glebov and Setterwall, 64 Gưktun, 68, 71 Gómez, 63, 71 Graz University of Technology, 62 Gross domestic product, Grossman, 96, 101 Grotthus type, 48 H H Power, 125, 127 H2O/LiBr, 119 Hainsworth, 87, 101 Halogenerated hydrocarbons, 89 Hamnett A and Kennedy B.J., 44, 53 He and Chen, 64 Heat pump, 78, 119 Heat recovery, 19 Heat to work, 75 Helmholtz free energy, 26 Hensel and Harlowe, 89, 101 Holland, 135, 137, 138, 154 Honda, 126 Hospital and Autonomous Applications, 130 Hwang, 68, 71 Hydroelectric power, Hydrogenesis reaction, 104, 106 Hyundai, 126 157 I Idatech, 125 Ideal cell voltage, 34 Ideal efficiency, 33 Ideal potential, 27, 28, 32 IEA, 56, 105, 121 Ihrig H.K., 45, 53 Industrial, 5, 10, 16, 20 Institute of Thermal Engineering, 62 Institute of Thermodynamics and Thermal Engineering, 61 Institution of Engineering and Technology Factfile, 128, 131 Intermittent absorption cycle, 90 Internal rate of return, 140 International energy annual, International fuel cells, 50 International relationships, Invesnsor, 56 Irr, 140 Islam, 66 J J Appleby and F Foulkes 1989, 31 Jacob and Pink, 61, 71 K Kaita, 67, 71 Kinoshita K., 50, 53 Koppel T., 39, 53 Kordesch K.V., 45, 50, 53 L Larminie J., 40, 44, 48, 53, 129, 131 Le Pierrès, 64, 71, 89, 101 Lee, 65, 71, 73 LG, 56 Life cycle, 35 Lithium Bromide–Water, 90 system, 89 Lithium thiocyanate, 89 Locomotives, 125 Lord Kelvin, 76 Ludovisi, 66, 72 M Macriss, 87, 101, 102 Macroeconomic, 3, 158 Maekawa, 56 Mansoori and Patel, 87 Mastrangelo, 89, 102 Matsushita Electric Industrial Co Ltd, 125 Maximum work, 32 Maycom, 56 Mazda, 126 Mc Quay, 56 Mcdougall A., 45, 53 MCFC, 31, 32, 38 MEA, 38, 41–43 Meacham and Garimella, 65 Medrano, 67, 72 Membrane electrodes assembly, 38 Methanol, 38, 43, 44 Methylamine–water solution, 89, 114– 116, 120 MMAW, 114, 118, 119 Meunier, 99, 102 Meyer, 56, 72 Microturbine, 68, 72 Military applications, 126 Mitsubishi, 56 Mobile and transportation applications, 125 Mohideen and Renganarayanan, 65, 72 Molten carbonate fuel cell, 27 Morillón, 119 Mugnier, 56, 62, 72 Multieffect ARC, 95 Muthu, 64, 72 Mycom, 56, 59 N Nafion, 39, 41, 44, 122 Nanoparticles, 40, 51 NASA, 122 National University of Mexico, 63, 69 Natural gas, 7, 19 Nernst equations, 27 Net present cost, 139, 140 Net present value, 139 Nickel powder, 48 Niebergall, 84, 102 Nishyodo, 56 Nuclear electric power, Nuvera, 125 O Ohmic polarization, 29 Oka Y., 130, 131 On-site power, 124 Index Operating conditions, 107 pressure, 32 temperature, 31 Ordinary annuity, 135 P Park, 67, 72 Payback period, 138 PEMFC-AACS, 133, 134, 141, 149–152 PEMFC-CACS, 134, 141, 148, 149, 151, 152 Petroleum, 7, 12 Phosphoric acid fuel cell, 27, 38 PAFC, 27, 36, 38, 50–53, 55 Physiochemical characteristics, 37 Pilatowsky, 68, 72, 89, 103, 106, 108, 114, 119 Pink, 56, 59, 61, 71 Platinum, 39, 40, 44, 49, 50 Plug power, 125 Portable applications, 126 Present worth, 135, 136 Profitability assessment of absorption air conditioning system, 145 compression air conditioning system, 143 PEM fuel cell, 142 the systems, 141 Proton energy systems, 125 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell, 38 fuel cells, 131, 133, 142, 148, 149, 153 PEM, 38, 42, 103, 106, 110 PEMFC, 27, 38–43, 45, 49 PTFE/Pt-black, 49 R R134a/DMAC, 64 R23 + R32 + R134a/DMF, 64 Raldow, 88, 102 Redox electrochemical reactions, 121 reactions, 25 Refrigerant-sorbent systems, 87 Refrigeration sorption machine, 79 Renewable energy, 123 Renewable fuels, 13 Residential, 9, 20 Rivera, 69, 72, 107, 109, 119 Roberson J.P., 89 Robur, 56, 58 Index Romero, 69, 72, 89, 102, 106, 111, 114, 119 Rotartica, 56, 58, 60 Rozière J., Jones D., 39, 53 Ruge M., Büchi F.N., 42, 53 Rush, 87, 88, 102 S Sabir, 67, 72 Sadi Carnot, 76 Sanyo Electric Co., 56, 125 Saravanan and Maiya, 72 Scooters, 123 Sebastian, 119 Second law, 78 Selection of refrigerant, 86 Shuxing Wang, 130 Siemens Westinghouse Power Corp., 125 Sieres, 65, 72 Single-effect, 56, 59, 61, 67 Sodium thiocyanate in liquid ammonia, 89 Solar, Solar next, 59, 61 Solid oxide fuel cell, 27 SOFC, 27, 31, 38 Solubilization, 81 Solvation, 48 Sonnenklima, 56, 60 Sor Tech, 56 Sorption processes, 81 refrigeration cycle, 82 systems, 53, 55 work fluids, 86 Sortech AG, 60, 61 Space missions, 126 SRC, 82, 83, 86 Srikhirin, 95, 102 Stages of development of society, Standard conditions, 27, 34 Standard potential, 27 Stanley Angrist, 31, 36 Stationary applications, 123 PAFC cogeneration system, 128 power, 122 Sulfuric acid-water solutions, 88 Sun and Guo, 63 Sustainable development, 159 T Tae Kang, 70, 72 Technical University of Ilmenau, 63 Technological challenges, 48 Teflon®, 39 Theoretical thermal effect, 85 Thermal efficiency, 34 Thermal machine, 76 Thermax, 56 Thermodynamic and electrochemistry principles, 25 Thermodynamic principles, 31, 75 Time value of money, 134 Total capital costs, 137 Toyota Motor Corporation, 125 Trane, 56 Transportation, 10 Trigeneration, 23, 117, 118 Trigeneration systems, 116 Tsuchiya and Kobayashi, 133, 154 TVM, 134 Two-stroke scooters, 125 Tyagi and Rao, 87 U University of Stuttgart, 61 US Navy, 127 UTC, 50, 55 V Valenzuela E., 41, 53 Vapor compression refrigeration cycle, 80 Venegas, 70, 72 W Wagner, 63, 73 Wan, 67, 73 Warshay M., Prokopius P.R., 47, 53 Water/liCl, 69 Water/lithium bromide, 56, 57, 59, 60, 65, 69 Water/silicagel, 59 Water–Carrol, 112, 113, 119 Water–lithium bromide, 109 Weil, 89 Worek, 66, 73 Working capital costs, 137 Working substances, 88 160 World carbon dioxide emissions, 11 World primary energy production and consumption, Y Yaxiu, 62, 73 Yazaki, 56, 60 Yong & Wang, 102 Yoon, 65, 73 York, 56 Index Z Zellhoeffer, 89, 102 Zetzsche, 62, 73 Zhang, 65, 73 Ziegler, 97 Zinc bromide, 89 Zoulias and Lymberopoulos, 133 ... Recovery in Cogeneration Systems 1.4.4 Cogeneration System Selections 1.5 Cogeneration Fuel Cells – Sorption Air Conditioning Systems 1.5.1 Trigeneration 1.5.2 Fuel Cells in the Trigeneration... Considerations for Cogeneration Systems Based on Fuel Cells and Sorption Air Conditioning 6.2.1 Coupling of Technologies 6.2.2 Concepts of Efficiency 6.3 Modeling of Cogeneration Systems. .. Additionally, cogeneration systems include values such as variable fuel requirements, enhanced energy-security, and improved indoor air quality 1.4.2 Cogeneration Technologies Cogeneration systems