PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF Phot iarkvart & 1 ELSEVIER Handbook of Photovoltaics: Section Finder Preface Guide to Usage of the Handbook by Professional Groups List of Contributors Introduction I I1 Introduction Crystalline silicon solar cells Thin film technologies Space and concentrator cells Organic and dye sensitised cells 111 Introduction Solar radiation The role of solar radiation climatology in the design of photovoltaic systems Solar cells a1 a2 Semiconductor materials and modelling a3 Ideal efficiencies bl Silicop: manufacture and properties b2 b3 Thin silicon solar cells b4 b5 cl Amorphous silicon solar cells c2 Microcrystalline silicon solar cells c3 c4 Cu(In.Ga)Se2 thin-film solar cells dl d2 Principles of solar cell operation Low cost industrial manufacture of crystalline silicon solar cells Characterisation and diagnosis of silicon wafers and devices High-efficiency silicon solar cell concepts Cadmium telluride thin-film PV modules GaAs and high-efficiency space cells High-efficiency concentrator silicon solar cells el e2 Photoelectrochemical solar cells Organic and plastic solar cells Photovoltaic systems a1 a2 a3 Energy production by a PV array Energy balance in stand-alone PV systems Review of system design and sizing tools Page reference V vi 1 X 5 71 95 123 137 155 185 227 253 281 317 333 367 417 435 459 483 517 531 543 Balance-of-system components Grid-connected systems Space and concentrator systems Case studies IV V Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Appendix E Appendix F bl System electronics bL Batteries in P\’ systems cl C2 Installation guidelines: construction c3 Installation guidelines: electrical dl Concentrator systems d2 el Architectural integration e2 e3 Solar-powered products Grid-connection of PV generators: technical and regulatory issues Operation of solar cells in a space environmenl Performance. reliability and user experience Testing, monitoring and calibration 1 2 PV system monitoring 3 Standards, calibration. and testing ofPV modules and solar cells Calibration. testing and monitoring ofspace solar cells Economics, environment and business strategy 1 Overview of potential hazards 2 3 World photovoltaic markets 4 Energy pay-back time and C02 emissions of PV systems National and regional support programmes Appendices Constants, physical quantities and conversion factors List of principal symbols Abbreviations and acronyms Bibliography Inlernational and US standards with relevance to photovoltaics Useful web sites, journals and newsheets Editorial index 565 587 6 3 5 655 667 6x1 705 72 5 749 771 793 817 825 x57 869 887 91 3 92 5 927 935 941 947 955 961 Handbook of Photovoltaics: Section Finder Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications Edited by: Tom Markvart and Luis Castafier ELSEVIER UK USA JAPAN Elsevier Science Ltd. The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 IGB, UK Elsevier Science Inc. 3 60 Park Avenue South, New York, NY Elsevier Japan, Tsunashima Building Annex, 3-20-1 2 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 11 3, Japan 1OOXO-1710, USA Copyright 0 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Practical handbook of photovoltaics: fundamentals and applications 1. Photovoltaic power systems 2. Photovoltaic power generation 3. Photovoltaic cells I. Markvart, Tomas 62 1.3’1244 11. Castafier, Luis ISBN 1856173909 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Practical handbook of photovoltaics: fundamentals and applications / edited by Tom Markvart and Luis Castafier. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Photovoltaic cells. 2. Photovoltaic power generation. I. Markvart, Tom. 11. Luis Castaiier. p. cm. ISBN 1-8 5 6 17-3 90-9 TK8322.P73 2003 621.381 5’424~2 1 2003040758 No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Published by Elsevier Advanced Technology, The Boulevard. Langford Lane, Kidlington OxfordOX5 lGB, UK Tel.: +44(0) 1865 843000 Fax: +44(0) 1865 843971 Typeset by Variorum Publishing Ltd, Lancaster and Rugby Printed and bound in Great Britain by BiddIes Ltd. Guildford and King’s Lynn Preface Photovoltaics is about to celebrate 50 years of its modern era. During this time, the industry has grown from small satellite power supplies to utility-scale systems that are now routinely installed in many countries of the world. Solar cells capable of producing power in excess of 500 MW were manufactured in 2002, providing electricity to a variety of applications ranging from small consumer products, power systems for isolated dwellings and remote industrial equipment to building-integrated solar arrays and megawatt-size power stations. This PracticaI Handbook of Photovoltaics addresses the need for a book that summarises the current status of know-how in this field. It represents a detailed source of information across the breadth of solar photovoltaics and is contributed to by top-level specialists from all over the world. Over 1,000 references, bibliographies and web sites guide the reader to further details, be it specific information for industrial production and research or a broad overview for policy makers. Thirty-seven chapters in the handbook cover topics from fundamentals of solar cell operation to industrial production processes, from molecular photovoltaics to system modelling, from a detailed overview of solar radiation to guidelines for installers and power engineers, and from architectural integration of solar cells to energy payback, C02 emissions and photovoltaic markets. Appendices include extensive bibliography and lists of standards, journals and other sources of information which can be found in a printed or electronic form. The main credit for this handbook must go to the 47 contributors who have produced a unique compilation of the contemporary knowledge in photovoltaic science and technology. Our thanks go to our families for their patience and support without which this book would have never seen the light of day. Luis Castafier Barcelona Tom Markvart Southampton Guide to Usage of the Handbook by Professional Groups II. Solar cells 111. Systems - 2 2 0 1 4-4 C a, 0 c 0" Dd a, u m P v) Ild 1 Ile 3; Solar cell - productior I Solar cell - R8C -~ ~ ~ System desigr Grid connectior System installers - Sales 8 marketing PV equipment manufacturers Policy and business strateg] Project managers Environmentalists I Svstem analvsis and evaluation Solar energy resource PV consumer Droducts ~~ ~ -t I Venture capitalists and investors vi [...]... Curlson and C.R Wronski Microcrystalline silicon solar cells K Yamamoto Cadmium telluride thin-film PV modules D Bonnet Cu(In,Ga)Se2thin-film solar cells U RauandH W Shock 281 317 333 367 Space and concentrator cells 1 GaAs and high-efficiency space cells V M Andreev 2 High-efficiency concentrator silicon solar cells P.J Verlinden 417 43 5 viii Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications. .. (Chapters IIb-2 and -5 ), and thin silicon cells (Chapter IIb-3) Part IIc examines all aspects of thin-film solar cells, including amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride and copper-indium diselenide and its derivatives (Chapters IIc-1, -3 and 4) Chapter IIc-2 describes a novel amorphous/microcrystalline silicon cell which is rapidly gaining ground Part IId focuses on high-efficiency cells for space and concentrator... Studies, University of Rogelio Leal Cueva, GESP - Agrupacio Euroregional dels Sistemes Fotovoltaics, Seccio Arquitectura Sostenible, c/Baldiri Reixac 4 - 6 , 0 8 0 28 Barcelona, Spain email: rleal@pcb.ub.es Tom Markvart, School of Engineering Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO1 7 lBJ, UK email: t.markvart(@Jsoton.ac.uk xii Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications. .. principal attributes and limitations of the available computer tools 2 Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications System engineering is discussed in Part 111 Part IIIa provides an introduction to this field by giving an overview ofthe generic aspects ofphotovoltaic system design, including a review of the relevant modelling and simulation tools The balance of system components... 62 62 66 8 Practical Handbook of Photovoltairs: Fundamentals and Applications 1 Introduction Climate and solar radiation impact both on system supply side issues and on system demand side issues Designers need both solar data and temperature data Temperature affects the performance of photovoltaic devices per se It also has a strong bearing on the demands of the energy required for heating and cooling... Radiation Climatology of the Humid Tropics 2.6.4 Solar Radiation in Desert-Type Climates 2.6.5 Special Issues in Mountainous Areas 2.7 Radiation Climatology of Inclined Planes for Photovoltaics Applications 2.8 Inter-annual Variabilitv 2.8.1 Estimating Daily Radiation from Sunshine Data 8 10 10 10 11 13 17 17 18 18 19 21 26 28 30 31 32 6 Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications 3... an in-depth analysis of battery operation in photovoltaic systems (Chapter IIIb-2) and an overview of the electronic control and power conditioning equipment (Chapter IIIb-I ), The rapidly growing area of grid-connected systems is considered from several viewpoints in Part IIIc which examines the technical and regulatory issues of the grid connection, and the building and electrical installation of domestic... the Usage of the Handbook by Professional Groups List of Contributors Introduction PART I PART II 1 5 SOLAR CELLS Introduction 1 Principles of solar cell operation T Markvart and L Castarier 2 Semiconductor materials and modelling T Markvart and L Castaner 3 Ideal efficiencies P.T Landsberg and T Markvart Ilb X SOLAR R A D I A T I O N The role of solar radiation climatology in the design of PV systems... experience and performance indicators are analysed in Chapter IIIe-2; the allied subject of system monitoring is reviewed in Chapter IV-2 Solar cells as a source of power for consumer products are reviewed in Chapter IIIe-3 Arguably the most exciting aspect of photovoltaics -the visual impact of the new solar architecture - is discussed in Chapter IIIe-1, which also gives numerous breathtaking examples of. .. particular purpose at hand For the non-specialist, the introductory chapters of Parts I1 and I11 can serve as a starting point before proceeding to explore other parts of the handbook The supplementary chapters and appendices, including bibliography, solar radiation data for selected sites and the lists of standards, web sites and news sheets, act as pointers to more specific details and textbooks if a . Photovoltaics: Section Finder Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications Edited by: Tom. megawatt-size power stations. This PracticaI Handbook of Photovoltaics addresses the need for a book that summarises the current status of know-how in this field. It represents a detailed. reliability of electricity supply by stand-alone photovoltaic systems. The understanding of solar radiation forms arguably the most ancient part of physical science but it is only recently that the