COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY To Christine with love (M.W.E.) To Ruth with love all ways (M.K.) The only means of strengthening one’s intellect is to make up one’s mind about nothing—to let the mind be a thoroughfare for all thoughts Not a select party (John Keats) Cognitive Psychology A Student’s Handbook Fourth Edition Michael W Eysenck (Royal Holloway, University of London, UK) Mark Keane (University College Dublin, Ireland) HOVE AND NEW YORK First published 2000 by Psychology Press Ltd 27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA www.psypress.co.uk Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Taylor & Francis Inc 325 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19106 Psychology Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005 “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Reprinted 2000, 2001 Reprinted 2002 (twice) and 2003 by Psychology Press 27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 © 2000 by Psychology Press Ltd All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-203-62630-3 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-62636-2 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-86377-550-0 (hbk) ISBN 0-86377-551-9 (pbk) Cover design by Hybert Design, Waltham St Lawrence, Berkshire Contents Preface xii Introduction Cognitive psychology as a science Cognitive science Cognitive neuropsychology Cognitive neuroscience 25 Chapter summary 26 Further reading 27 Visual perception: Basic processes 28 Introduction 28 Perceptual organisation 28 Depth and size perception 34 Colour perception 43 Brain systems 48 Chapter summary 56 Further reading 18 Outline of this book 13 57 Perception, movement, and action 58 Introduction 58 Constructivist theories 59 Direct perception 64 Theoretical integration 68 Motion, perception, and action 70 Visually guided action 71 vi Perception of object motion Chapter summary 87 Further reading 89 Object recognition 90 Introduction 90 Pattern recognition 91 Marr’s computational theory 79 96 Cognitive neuropsychology approach Cognitive science approach 116 Chapter summary 128 Further reading 129 Attention and performance limitations 130 Introduction 130 Focused auditory attention 132 Focused visual attention 136 Divided attention 147 Automatic processing 155 Action slips 160 Chapter summary 165 Further reading 109 Face recognition 106 166 Memory: Structure and processes 167 Introduction 167 The structure of memory 167 Working memory 172 Memory processes 182 Theories of forgetting 187 Theories of recall and recognition 194 Chapter summary 203 Further reading 204 vii 205 Episodic and semantic memory 205 Implicit memory 208 Implicit learning 211 Transfer appropriate processing 213 Amnesia 216 Theories of amnesia 223 Chapter summary 234 Further reading 235 Everyday memory 236 Introduction 236 Autobiographical memory 238 Memorable memories 245 Eyewitness testimony 249 Superior memory ability 256 Prospective memory 261 Evaluation of everyday memory research 263 Chapter summary 264 Further reading 205 Introduction Theories of long-term memory 265 Knowledge: Propositions and images 266 Introduction 266 What is a representation? 267 What is a proposition? 270 Propositions: Objects and relations 271 Schemata, frames, and scripts 276 What is an image? Some evidence 282 Propositions versus images 287 Kosslyn’s computational model of imagery 293 The neuropsychology of visual imagery 298 viii Connectionist representations Chapter summary Objects, concepts, and categories 306 306 Evidence on categories and categorisation 307 The defining-attribute view 313 The prototype view 317 The exemplar-based view 320 Explanation-based views of concepts 322 Conceptual combination 325 Concepts and similarity 326 Evaluating theories of categorisation 331 Neurological evidence on concepts 332 Chapter summary 333 Further reading 334 Speech perception and reading 335 Introduction 335 Listening to speech 336 Theories of word recognition 340 Cognitive neuropsychology 345 Basic reading processes 348 Word identification 352 Routes from print to sound 357 Chapter summary 365 Further reading 12 305 Introduction 11 304 Further reading 10 299 367 Language comprehension 368 Introduction 368 Sentence processing 368 Capacity theory 376 ix Discourse processing Story processing 398 Language production 399 Introduction 399 Speech as communication 399 Speech production processes 401 Theories of speech production 403 Cognitive neuropsychology: Speech production 410 Cognitive neuroscience: Speech production 412 Writing: Basic processes 414 Cognitive neuropsychology: Writing 419 Speaking and writing compared 425 Language and thought 426 Chapter summary 428 Further reading 430 Problem solving: Puzzles, insight, and expertise 431 Introduction 431 Early research: The Gestalt school 433 Newell and Simon’s problem-space theory 438 Evaluating research on puzzles 446 Re-interpreting the Gestalt findings 449 From puzzles to expertise 452 Evaluation of expertise research 461 Learning to be an expert 461 Cognitive neuropsychology of thinking 465 Chapter summary 466 Further reading 15 397 Further reading 14 386 Chapter summary 13 379 467 Creativity and discovery 468 676 AUTHOR INDEX Sin, G 374, 382 Singer, J 238 Singer, M 347, 350 Singh, K.D 19, 20, 21, 47 Singley, M.K 422 Skidmore, B 48 Skudlarski, P 328 Slamecka, NJ 173 Sloboda, J.A 428 Sloman, S.A 281, 469 Slovic, P 481 Slowiaczek, M.L 321, 342 Sly, K 434 Small, M 108 Smith, A.M 267 Smith, C.A 489, 491, 492 Smith, D.A 256 Smith, D.E 55 Smith, E.E 40, 159, 161, 255, 282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 288, 290, 291, 296, 297 Smith, J 48 Smith, S.M 165–166, 216, 427, 430, 431 Smith, T.W 509 Smith, U.L 230 Smith, W.C 296 Smolensky, P 12, 257, 273 Smyth, M.M 366 Sneg, R 331 Snowden, R.J 65 Snyder, L.H 65 Sobel, D 18, 123 Soloway, E 419 Sommer, W 159 Songer, N.B 359 Sonino-Legrenzi, M 455 Sowden, P.T 388 Spear, N.F 500 Speisman, J.C 491, 492 Spelke, E.S 136, 138 Spellman, B.A 443, 478 Sperber, D 453 Sperling, G 153 Spieler, D 318 Spohrer, J 419 Spohrer, J.C 419 Springer, K 66, 434 Squire, L.R 186, 190, 198, 200, 203, 204, 207, 208, 209 Srinivas, K 193 Stallcup, M 272, 273 Stanhope, N 216 Stanovich, K.E 471 Stark, H.A 188 Staszewski, J.J 416 Steedman, M.J 337, 338, 339 Steele, C.M 486 Steele, G.L 248 Stefflre, V 388 Stein, B.S 166 Stein, N.L 253 Stemberger, J.P 366 Stenman, U 122 Stephenson, G.M 353 Steptoe, A 491 Sternberg, R.J 287, 288, 461 Stevens, A.L 431, 433 Stevens, E.B 309 Stevens, J 64 Stevens, J.K 64 Stevenson, R 453, 459, 463, 469 Steward, F 116, 303 Stewart, D 68 Still, A 519 St James, J.D 126 St John, M.F 192 Stone, M.V 166, 167 Stopa, L 511 Strange, W 388 Stratman, J 379 Streby, W.J 356 Stroop, J.R 321 Strupp, J 210 Studdert-Kennedy, M 310 Stuss, D.T 19, 133, 186, 187, 202, 208, 217 Styles, E.A 125 Sukel, K.E 271 Sulin, R.A 353 Sullivan, L 137 Suls, J 395, 397, 409 Surian, L 265 Sussman, H.M 307 Svec, W.R 367, 368, 369, 371, 386 Sweller, J 423 Symons, C.S 224, 225 Takano, Y 259 Takeuchi, A.H 428 Talbot, N 200 Tanaka, J.N 113, 114, 115 AUTHOR INDEX Tanaka, K 46 Tanenhaus, M 328 Tarr, M.J 95, 96, 259 Tasso, A 471 Tata, P 508–509 Taylor, A.M 98 Taylor, D.W 397 Taylor, I 339 Taylor, K.L 486 Taylor, M.M 339 Taylor, S.E 145 Teasdale, J.D 503 Tees, R.C 306 te Linde, J 267 Teller, S.A 227, 230 Teramura, K 316 Teuber, H.-L 199 Thagard, P 9, 273, 291, 296, 419, 427, 435, 436, 443, 466 Thomas, C.R 438, 470 Thomas, J.C 405, 407 Thompson, V.A 453 Thompson, W.L 272, 273 Thomson, D.M 151, 176, 177 Thomson, J.A 67 Thomson, N 157, 158, 160, 266 Thorndike, E.L 395 Thorndyke, P.W 253, 351 Tijus, C 411 Tipper, S 133 Tipper, S.P 120, 121, 128 Tippett, L.J 272, 273 Titone, D 311, 312 Todd, J.T 31, 72 Toland, K 227, 230 Tolkien, J.R.R 405 Tomasello, M 424 Tomaso, H 210 Tomes, J.L 228 Toni, I 57, 63, 71 Tooby, J 448, 477, 478, 482 Tootell, R.B.H 20, 21, 47 Torrey, B.J 283 Toth, J.P 133, 189, 190 Tovée, M.J 41, 43, 46, 47, 49 Towse, J.N 162, 345 Trabasso, T 350 Traxler, M.J 338 Treisman, A.M 122, 123, 125, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 136 677 Tresilian, J.R 64, 73 Trojano, L 159 Truong-Quang, T 283 Tulving, E 19, 151, 166, 173, 174, 176, 177, 185, 186, 187, 188, 190, 202, 208, 210, 217, 522 Turner, J 316 Turner, M.L 344, 345 Turner, T.S 254, 255 Tversky, A 297, 298, 475, 476, 477, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 486 Tweney, R.D 438, 439, 440 Tyler, C.W 45 Tyler, L.K 267, 310, 311, 312, 316 Tzelgov, J 331 Uchikawa, K 37 Ucros, C.G 174, 500, 504 Ugurbil, K 210 Underwood, B.J 172, 173 Underwood, G 121 Ungerleider, L.G 69, 70 Vaidya, C.J 166, 167, 201, 207 Valdois, S 317 Valentine, E 186, 233, 234 Valentine, T 108, 111, 159 Vallar, G 157 Vallée-Tourangeau, F 440 van der Linden, M 227 van Dijk, T.A 347, 351, 355, 356, 359, 378 Van Essen, D.C 48 van Halen, S 311, 313 Van Joolingen, W.R 441 van Oostendop, U 360 Van Paesschen, W 203, 521 van Santvoord, A.A.M 72, 73 Vapnarsky, V 283 Vargha-Khadem, F 203, 521 Varner, L.J 503 Vaughan, H.G 199 Vaughan, J 134, 251, 290 Veale, 518, 520 Vecera, S.P 28 Ved, R 383 Velten, E 496 Verbrugge, R 388 Verfaellie, M 112, 128, 207 Videen, T.O 208 Vighetto, A 70 678 AUTHOR INDEX Villa, G 386 Vincente, K.J 414 Vogele, C 491 Vogels, R 47 Volkman, P 283 von Cramon, D 47 Von Eckardt, B 519 von Hofsten, C 74 von Neumann, J 483 Von Wright, J.M 122 Vosniadou, S 431 Wachtel, P 514 Wade, M.G 67 Wagenaar, W.A 220, 221, 222, 223 Wagner, A.D 166, 167, 191, 522 Wagner, D.A 414 Walker, C.H 254 Walker, E.C.T 288 Walker, J.A 133, 134 Walker, J.H 291 Wallace, M.A 97, 103 Wallach, H 72 Wallas, G 428 Waltz, J.A 438, 470 Wandell, B.A 78 Wang, X.T 484, 485, 487 Wang, Y 443 Wann, J.P 68, 73 Ward, G 424 Ward, M.R 423 Ward, R 127, 128 Ward, T.B 427, 430, 431 Warhaftig, M.L 232 Warner, C.B 127 Warren, P 311 Warren, R 65 Warren, R.M 308, 312 Warren, R.P 308, 312 Warren, W.H 65, 66, 67 Warrington, E.K 12, 48, 98, 104, 154, 155, 156, 199, 202, 302, 316 Warr, P.B 173 Wartenberg, F 396, 399, 409 Wason, P.C 438, 448, 453, 454, 455 Watabe, S 316 Waters, G.S 328, 345 Watkins, K.E 203, 521 Watkins, M.J 175 Watson, J.D.G 47, 259 Wattenmaker, W.D 294, 295 Watt, R.J 89 Watts, F.N 492, 495, 498, 499, 506, 510 Waxman, S.R 284 Wedderburn, A.A 122 Weekes, B 384 Weibe, D 411 Weiller, C 376 Weinberger, D.A 170 Weinman, J 509 Weinrich, M 383 Weisberg, L.L 272 Weisberg, R.W 395, 397, 409, 410, 411, 427 Weise, S.B 272 Weiskrantz, L 48 Weiss, L 324 Weisstein, N 27, 87 Welford, A.T 137 Well, A.D 319 Wells, G.L 230 Welsch, D 358 Wendelboe, B 434 Wenzel, A.E 169 Werker, J.F 306 Wertheimer, M 26, 75, 77, 396 Wessinger, C.M 49 West, W.C 267 Wetherick, N.E 440 Wetzler, S.E 219 Wexler, M 260, 266 Wharton, C.M 424, 436, 438, 440, 470 Wheatstone, C 33 Wheeler, M.A 19, 186, 187, 202, 208, 217 Whelan, S.M 434 Whitaker, H.A 470 White, S.H 220 Whitehouse, W.G 506 Whiting, H.T.A 72 Whitlow, S.D 209 Whitten, W.B 154 Whorf, B.L 387 Wickelgren, W.A 199 Wickens, C.D 135 Wickens, T.D 436, 440 Wiedenbeck, S 420 Wiesel, T.N 17, 44, 86, 87 Wight, E 160, 266 Wilding, J 233, 234 AUTHOR INDEX Wilkie, O 284 Wilkins, A.J 237, 239 Williams, J.M.G 492, 495, 498, 499, 504, 506, 510 Williams, L.M 171 Williams, P 96, 424 Williamson, P 116 Willingham, D 501 Willmes, K 375, 376 Wilson, B 158 Wilson, J 124 Wilson, K.D 113, 114, 115 Wilson, T.D Wilson, W.H 424 Wilton, R.N 29, 30 Winner, E 427 Winocur, G 99, 112 Wise, R.J.S 375, 376, 522 Wiseman, S 174 Wisniewski, E.J 294, 295, 296, 297, 298 Witte, S 378 Wittgenstein, L 288 Wixted, J.T 169 Wolbarst, L.R 200 Woldorff, M.G 18, 123 Wolf, E.S 210 Wolfe, J.M 85, 131, 133 Woll, S.B 256 Wong, E 27, 71 Wood, J.V 486 Wood, N.L 159 Wood, P.K 159 Woodworth, R.S 35 Worner, W.J 439, 440 Wright, D.B 226 Wynn, V 424 Wynn, V.E 353 Xing, J 65 Yang, T.L 38 Yang, Y 448, 457, 465 Yaniv, 1.411,429 Yantis, S 119, 126 Yates, F.A 258 Yates, J 434 Yekovich, F.R 253, 254 Yiend, J 147 Yonelinas, A.P 189, 190 679 Young, A.W 12, 106–107, 108, 112, 113, 314, 325, 382, 386 Young, D.S 67, 72 Young, M.P 47 Yuille, J.C 264, 265 Zadeh, L 296 Zaidel, E 266 Zajonc, R.B 490, 492, 493 Zanni, G 228 Zanuttini, R 372 Zaragoza, M.S 229 Zeki, S 41, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 132 Zembar, M.J 506 Zihl, J 47 Zimny, S 358 Zue, V.W 323 Zwaan, R.A 345, 346, 351, 358, 359, 360, 361 Zwicky, A.M 458 Zwitserlood, P 312 Subject index Entries given in bold indicate glossary terms Abstract-rule theory, 448, 457–460, 471, 472 Accommodation, 33, 527 Achromatopsia, 46, 527 ACME model, 436 ACT models, 422–423 Action plans, 238 Action slips, 145–149, 150, 527 Acts, 249 Ad hoc categories, 285 Adaptive Control of Thought, 422–423 Adjacency pair, 365 Aerial perspective, 31 Aeroplane problem, 433–434 Affect, 489–494, 511 Affective primacy hypothesis, 490–491 Affirmation of the consequent, 450, 527 Affordances, 59–60, 527 Afterimages, negative, 39, 40, 534 Agrammatism, 374, 527 Ah-ha experience, 396 Akinetopsia, 47, 527 Alcoholism, 198, see also Korsakoff’s syndrome Alexia, 115, 527 Algorithms, 402, 527 Alzheimer’s disease, 163, 190, 303, 330, 527 AMBEGUJAS phenomenon, 42 Ambiguous figures, 27, 91, 261 Ames room, 37, 93 Amnesia, 195–211, 212 anterograde, 196, 527 brain regions involved in, 196–197, 198, 208 infantile, 219, 220, 532 residual learning ability, 198–201 retrograde, 196, 197–198, 536 short-term memory in, 199 skill acquisition with, 199–200 source, 186, 204, 536 theories, 202–211, 212 Amnesic syndrome, 196–197, 527 Amygdala, 493 Analogical representations, 245, 246–247, 278, 527 Analogy, 434–438, 444, 527 Analysis by parts, 113 Anaphora, 346, 527 Anarthria, 158, 527 Anomia, 372, 373–374, 527 category-specific, 97, 528 Anticipated regret, 485–486 Anticipation errors, 368–369 Anxiety, 493, 494, 497, 498, 506–508 Aphasia, 344, 374–376, 528 Apperceptive agnosia, 97, 98, 528 Appraisal theory, 491–492 Arguments, 247, 355 Articulatory suppression, 157, 341, 528 Artificial grammar learning, 191 Associationism, 7, 528 Associative agnosia, 97, 98–99, 528 Attention, 119–141, 149 auditory, 121–125, 149 bias, 505, 506–507, 508–509, 528 brain regions involved in, 134–135 covert, 126, 529 disengagement, 133–134 divided, 120, 135–141, 150, 530 and emotion, 505–509, 511–512 engagement, 134 filter theory, 121–122 focused, 120, 121–135, 149–150, 531 shifting, 134 spotlight model, 126–128 680 SUBJECT INDEX visual, 125–135, 149–150 zoom-lens model, 126–128 Attentional engagement theory, 131–132 Auditory attention, 121–125, 149 Auditory phonological agnosia, 317, 528 Autobiographical memory, 217–223, 240, 528 Automatic processing, 141–145, 150, 321 Autonoetic awareness, 186, 187 Availability heuristic, 480–481, 528 Backward propagation of errors, 10, 11, 528 Balint’s syndrome, 125–126, 130–131, 134, 528 Basal ganglia, 199 Base-rate information, 476–479, 528 BASIC, 420 Basic cognitive interview, 232, 528 Basic level of abstraction, 282–283, 528 Bayes’ theorem, 476 Biases, 448, 528 Biconditional, 447, 528 Binding problem, 49, 93, 528 Binocular cues, 32–34, 528 Biological movement, 73–75 Blending, 366 Blindsight, 48–49, 528 Blobs, 44, 528 Blur, 32 Bottleneck theories, 137–138 Bottom-up processing, 2, 528 Boundary technique, 319 Bower’s network theory, 495–497 Brain function amnesia, 196–197, 198, 208 analogical thinking, 438 attention, 134–135 electrical stimulation, 517–518 emotions, 493 explicit learning, 191–192 eye movements, 64–65 imagery, 266–267, 272–273 implicit learning, 191 memory, 19, 190, 208 priming, 190–191 reading, 343 reasoning, 469–470 speech production, 372, 375, 376 techniques for studying, 17–21 and thought, 424–425 visual perception, 43–49, 50, 76–77, 86–87 681 Breakthrough, 122 Bridging inferences, 346, 528 Broca’s aphasia, 375 Candle problem, 397 Capacity theories, 138–141, 342–345, 361 Car driving, 67–68 Case grammar, 248, 528 Catching, 68–69 Categorical speech perception, 307–308, 388, 528 Categorisation, 280–285, 289–290, 301–302, 303 Category-specific anomia, 97, 528 Causality perception, 72, 78–79, 534 CC READER, 344 Central executive, 156, 162–164, 528 Centre of moment, 75, 528 Cerebellum, 199 Challenger explosion, 226 Characteristic attributes, 288, 529 Chess, 156, 235, 413–416, 425 Child prodigies, 428 Childhood trauma, 171–172 Chinese ring puzzle, 405 Chromatic adaptation, 41, 529 Chunks, 414–415, 422, 529 Clamping, 300 Co-articulation, 306, 529 Cocktail party problem, 121 Cognitive appraisal, 491–492 Cognitive biases, 505, 506–509, 511 Cognitive economy, 280, 529 Cognitive interviews, 231–233 Cognitive neuropsychology, 3, 12–16, 22–23, 516–518, 524, 529 Cognitive neuroscience, 3, 16–21, 23, 521–522, 525, 529 Cognitive psychology, 1–4, 22 experimental, 3, 513–516, 524, 531 Cognitive science, 3, 4–12, 22, 518–521, 524, 529 Cohort theory, 310–312 Colour categories, 289–290 Colour constancy, 41–43, 529 Colour memory, 388 Colour perception, 38–43, 50 deficiencies, 39 Colour processing, 45–46 Colour terms, 289 Combinatorial explosion, 413, 529 Common ground, 364 Complex cells, 86 682 SUBJECT INDEX Composite prototype, 296 Computational metaphor, 2–3 Computational models, 4, 5–12, 521–524 face recognition, 108, 109 imagery, 267–272 object recognition, 99–106 physics problem solving, 418–419 reading, 328 speech production, 369–373 Computer programming, 419–420, 426 Concepts, 279–304 cohesion, 280, 529 combined, 296–297 conjunctive/disjunctive, 295 extension, 285, 531 hierarchies of, 282–284, 286, 290–291, 529 instability of, 284–285 intension, 285, 532 relational, 248–252 and similarity, 297–301, 304 theories, 285–296, 299–302 Conceptual dependency theory, 249 Conceptual implicit tests, 190, 529 Conceptual priming, 190–191 Conceptually driven processes, 192, 206–207, 238, 529 Conditionals, 446, 449–456, 529 Conditioning, 201 Cones, 38 Configural information, 108, 110–111 Confirmation, 438, 529 Confirmation bias, 227, 438–440, 529 Conjunction errors, 210 Conjunction fallacy, 480 Connectionist models, 9–12, 519, 520, 529 concept learning, 299–301 expertise, 419 face recognition, 108, 109 imagery, 273–277 object recognition, 93, 100–101 reading, 328–331 schemata, 257 speech perception, 312–314 speech production, 366–367 and thinking, 443 visual search, 132 Consciousness, 119, 394 Constraint-based theory, 338–339 Construction-integration model, 357–360 Constructionism, 347 Constructivism, 53, 54–58, 79 Content-addressable representations, 277 Contention scheduling, 144 Context, intrinsic/extrinsic, 179 Context-change theory, 174–175 Context-dependent information, 285 Context effects on inferences, 451–453 in word identification, 321–323 Context processing deficit theory, 203–205 Contrast model, 297–298 Contrast sensitivity, 87, 529 Controlled processing, 142 Convergence, 32, 33, 529 Convergence solution, 435 Conversational turns, 365 Co-operative Principle, 363, 458 Correspondence, 75–76 Covert attention, 126, 529 Creativity, 428–431, 443, 529–530 impossibilistic vs improbabilistic, 430, 532 Cue-dependent forgetting, 155, 173–174, 175, 530 Darwinian algorithms, 466, 530 Data-driven processes, 192, 206–207, 238, 530 Dating events, 222 Decision making, 475–476, 483–487, 488 Declarative knowledge, 207, 530 Decoupling problem, 514 Deductive reasoning, 445–473 with conditionals, 449–456, 530 hemispheric specialisation, 469–470 Deep Blue, 413 Deep dysgraphia, 383, 530 Deep dyslexia, 267, 327, 330, 530 Deep dysphasia, 317, 530 Defining attributes, 285–288, 303, 530 Demand characteristics, 229, 530 Denial of the antecedent, 450, 530 Deontic reasoning, 455 Depression, 497, 498, 508–509 Depth perception, 30–35, 50 Diary studies, 145–146, 220–222 Dichotic listening, 121 Dictation, 386–387 Diencephalic amnesia, 196–197 Differential motion parallax, 66, 530 Digit span, 233–234 Direct perception, 53–54, 58–61, 80 SUBJECT INDEX Directed retrospection, 377, 530 Direction-selective cells, 76–77 Discourse processing, 345–351, 361 Dissociations, 12 Distinctiveness, 166 Distributed representations, 273–275, 277 Divided attention, 120, 135–141, 150, 530 Domain-specific knowledge, 409, 441, 530 Domain-specific rule theories, 448, 465–467, 471, 472 Dorsal stream, 62–63, 69, 71 Dot-probe test, 507 Double dissociation, 13, 530 Driving, 67–68 Dual-coding theory, 262–267 Dual-route models of reading, 325–328 Dual-space search, 440, 530 Dual-task performance, 135–137 Dynamic memory theory, 255–256 Dysarthria, 158, 530 Dysexecutive syndrome, 162, 530 Dysgraphia, 383–384 Dyslexia deep, 267, 327, 330, 530 phonological, 327, 330, 534 surface, 326–327, 329–330, 537 Dysphasia, 317 E-Z Reader model, 319–321 Ebbinghaus illusion, 57, 58 Echoic store, 153 Ecological approach, 58, 60, 530 Ecological validity, 216, 514–515, 530 Elaboration, 166 Elaborative inferences, 346, 530 Elaborative rehearsal, 165–166, 530 Electrical brain stimulation, 517–518 Emotion and attention, 505–509, 511–512 brain regions involved in, 493 and cognition, 489–512 and memory, 499–505, 511 and perception, 55, 505–509, 511–512 processing, 494–499, 509–511, 512 Empiricism, 3–4, 530–531 Encoding specificity principle, 174, 176–179, 531 Enhanced cognitive interview, 232, 531 Entraining, 78 Episodic memory, 18–19, 185–187, 208, 211, 531 Event-indexing model, 360–361 683 Event-related potentials (ERPs), 18, 21, 128, 159 Everyday memory, 215–241 Exemplars, 291–293, 304, 531 Expectations, 352 Experiment space, 441 Experimental cognitive psychology, 3, 513–516, 524, 531 Experimenters, 441 Expertise, 412–424, 425–426, 531 acquiring, 421–424 adaptive vs routine, 416 Explanation-based views of concepts, 293–296 Explicit learning, 191–192 Explicit memory, 187–188, 190, 208, 210, 531 Extension, 285, 531 External validity, 515, 531 Extinction, 125, 127–128, 531 Eye movements, 64–65 and mental rotation, 260 during reading, 318–321 Eye-voice span, 318 Eyeball pressing, 64 Eyeblink conditioning, 201 Eyewitness testimony, 227–233, 240 Face inversion effect, 113, 531 Face recognition, 47, 106–116, 117 Faces-goblet figure, 27, 91 Falsification, 438, 531 Familiar size, 32 Family resemblance, 288, 290, 531 Feature comparison theory, 288 Feature integration theory, 129–131, 132–133 Feature theories, 84–88 Feedback model, 432 Feeling of knowing, 411 Figural continuity constraint, 34 Figure-ground segregation, 27, 531 Filter theory of attention, 121–122 Flashbulb memory, 224, 225–227, 531 Flowcharts, 5–6 Focus of expansion, 59, 65, 66, 531 Focused attention, 120, 121–135, 149–150, 531 Folk theories, 431, 531 Foreign vocabulary learning, 235–236 Forgetting, 168–175, 183 cue-dependent, 155, 173–174, 175, 530 trace-dependent, 173, 537 Form processing, 46–47 Formants, 306–307 684 SUBJECT INDEX Foundation part, 269 Four-dot task, 410–412 Frames, 253, 352, 531 Framing, 484–485, 531 Free recall, 264–265 Frequency judgements, 478, 480–481, 482–483 Frequency paradox, 176 Frontal lobe, 147, 208, 469 Frontal syndrome, 162 Functional fixedness, 396–398, 531 Fuzzy categories, 282, 289, 531 Garden-path model, 337–338 Geneplore model, 430 General Problem Solver, 400 Genius, 427–428 Geons, 91, 94 Gestaltism, 26–28, 395–399, 425, 532 Gollin picture test, 97 Grammar, 335, 336 Granularity, 29 Grapheme-phoneme conversion, 325–327 Graphemic-cued recall, 194 Graphemic output buffer, 386 Graphemic output lexicon, 382, 384 Graphemic recognition, 194 Gratings, 87 Grey-level representation, 89 Grouping, 26, 27–28 Guided search theory, 131 Heading, 65–66 Hemispheric specialisation, 266–267, 272, 425, 469–470 Heuristics, 402, 409, 448, 479–481, 487, 532 High-level vision, 104–106 Hippocampus, 190, 208, 210 Hobbits and Orcs problem, 405 Holistic analysis, 113 Hollow face illusion, 34, 54 Home heating model, 432 Horizon, 38 Hybrid models, 418, 532 Hypercomplex cells, 86 Hypothesis space, 440 Hypothesis testing, 438–441 IAM model, 436 Iconic store, 153, 532 Identification parades, 230 Identification procedure, 288 Identikits, 108, 110 Illumination, 428, 429 Illusory conjunctions, 130 Image blur, 32 Image files, 269 Image scanning, 260–261 Image tracing, 270–271 Imagens, 262 Imagery, 257–277, 278 brain functioning, 266–267, 272–273 computational model, 267–272 connectionist model, 273–277 dual-coding theory, 262–267 Imagination, 432 Impetus theory, 434 “Implacable experimenter”, 514 Implicit knowledge, 112–113 Implicit learning, 4, 191–192, 212, 532 Implicit memory, 4, 167, 187–191, 208, 210, 211–212, 532 Incorrect comparison theory, 57 Incubation, 428, 429, 532 Induction, 284, 445, 532 Infantile amnesia, 219, 220, 532 Inferences, 346–351, 449–456 Inferotemporal cortex, 46–47 Information criterion, 192 Information processing, 2–3 Inner scribe, 160, 532 Inner speech, 340–342, 381–382 Insight, 396, 410–412, 425, 532 Instance theory, 144–145 Intension, 285, 532 Interactive activation and competition models, 101–104, 108, 109 Interactive activation model, 323–325 Interactive activation nets, 299 Interblobs, 44, 532 Interference in imagery, 265–266 Interference theory, 172–173 Internal validity, 515, 532 Interposition, 31 Interpretive bias, 505, 507–508, 509, 532 Interview techniques, 231–233 Introspection, 3–4, 532 Irrelevant speech effect, 159 Isomorphic problems, 403–405 Isomorphism, 13, 15, 27, 532 SUBJECT INDEX Jargon aphasia, 374–375, 532 Judgement, 475, 476–483, 486–487 Justification, 485 Kanizsa’s illusory square, 31 KEKDA, 440 Keyword method, 235–236 Kinetic depth effect, 71–72, 532 Know/remember distinction, 181–182 Knowing awareness, 186, 187 Knowledge, 279–280 compilation, 422–423 declarative, 207, 530 domain-specific, 409, 441, 530 implicit, 112–113 -poor/-rich situations, 394, 532–533 procedural, 207, 535 state, 400, 533 -telling/-transforming, 379–380 Korsakoff’s syndrome, 195, 196, 198, 199, 200, 201, 204, 533 Kosslyn’s computational model, 267–272 Landmarks, 222, 533 Language comprehension, 335–362 and memory, 388 and perception, 388 production, 363–387 and thought, 387–389, 391 see also Speech Lateral geniculate nucleus, 43–44 Launching effect, 78 Law of Prägnanz, 26 Laws of grouping, 26, 27–28 Learning, 421–424 explicit, 191–192 implicit, 4, 191–192, 212, 532 from mistakes, 423–424 and practice, 421 Letter identification, 323 Levels of processing theory, 165–168 Lexical access, 322, 533 Lexical decision tasks, 318, 321, 533 Lexicalisation, 371, 533 Lexicon, 384–385, 533 Linear perspective, 30–31 Linearity problem, 306 Lip reading, 309 685 LISA model, 436 Local representations, 275, 277 Logarithmic-loss law, 169 Logic, 446 Logical operators, 446, 533 Logogen, 262 Long-jumpers, 67 Long-range motion, 77–78 Long-term memory, 153–155, 185–213 Loop-avoidance strategy, 403, 533 Loss aversion, 483, 533 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 19–20, 21, 166–167, 210, 343 Magneto-encephalography (MEG), 20–21, 372, 533 Magnocellular (M) pathway, 43–44 Mahadevan, Rajan, 234 Maintenance rehearsal, 165–166, 533 MANIAC, 413 Mapping problems, 436–437 Marr’s computational theory, 88–91 Marr’s framework for theories, 523–524 Matching bias, 455 Matchstick algebra problems, 411–412 Material equivalence/ implication, 447 Mathematical models, MAX hypothesis, 299 McGurk effect, 309 Meaning, 59–60 Means-end analysis, 402, 533 Memory -Aided Pattern Perceiver, 415 aids, 235–237 autobiographical, 217–223, 240, 528 brains regions involved in, 19, 190, 208 for colours, 388 -cueing hypothesis, 455 for dates, 222 and emotion, 499–505, 511 episodic, 18–19, 185–187, 208, 211, 531 everyday, 215–241 expertise, 233–237, 240 explicit, 187–188, 190, 208, 210, 531 flashbulb, 224, 225–227, 531 implicit, 4, 167, 187–191, 208, 210, 211–212, 532 and language, 388 long-term, 153–155, 185–213 memorable memories, 223–227, 240 686 SUBJECT INDEX mood-state-dependent, 173–174, 495, 496, 500–502, 533 and motivation, 238 multi-store model, 152–156 processes, 164–168, 183 prospective, 237–239, 241, 535 recall, 175–182, 183, 264–265 recognition, 175–182, 183 recovered, 171 semantic, 185–187, 211, 536 short-term, 153–155 span, 154 spatial metaphor, 151–152 stores, 152–156 structure, 151–156, 182 working, 156–164, 182–183, 342, 537 Mental logic, 448, 457, 533 Mental models, 431–434, 448, 460–465, 471, 472, 533 Mental operators, 400, 402 Mental representations, 243, 246–247, see also Imagery Mental rotation, 258–260 Mentalese, 247 Mere exposure effect, 490, 533 Method of converging operations, 523, 533 Method of loci, 233, 533 Microspectrophotometry, 38, 533 Minimalist hypothesis, 347–350 Mirror-reversed script, 199–200 Mirror tracing, 199 Misinformation acceptance, 229 Missionaries and cannibals, 405–407 Mistakes, learning from, 423–424 Mnemonics, 235–237 Mnemonists, 233–235 Modal logic, 471, 533 Modularity, 13, 14–15, 141, 517, 533 Modus ponens and modus tollens, 447, 449–450, 533 Monocular cues, 30–32, 533 Monster—globe problem, 404 Mood congruity, 495, 496, 502–503 induction, 496–497 intensity, 496, 504 -state-dependent memory, 173–174, 495, 496, 500– 502, 533 Morpheme-exchange errors, 366 Motion apparent, 72, 75–78, 528 naive models of, 433–434 parallax, 32, 66 perception, 71–79, 80 processing, 47–48 short-range vs long-range, 77–78 Motivation and memory, 238 and perception, 55 Motor theory of speech perception, 310 Moving window technique, 319 Müller-Lyer illusion, 56, 57, 71 Multi-store model, 152–156 Musical ability, 428 Naive theories, 431, 433–434, 533–534 Naming task, 318, 534 Necker cube, 395–396 Negative afterimages, 39, 40, 534 Negative priming, 128, 534 Neglect, 125, 128, 133–134, 534 NETtalk, 11 Neural networks, see Connectionist models Nine-dot problem, 397–398, 410 Noetic awareness, 186, 187 Non-accidental principle, 92–93 Non-variance problem, 306 Normative theory, 407–408, 534 Object concepts, see Concepts Object recognition, 83–106, 116 viewpoint-dependent/-invariant theories, 96 Object-superiority effect, 87 Odds ratio, 476 Omission bias, 485, 534 “One-is-a-bun”, 235 Operation span, 344 Operators, 400, 402, 534 Opponent-process theory, 39–40 Optic aphasia, 97, 534 Optic array, 58–59, 534 Optic ataxia, 70, 534 Optic flow patterns, 59, 65–66, 534 Optical trajectory, 68, 534 Orthography, 318, 384–385, 534 Oscillation-binding theory, 49 Outflow theory, 64 Paivio’s dual-coding theory, 261–267 Parallel distributed processing, see Connectionist models SUBJECT INDEX Parietal cortex, 64–65, 134, 438, 534 Parsing, 335, 336–339, 534 Partonomies, 218 Parvocellular (P) pathway, 43–44 PASCAL, 419–420 Pattern associators, 274 Pattern playback, 307 Pattern recognition, 84–88, 116, 534 Pauses in speech, 365–366 Pendulum problem, 396 Perception for action, 62–63 defined, 25 direct vs indirect, 53, 62 and emotion, 55, 505–509, 511–512 and language, 388 and motivation, 55 for recognition, 62–63 Perceptual implicit tests, 190, 534 Perceptual organisation, 25–30, 50 Perceptual priming, 190–191 Perceptual segregation, 25–26 Perceptual span, 319 Perfect pitch, 428, 534 Perseveration errors, 368–369 Person identity nodes, 108 Phoneme-grapheme conversion, 382–383 Phonemes, 306, 308, 534 Phonemic restoration effect, 308–309, 534 Phonological dysgraphia, 383, 534 Phonological dyslexia, 327, 330, 534 Phonological loop, 156, 157–160, 534 Phonological output lexicon, 382, 384, 385–386 Phonological similarity effect, 159 Phonological theory of reading, 332–333 Phonology, 318, 534 Photofits, 108, 110 Physics expertise, 416–419, 425 Pictorial cues, 30–32 Pixels, 89 Place tokens, 89 Point-light displays, 73–74, 75 Police interviews, 231–233 Ponzo illusion, 56 Positron emission tomography (PET), 18–19, 21, 187, 191–192, 208, 272–273, 375, 376, 438 Post-event information, 227–230 Power Law of Practice, 421 Practice, 136–137, 216, 421 Pragmatic reasoning schemata, 466, 535 Pragmatics, 335, 339–340, 534 Predicate calculus, 247–248, 535 Prediction, 284 Prefrontal cortex, 186–187, 424, 438, 470, 535 Preinventive structures, 430 Primal sketch, 88, 89 Priming conceptual, 190–191 negative, 128, 534 perceptual, 190–191 repetition, 188, 200–201, 535 semantic, 321–322, 536 Proactive interference, 172–173 Probabilistic theory, 448–449, 467–469, 471, 472 Probability, 476, 479, 481, 482, 483 Problem solving, 393–426, 441–443 and experience, 402–403 expertise, 412–424, 425–426, 531 set, 398, 535 subgoals, 402–405, 536 Problem space, 399–409, 425, 440–441, 535 Problems, ill defined and well defined, 409, 532, 537 Procedural knowledge, 207, 535 Proceduralisation, 423 Process dissociation procedure, 188–190 Prodigies, 428 Production systems, 8–9, 423, 535 Progressive deepening, 414, 535 Progressive supranuclear palsy, 134 Propositional calculus, 446, 535 Propositional files, 269–270 Propositional nets, 357 Propositional representations, 246–252, 261–267, 278, 355, 356, 535 Prosodic cues, 305, 309, 365, 535 Prosopagnosia, 106, 111–113, 115, 535 Prospective memory, 237–239, 241, 535 Protocol analysis, 377, 535 Prototypes, 288–291, 296, 303–304 Pseudo-word superiority effect, 323 Psychological refractory period, 137, 535 Pulvinar nucleus, 134 Pure word deafness, 315–316, 535 Puzzle solving, 395–412 Radiation problem, 435 Random-dot stereograms, 33, 34 Random generation task, 162–163 687 688 SUBJECT INDEX Range map, 90 Rationalisation errors, 352–353, 535 Rationality, 470–471 Reading, 317–332 aloud, 318 brain regions involved in, 343 connnectionist models, 328–331 dual-route models, 325–328 eye movements, 318–321 eye-voice span, 318 inner speech, 340–342 phonological theory, 332–333 span, 342, 344, 535 word identification, 321–325, 333 Reasoning, 445–473 with conditionals, 449–456 hemispheric specialisation, 469–470 Recall, 175–182, 183, 264–265 Recency effect, 154, 535 Receptive fields, 86 Recognition-by-components, 91–96 Recognition memory, 175–182, 183 Reconstruction, 230 Recovered memories, 171 Regret, anticipated, 485–486 Rehearsal elaborative, 165–166, 530 maintenance, 165–166, 533 subvocal, 158–159, 160 Relational concepts, 248–252 Remember/know distinction, 181–182 Reminiscence bump, 219–220, 535 Repetition priming effect, 188, 200–201, 535 Representations, 244–247, 278, 535 analogical, 245, 246–247, 278, 527 external, 243, 244–247 internal (mental), 243, 246–247, see also Imagery propositional, 246–252, 261–267, 278, 355, 356, 535 Representativeness heuristic, 479–480, 535 Repression, 170–172, 535 Repressors, 170–171 Resonance, 60, 536 Resource limitations, 441, 536 Restructuring, 143, 396, 410–412, 536 Retina, 38 Retinal ganglion cells, 43 Retinex theory, 41–43 Retroactive interference, 172 Reversible figures, 27 Rods, 38 Role slots, 254 Rule-application hypothesis, 404 Rule-learning hypothesis, 404 Rules of thumb, see Heuristics Running, 67 to catch, 68–69 Running spectral displays, 307, 536 S (mnemonist), 233 Saccades and mental rotation, 260 during reading, 318–319 SAM model, 179–180 Savings method, 169, 536 Schema theories, 147–148, 252–253, 254, 256–257, 352– 355, 497, 536 Schematic Propositional Associative and Analogical Representational Systems, 493 Scientific discovery, 438–441 Script-pointer-plus-tag hypothesis, 354–355 Scripts, 253–256, 352, 536 Search-after-meaning, 350 Search of associative memory (SAM) model, 179–180 SEEK theory, 416 Segmentation problem, 306 Selection, early vs late, 123 Self-esteem, 486 Self-generated imagery, 497 Self-knowing awareness, 186, 187 Self-reference effect, 223–225, 536 Self-schema, 225 Semantic decomposition, 249–252, 536 Semantic features, 249, 536 Semantic information units, 108 Semantic memory, 185–187, 211, 536 Semantic networks, 7–8, 249, 495–497, 536 Semantic priming, 321–322, 536 Semantic primitives, 249, 536 Semantic substitutions, 366 Sensitivity criterion, 192 Sensori-motor skill learning, 199 Sensory stores, 153 Sentence generation, 377, 378 processing, 335–345, 361 verification, 287 SERR model, 132 SUBJECT INDEX Sexual abuse, 171 Shading, 31–32 Shadowing task, 121–122 Shereshevskii (mnemonist), 233 Short-range motion, 77–78 Short-term memory, 153–155 Similarity, 297–301, 304 Simple cells, 86 Simultagnosia, 125, 134, 536 Single case studies, 14 Single unit recordings, 17–18, 21, 86, 536 Sinusoidal gratings, 87, 536 Size constancy, 35–38, 536 Size—distance invariance hypothesis, 36, 37 Skeletal image, 269 Skill acquisition, 199–200 Slot/slot filler, 249 SME model, 436 Social contract theory, 466–467 Solar system analogy, 434–435 Source amnesia, 186, 204, 536 Source monitoring, 229–230 SPAARS, 493 Spatial frequency, 87 Spatial medium, 268–269, 271–272 Spatial metaphor, 151–152 Spectrograph, 306–307, 536 Speech as communication, 363–365, 389 errors, 366, 368–369 pauses in, 365–366 perception, 305–17, 332 processing, 314–317 production, 365–376, 390 word recognition, 308–314, 332 and writing, 386–387, 391 Spelling, 382–386 Split-brains, 138, 272 Spoonerisms, 366 Sport fielders, 68–69 long-jumpers, 67 Spotlight model, 126–128 Spreading activation theory, 367–368 SQ3R technique, 236–237 Stereopsis, 33–34, 536 Story grammars, 351–352, 536 macro- and micro-structure, 355–356 689 processing, 351–361 Streaming consciousness, 430 Stroop effect, 141–142, 321, 507, 536 Structured imagination, 430 Subgoals, 402–405, 536 Subordinate level of abstraction, 283, 536 Subvocal rehearsal, 158–159, 160 Sunk-cost effect, 483–484, 536 Superordinate level of abstraction, 283, 536 Supervisory attentional system, 144 Support theory, 481–482 Surface dysgraphia, 383–384, 536 Surface dyslexia, 326–327, 329–330, 537 Syllogism, 471, 537 Symbols, 2, 537 Synaesthesia, 233, 537 Syndromes, 13–14, 537 Syntax, 335, 336 Talent, 427–428 Task difficulty, 137 Task similarity, 135–136 Tau, 66, 72, 73 Template theories, 84, 416 Temporal lobe amnesia, 196–197, 198, 208 Text genres, 360 Texture gradients, 31, 59 Thatcher, Margaret, resignation of, 226–227 Theorists, 441 Thiamine deficiency, 198 Thought, 393–394, 424–425 congruity, 495, 496, 503–504 and connectionism, 443 language and, 387–389, 391 3-D model representation, 88, 90–91 Time-to-contact, 66–68, 72–73 Tip-of-the-tongue, 371 Top-down processing, 2, 537 Tower of Hanoi, 400–402 Trace decay theory, 170 Trace-dependent forgetting, 173, 537 TRACE model, 312–314 Trait anxiety, 494, 537 Transfer-appropriate processing, 167, 168, 192–195, 212 Trichromatic theory, 38–39 Truth tables, 446–447, 537 Tulving-Wiseman function, 177–178 2½-D sketch, 88, 90 2–4-6 task, 438–440 690 SUBJECT INDEX Two process models of face perception, 113–116 of recall/recognition, 175–176 Two-string problem, 396 Typicality gradient, 282, 537 Ulysses (Joyce), 393, 430 Unattended visual stimuli, 128 Unconscious inferences, 54 Utility, 483, 537 Validity, 216, 514–515 Valve model, 432 Ventral stream, 62–63, 69 Verbal overshadowing, 228 Vertical-horizontal illusion, 60–61 Viewpoint-dependent/-invariant theories, 96 Vision for action/for perception, 70, 71 Visual agnosia, 70–71, 97–99, 115, 537 Visual attention, 125–135, 149–150 Visual cache, 160, 537 Visual constancies, 35–38, 41–43, 83 Visual cortex (V1-V5), 44–49, 76–77, 86–87 cell classification, 86 Visual illusions, 56–57, 58, 60–61, 71, 93 Visual imagery, 257–277, 278 brain functioning, 266–267, 272–273 computational model, 267–272 connectionist model, 273–277 dual-coding theory, 262–267 Visual perceptual organisation, 25–30, 50 Visual search, 129–133 Visual system, 43–49, 50 Visual word recognition, 321–325, 333 Visually guided action, 65–71, 80 Visuo-spatial sketchpad, 156, 160–162, 537 Vocabulary learning, 235–236 Vocoder, 307 Walking, 67 Wallpaper illusion, 33 Wason’s selection task, 453–456 Water-jug problems, 398, 409–410 Waterfall illusion, 20 WEAVER++ model, 369–373 Wernicke’s aphasia, 375–376 What and where systems, 69–71 Whorfian hypothesis, 387, 389 Word-exchange errors, 366 Word-fragment completion, 167, 537 Word identification, 321–325, 333 techniques, 318 Word-length effect, 157, 537 Word meaning deafness, 316, 537 Word processors, 380–381 Word recognition auditory, 308–314, 332 visual, 321–325, 333 Word-set units, 275, 277 Word-stem completion, 167, 537 Word superiority effect, 323, 537 Work forwards/backwards, 417 Working memory, 156–164, 182–183, 342, 537 Writing, 376–386, 390 expertise, 379–380 and inner speech, 381–382 plans, 377–378 revision, 377, 378–379 sentence generation, 377, 388 and speech, 386–387, 391 using word processors, 380–381 Young-Helmholtz theory, 38–39 Zoom lens model, 126–128 ... 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