Membrane Technology Membrane Technology A Practical Guide to Membrane Technology and Applications in Food and Bioprocessing Edited by Z.F Cui and H.S Muralidhara AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA First edition 2010 Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Details on how to seek permission, further information about the publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions The book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein) Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for the injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Control Number A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-1-85617-632-3 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our website at elsevierdirect.com Typeset by MPS Limited, a Macmillan Company, Chennai, India www.macmillansolutions.com Printed and bound in the United States of America 10 11 12 13 10 Preface Separation and purification are key to many manufacturing processes in the food, bioprocessing and pharmaceutical industries Furthermore, these processes are becoming increasingly important for the growth of industries such as bioenergy, biotechnology and nanotechnology The multiple steps involved in separation/purification processing often require substantial up-front capital and significant operating costs Thus the efficiency and productivity of separation technology can be critical to both the profitability and sustainability of an enterprise Recent developments in membrane technology, especially the development of novel membrane processes, are the most growing areas of process technology There are several excellent books published in the general areas of membrane science and membrane technology, but there is minimal focus on the applications of membrane technology in food and pharma areas, even though they have grown steadily during the last two decades For example, one of the major applications in the food industry is the use of reverse osmosis membranes to extend the evaporation capacity and reduce the overall energy costs, thus lowering the carbon footprint for the overall process The idea for this book, which focuses on the practical applications of membranes in food and bioprocessing, came out of a North American Membrane Society (NAMS) meeting in Chicago, Illinois, USA, in 2006, when both editors held a workshop on “Fundamentals and Applications of Membrane Technology in Food/Bio-processing” With our combined experience in food technology and bioprocessing, we felt that a book dedicated to the practical aspects and challenges of utilizing membranes effectively in an industrial setting would be an extremely useful tool for any one in membrane processing and practice The idea gained even more momentum when Elsevier conducted a market study and subsequently expressed its interest in publishing a book on the topic In many ways editing this book has been a privilege and a unique experience Thanks firstly to our excellent contributors without whose support, this book would not have materialized It is most fitting that this technological work is published from contributors around the globe and is founded on the spirit of free enquiry coupled with hard work and imagination It has indeed been a great pleasure to be in touch with all contributors during the last to years Thanks also for their patience and understanding We would be utterly remiss if we did not acknowledge those people who have provided us with the inspiration, motivation and never-ending encouragement throughout the course of this work Dr Murali would like to acknowledge Mr Ronald Christenson, former Chief Technology Officer, Cargill Inc; his wife Ponnamma; his children Shubha and Shilesh, their spouses Chuck Harris and Nupur Parikh and his two lovely grandchildren Reya and Azad; all his teachers and mentors during his entire career; and his parents who would have been both excited and extremely proud to see this book published xi xii Preface Dr Cui wishes to thank his wife, Dr Jing Yu, for her unreserved support over decades, his mother for her love, and his children, Jenny and Michael, for “keeping him happy” He would like to thank those who inspired and encouraged him to embark on a career in the “membrane world” Such a list would be long, and here just name a few: Tony Fane, John Howell, Norman Li and Bill Eykamp In setting our goal of bringing this book to fruition, we kept in mind these words from Robert Frost in The Road Not Taken: “Two roads diverged in a wood and II took the one less travelled by, And that has made all the difference” ZFC and HSM About the Editors Zhanfeng Cui is the Donald Pollock Professor of Chemical Engineering, University of Oxford since the Chair was established in 2000 He is the founding Director of the Oxford Centre for Tissue Engineering and Bioprocessing (OCTEB) He was educated in China and got his BSc from Inner Mongolia University of Technology (1982) and MSc (1984) and PhD (1987) from Dalian University of Technology After a postdoctoral experience in Strathclyde University in Scotland, he joined Edinburgh University as a Lecturer in Chemical Engineering (1991) He then held academic appointments at Oxford Engineering Science Department as University Lecturer (1994À1998) and Reader (1999À2000) He was a Visiting Professor of Georgia Institute of Technology, USA (1999), the Brown Intertec Visiting Professor to University of Minnesota, USA (2004), and a Chang-Jiang Visiting Professor to Dalian University of Technology, China (2005) He is a Chartered Engineer, a Chartered Scientist, and a Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers In 2009 he was award a Doctor of Science (DSc) by Oxford University to recognise his research achievement in membrane science and technology Apart from membrane research, he also works on tissue engineering and stem cell technologies, and bioprocessing He published widely and is also the academic founder of Zyoxel Limited, an Oxford University spin-off in 2009 H.S Muralidhara Ph.D is a Chemical Engineer He retired from Cargill Inc in Minneapolis, USA in Oct 2009 as a Vice President, Manager Process Technology, Corporate Plant Operation after 20 years of service Prior to that he was a Research Leader at Battelle Memorial Institute in Columbus, Ohio, USA for 10 years He is currently an industrial consultant He has over 30 years of industrial experience in separation purification process technologies including application of membranes in food and bioprocessing He is a coinventor of 27 US patents and 15 patents pending He has edited two books and has served as a key note speaker in many major international conferences xiii About the Contributors Vicki Chen is the director of the UNESCO Centre for Membrane Science and Technology at The University of New South Wales, Australia Jim Davies is a biochemical engineer with a PhD from UCL and is currently a Principal Group Leader in Purification Development at Lonza Biologics UK R.W Field is a Reader in Engineering Science at Oxford University and has many years of experience in membrane technologies Val D Frenkel, PhD, PE, DWRE, Director Membrane Technologies with Kennedy/ Jenks Consultants, is the company-wide leader for Membrane Technologies Dr Frenkel formed and leads the firm’s Membrane Technology Group and has 25 years of experience in engineering, with expertise in water and wastewater treatment, water reuse, and membrane technologies, including desalination Yu Jiang was awarded her DPhil in 2009 from Oxford University Her DPhil thesis was entitled “Emergency drinking water device based on gravity driven ultrafiltration” Bassam Jirjis is a Principal Chemical Engineer at Cargill Inc., in Minneapolis, Minnesota He has more than 25 years of experience in the area of separation technologies and food processing N.S Krishna Kumar, PhD, is a Senior Chemical Engineer at Cargill Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA His research interest is focused on application of membranes in food, bioprocessing and water treatment He is currently involved with vegetable oil process development research work concentrated towards process improvement Abhay R Ladhe is a Research Chemical Engineer at Cargill Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA He graduated from University of Kentucky with a Ph.D in Chemical Engineering His research interests include membrane functionalization and membrane based separation He is currently working in the area of vegetable oil processing for process improvement and process development Hongyu Li is a Research Fellow in the UNESCO Centre for Membrane Science and Technology, The University of New South Wales, Australia Frank Lipnizki, PhD, is currently with Alfa Laval – Business Centre Membranes (previously Danish Separation Systems), Denmark Since 2010 also Docent at the University of Lund, Sweden His main research interests are the integration and optimization of membrane process for the food, biotech and process industry Jianquan Luo, MEng, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences Mr Luo is an experienced engineer specializing in membrane applications in bioseparation and wastewater treatment xv xvi About the Contributors Susana Luque is a Full Professor in Chemical Engineering at the University of Oviedo in Spain Her main interests are in applied membrane research and membrane-based hybrid processes Alan Merry has a PhD in Chemical Engineering He has 30 years’ experience at ITT-PCI Membranes Ltd, working with all aspects of membranes including membrane development, applications and production Joseph Scimeca, PhD, currently holds the position of Director of Global Regulatory Affairs, in the department of Corporate Food Safety and Regulatory Affairs, at Cargill, Incorporated, where he has responsibility for ensuring that the company’s food and feed products and processes are safe, including being protected against intentional acts of adulteration and bioterrorism, and are compliant with the appropriate food/feed regulations Martin Smith, also a Biochemical Engineer from UCL, is currently a Bio-Process Consultant at eXmoor Pharma Concepts in the fields of Biopharmaceuticals and Regenerative Medicine Yinhua Wan, DPhil, is a Professor of Biochemical Engineering at Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences He has published more than 80 papers in refereed journals and holds a number of patents in membrane separation technologies Index chemical-cleaning fouling control method concepts, 16, 18, 37À8, 58À60, 225À48, 263 costs, 16, 18, 59À60, 228À48 mechanisms, 225À32 regulatory requirements, 18, 37À8, 233À5, 263 schematic overviews, 226À7 chemical-reactions membrane foulants, concepts, 12À13, 214À48 Chen, Vicki, 213À54 China, 23, 35, 45À54, 55À6, 125, 135, 139, 140, 144 chlorine concentrations, 37À9, 195, 231À48 ‘Christmas tree’ designs 198 see also multistage chromatography steps, membrane chromatography, 80À119, 214À16 CIP see clean in place systems citric acid see also organic acids concepts, 24, 121À2, 123, 135, 137, 228À48 definition, 135, 137 statistics, 24, 135 uses, 137, 228 citrus juices, 38, 41À2 see also lemon .; lime .; orange clarification see also microfiltration; ultrafiltration concepts, 4, 24, 28, 33À43, 46À60, 185, 189À212, 214À16 fruit juices, 24, 33À43, 185, 214À16 soy sauce, 46À60, 214À16 clean in place systems (CIP), concepts, 27, 32, 60, 160À77, 203, 207À11, 214À16, 233À48 cleaning see also membrane fouling challenges, 27À8, 32, 96À7, 216, 224, 247À8 chemical-cleaning methods, 16, 18, 37À8, 58À60, 225À48 concentration issues, 241À2 concepts, 7À8, 16À18, 27À30, 32, 37À8, 39À43, 47À51, 58À60, 65, 96À7, 111, 185À212, 213À48, 263 cost estimates, 205À6 cross-flow velocity, 242 definition, 224 efficiency evaluations, 234À46 examples of agents for specific applications, 235À41 275 fruit juices, 37À8, 39À43, 214À48 models, 246À8 multiple cycles, 244À8 physical-cleaning methods, 16À17, 27À8, 38, 42, 58À60, 73, 185À6, 203, 211, 218, 224À48 protocols, 232À4 regulatory requirements, 18, 37À8, 233À5, 263 roles, 214À16, 224 sequential cleaning, 246À7 soy sauce, 58À60, 214À48 systems design, 232À4 temperature effects, 243 time factors, 242À8 trends, 247À8 water-quality effects, 243À4 clearance assessments, virus reduction filtration, 102À6 cloth filters, 3, 52À3 coarse-particle range of molecular sizes, concepts, 3À5, 156À8, 180À1, 195 coconut oils/proteins, 74 COD, 156À77 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 257À9, 261À2, 266À8, 270 cold sterilization, 24, 226À48 colloidal-particles membrane foulants, concepts, 12À13, 51, 214À48 colony-forming unit (CFU), 235 coloring fruit juices, 38À9, 215À16 soy sauce, 46, 51À2, 53À60, 215À16 vegetable oils, 73, 215À16 column guard filters, concepts, 85À6 ‘common use in food’, GRAS status, 258, 267À8 complete pore blocking, membrane-fouling concepts, 13, 14, 58À9, 81À3, 217À48 computational fluid dynamics (CFD), 247 concentration, 19À22, 24, 27À9, 33, 39À43, 55À60, 74, 80À119, 181À3, 196À200, 214À16 see also reverse osmosis boundary layer concepts, 9À11 bulk fermentation, 125À51 coconut oils/proteins, 74 fruit juices, 24, 33, 39À43, 214À16 monoclonal antibodies, 80À119 soy sauce, 55À60, 214À16 TFF, 80À2, 86À97, 107À19 concentration polarization concepts, 9À11, 13À18, 51, 58À60 276 concentration polarization (Continued) definition, 8À11 constant concentration factor mode of system controls, concepts, 198À200 constant permeate mode of system controls, concepts, 198À200 constant pressure mode of system controls, concepts, 198À200 continuous diafiltration, concepts, 129À31 continuous membrane systems, concepts, 122À3, 129À31, 196À8 control systems, 7À8, 16À18, 27À30, 32, 37À8, 39À43, 46À7, 50À2, 58À60, 73, 94À5, 185À6, 198À212, 213À48 convection processes, concepts, 8À18, 115À17, 225À48 corn oil, 68 corn wet milling, statistics, 21À3 costs, 16, 18, 21À4, 25À8, 30À1, 35, 43, 47À51, 59À60, 63À75, 98, 101, 104À7, 131, 160À77, 184À211, 214, 219, 228À48 estimates, 203À11 housing estimates, 206À7 membrane elements, 205À6 pretreatment considerations, 193À5 pumps for membrane skids, 207À8 regulatory requirements, 269À71 skids estimates, 206À8 storage tanks, 207À8 transfer tanks, 207À8 virus reduction filtration, 98, 101, 104À7 cottonseed oil, 67À70 counter-current diafiltration, concepts, 130À1 critical flux level, concepts, 17À18, 28 cross-flow mode of operation concepts, 4À18, 35À43, 46À60, 68À75, 87À119, 123À51, 196À200, 207À8, 218À48 definition, 4À5 crystallisation, 126À51 Cui, Z.F., 1À18, 45À62 cut-off see molecular weight cut-off D dairy industry, 19, 24, 214À16, 219À48 see also cheese; milk Davies, Jim L., 79À120 deacidification/neutralization, concepts, 63À5, 70À3, 215À16 dead-end mode of operation concepts, 4À5, 68À75, 82À6, 96À7, 196À200 Index definition, 4À5 monoclonal antibodies, 82À6, 96À7 dealcoholization, 24 debittering processes for orange juice, 42 decantation, 126À51 decision-making tools, 28À30 degumming see also vegetable oils concepts, 63À5, 66À70, 73À5 hexaneÀoil miscella, 67À8 nonporous membranes, 69À70 undiluted oils, 68À9 Delaney Clause, 260, 265 demineralization, bulk fermentation, 136À51 Denmark, 240À1 deodorization, 64À75 Desal-5 DK, 54À60 desalination see also reverse osmosis concepts, 2À3, 20, 24, 29, 46À60, 123, 157À77 detergents, 225À48 dewaxing, concepts, 63À5, 69, 73À5, 215À16, 221À2 dextrose products, 22 diafiltration concepts, 55À60, 80À119, 124, 126À51 ultrafiltration, 129À31 dialysis, historical background, 20 diameters, 3À5, 7, 11, 15, 38, 47À51, 58À60, 66À70, 87À119, 156À8, 180À1 diffusion coefficients, 9À11, 16À18, 115 dilution processes, 22À4, 54À60, 67À75 direct flow filtration see dead-end mode of operation disinfectants, 225À48 distillation see also separation technologies concepts, 2, 126, 135À8, 214À48 DNA, 122, 219 Dorr-Oliver Inc., 148 DOW-Filmtec, 56 drying processes, 21À3, 24 DSS ., 191À2 E ECOLAB, 240 economics see also costs evaluations, 208À11 virus reduction filtration, 104À7 EDs see endocrine disrupters efficiency parameter of membrane processes 277 Index concepts, 4À5, 25À8, 51, 89À93, 96À7, 106À7, 181À3 definition, 4À5, 181À3 eggs, 24 El Salvador, 23 electrodialysis (ED) concepts, 20À2, 24, 123, 214À16 historical background, 20À2 uses, 24, 123, 214À16 electrostatic interactions, fouling-control concepts, 3, 17À18 elements, spiral-wound membrane modules, 205À8, 262À71 emerging applications, 28À32 ‘end tests’, regulatory requirements, 263À4 endocrine disrupters (EDs), 156 energy consumption, 21À32, 37, 41, 63À75, 161À3, 167À9, 209À11 GDP links, 23 statistics, 21À3, 30À1, 37, 41, 63À5 engineering skills, 28, 31 enhancement/fouling-control methods, permeate flux concepts, 16À18, 27À8 enzyme treatments, 27À8, 35À43, 58À60, 124, 219, 226, 228À48 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), 114 enzymes bulk fermentation, 124À5, 131À5 cleaning agents, 27À8, 219, 226, 228À48 concepts, 24, 27À8, 35À43, 58À60, 114, 124À5, 131À5, 149À51, 219À48 definition, 131 historical background, 131À2 key production steps, 132À5 statistics, 24, 132 types, 131À2 uses, 131À3, 226, 228À48 EPA see US Environmental Protection Agency equilibrium-stage cascade operations, 32 erythromycin, 125 ethanol, 24, 70À5 Ethiopia, 23 ethyl lactate, 138 ethylene-diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), 228, 237À8, 243, 246, 247 Europe, 35, 41, 132, 144, 148, 247 evaporation processes, 21À3, 30À1, 36À43, 126À51 extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs), 222 extraction see also separation technologies concepts, F fats, 65À75, 157À77, 215À48 fats, oils and grease (FOG), 157À77 fatty acids, 70À5, 215À48 FCNs see food contact notifications FDA see US Food and Drug Administration FDAMA see US Food and Drug Administration Act 1997 fed-batch fermentation, definition, 122À3 feed additive regulations, 256, 261, 271 feed and bleed operations, concepts, 196À8 feed spacer design considerations, 201À3, 210À11 feed streams concepts, 3À18, 48À60, 82À119, 181À3, 196À8, 200À3, 216À48, 263À71 definition, 3À5 feed-pretreatment fouling control method, concepts, 16, 17, 28, 218À48 fermentation products see also bulk concepts, 22, 29, 45À60, 121À51 conventional processes, 122À3 definition, 122À3 historical background, 121À5 process designs, 122À3 FFAs see free fatty acids FFDCA see US Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act fiber, 3, 22, 38 Fickian diffusion, 9À11 Field, R.W., 1À18 film theory, concepts, 91À2 FilmTech, 187 filter-aid filtration, concepts, 45À7 fine-particle range of molecular sizes, concepts, 3À5, 156À8, 180À1 flat-sheet membrane modules concepts, 7À8, 23À5, 51À60, 89À119, 184À93, 217À48 definition, 7À8 industry statistics, 23À5 scale-up and membrane reuse, 95À7, 189À93 Fleming, Alexander, 121 flow regimes, concepts, 7, 8, 11, 15, 35À43, 69À75, 82À119, 207À8, 218, 223À4 278 flux concepts, 4À18, 25À8, 35À43, 47À60, 64À5, 98À107, 160À77, 181À3, 195À206, 223À48 definitions, 4À5, 64À5 integrity contrasts, 25À8 prediction models, 13À16, 223À4 flux recovery, concepts, 234À48 flux-control fouling control method, concepts, 16, 17À18, 28 flux-decay profiles, virus reduction filtration, 99À100 FOG see fats, oils and grease food additives concepts, 256À71 definition, 256À9 food and bioprocessing see also fruit juices; soy sauce; vegetable oils chemical-cleaning fouling control method, 18, 37À8, 58À60, 225À48 concepts, 2À18, 21À4, 155À77, 179À212, 213À48, 255À71 energy-consumption statistics, 21À3, 37, 41, 63À5, 161À3, 167À9 membrane fouling, 37À8, 39À43, 46, 50À2, 58À60, 67À9, 73, 213À48 regulatory requirements, 18, 27, 155À8, 169À72, 233À5, 255À71 systems design, 7À8, 21À2, 179À212 typical membrane applications, 22, 24, 214À16 food contact notifications (FCNs), concepts, 257, 259, 267 food contact regulatory requirements see also regulatory requirements concepts, 256À71 food processing waste treatment Californian regulations, 169À72 case examples, 172À7 challenges, 157À8 common applications, 156 concepts, 155À77 evaluation criteria, 164À9 key steps, 163À9 major methods, 158À9 MBRs, 157À77 methodologies, 163À77 regulatory requirements, 155À8, 169À72 segregation model, 164À9 fouling see membrane fouling Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), 234À5 Index fractionation, 24, 189 France, 23 Frawley, J.P., 259À60 free fatty acids (FFAs), 64À75 Frenkel, Val S., 155À77 FreshNote, 43 see also Separa Systems fructose products, 22 fruit juices apple juice, 33À43 citrus juices, 38, 41À2 clarification, 24, 33À43, 185, 214À16 cleaning, 37À8, 39À43, 214À48 colored juices, 38À9 concentration, 24, 33, 39À43, 214À16 concepts, 24, 33À43, 185, 214À16, 219À48 debittering processes for orange juice, 42 high concentration RO, 42À3 membrane fouling, 37À8, 39À43, 214À48 orange juice, 38, 41À2 pear juice, 39 special applications, 42À3 tomato juice, 33, 40À1 G gas separations, 21À2, 29 GDP links, energy consumption, 23 GE-Osmonics, 56, 187 gelatin, 29, 185 Genencor, 241 generally recognized as safe (GRAS), concepts, 257À8, 267À70 Germany, 240 gluconic acid see also organic acids concepts, 135 glutamic acid see also amino acids; monosodium glutamate concepts, 24, 138À9 GMP see good manufacturing practices good manufacturing practices (GMP), concepts, 270À1 grain milling, statistics, 21À3 grape juice, 38À9 GRAS see generally recognized as safe grinding, 22À3 groundnut oil, 71À5 gums, vegetable oils, 63À75 279 Index H HagenÀPoiseuille equation, 15À16 HCI, 237À48 health issues, 46, 259À71 see also regulatory requirements heat treatments, 28 heat-and-mass-transfer (Coburn) analogy, 11 heavy step water, 22 heights of cake layers, definition, 4À5 hemodialysis, historical background, 20À2 hesperidin, 41À2 hexaneÀoil miscella, degumming, 67À8 high blood pressure, 46 high concentration RO, concepts, 42À3 high-performance TFF (HP-TFF) charged membranes, 113À14 concepts, 82, 111À19 historical background of membrane technology, 19À23, 46, 161À3, 213À16 holdup volumes, membrane modules, 7À8 hollow-fiber membrane modules concepts, 7À8, 11, 23À5, 50À60, 73À5, 184À93, 210, 217À48 cost estimates, 210 definition, 7À8 industry statistics, 23À5 housing cost estimates, 206À7 systems design, 189, 196, 203À11 HP-TFF see high-performance TFF HPs see hydratable phospholipids hybrid processes see also reactive absorption; reactive distillation challenges, 31 concepts, 28À32, 151 costs, 30À1 definition, 29À30 Hydranautics, 187 hydratable phospholipids (HPs), 66À70 hydraulic diameters, 3, 7, 11, 15 hydrochloric acid, 228À48 hydrodynamic-management fouling control method, concepts, 16À17, 226À48 hydrofilized polyetersulfone, 26 hydrogen peroxide, 231 hydrogenation processes, concepts, 64, 73À4 hydrophobic interaction chromatherapy (HIC), 81À119 hydroxide, 37À8, 42, 59, 227À48 hydroxyapetite, 81 hypochlorite concepts, 27À8, 37À8, 93À119, 225À48 problems, 27À8, 225À6, 231 I immuno isolation, 21À2 immunoglobulins, 81À119 India, 125 industrial wastewater membrane bioreactors, 19, 29, 123, 125 industry background, 23À5, 52À3, 88À9, 183À93, 235 Inge, 187 inorganic (ceramic) membranes see also materials concepts, 6, 23À8, 33À5, 47À51, 58À60, 73À4, 184À93, 210, 218À48 definition, industry statistics, 23À5 inorganic fouling/scaling see also membrane fouling definition, 219À20 integrity contrasts, flux, 25À8 intermediate product filtration, monoclonal antibodies, 86, 108 internal pore blocking, membrane-fouling concepts, 13, 14, 81À3, 217À48 ionic range of molecular sizes, concepts, 3À5, 20, 156À8, 180À1, 219À48 isocratic mode of operation, membrane adsorbers, 115À17 itaconic acid see also organic acids concepts, 135 ITT PCI Membranes, 34À5, 40À1 J Japan, 23, 41, 52À4, 73, 138À9 Jiang, Y., 1À18 Jirjis, Bassam F., 179À212 K kidney disease, 29, 46 2-KLG, 140, 151 Koch, David H., 29À30 Koch Membrane Systems, 34À5, 42, 187, 240 Kumar, N.S Krishna, 63À78 L Lab-Unit M20, 190 lactic acid see also biopolymers; organic acids 280 lactic acid (Continued) concepts, 24, 121À2, 135, 137À8 definition, 137À8 statistics, 135 uses, 137 lactic yeasts, 144 see also yeast Ladhe, Abhay R., 63À78 laminar flow regime, concepts, 7, 8, 11, 15, 223À4 large-suspended-particles membrane foulants, concepts, 12À13, 195, 214À48 lecithin, 64À75 lemon juice, 38 ‘letter of no objection’, GRAS status, 269 Li, Hongyu, 213À54 lifetime picture, membrane processes, 21À2, 161À3, 205À6, 208À10, 216, 247À8 lime juice, 38 lipids fouling see also membrane fouling definition, 221À2 Lipnizki, Frank, 121À53 liver, 29 location considerations, virus reduction filtration, 100À2, 104À7 log reduction value (LRV), 103À7 Lonza, 106, 108À9 Lowry methods, 234À5 LRV see log reduction value Luo, Jianquan, 45À62 Luque, Susana, 179À212 lysine see also amino acids concepts, 138, 139 M mAbs see monoclonal antibodies macrolides see also antibiotics concepts, 125À31 macromolecular range of molecular sizes, concepts, 3À5, 17À18, 156À8, 180À1 macromolecules membrane foulants, concepts, 12À13, 17À18, 214À48 MALDI-MS see matrix-assisted laser deionization mass spectrum manganese, 243À4 manufacturers GMP, 270 membrane-process specific constraints, 25, 34À5, 183À93 Index regulatory compliance, 261À71 mass transfer boundaries, 9À11, 15À18, 180À1, 195À200, 225À48 concepts, 9À18, 232À4 mass transfer coefficient concepts, 10À18, 115, 180À1, 195À200, 225À48 definition, 10À11 materials, 6À7, 12À13, 23À8, 33À5, 47À51, 63À5, 67À75, 93À5, 182À212, 218À48, 255À71 see also inorganic .; polymeric challenges, 25À8 critique, 25À8, 63, 218À19 industry statistics, 23À5 limitations, 25À8, 63, 218À19 regulatory requirements, 18, 21À2, 27, 32, 155À8, 169À72, 233À5, 255À71 matrix-assisted laser deionization mass spectrum (MALDI-MS), 220À1, 235 MBRs see membrane bioreactors MC see membrane contactors membrane bioreactors (MBRs) concepts, 19À22, 25À9, 123, 125, 148À51, 156, 157À77 configurations, 149À51 conventional treatments, 160À3, 167À9 critique, 160À3 food processing waste treatment, 157À77 sidestream MBRs, 149À51, 158À77 submerged/integrated MBRs, 149À51, 158À77 membrane chromatography, 80À119, 214À16 membrane contactors (MC) concepts, 123, 150À1 historical background, 150 membrane fouling, 4À5, 7À8, 12À18, 27À30, 32, 37À8, 39À43, 46À7, 50À2, 58À60, 87, 96À7, 111, 185À212, 213À48 see also cleaning control methods, 7À8, 16À18, 27À30, 32, 37À8, 39À43, 46À7, 50À2, 58À60, 94À5, 185À6, 213À48 definition, 12À14 examples, 12À13, 46, 58À9, 214À16, 219À23 feed-property influences, 217À18, 219 food and bioprocessing, 37À8, 39À43, 46, 50À2, 58À60, 67À9, 73, 213À48 fruit juices, 37À8, 39À43, 214À48 influencing parameters, 12À13, 217À48 Index material influences, 217À19 mechanism types, 13À14, 37À8, 39À43, 58À60, 214À48 monoclonal antibodies, 81À2, 87, 94À5, 96À7, 111, 214À16 operating-conditions influences, 218, 223À4 soy sauce, 46, 50À2, 58À60, 214À48 vegetable oils, 67À9, 73, 214À48 membrane processes see also pressure-driven bench-scale tests, 186À90 bulk fermentation, 24, 121À51, 185 challenges, 25À32, 82, 96À7, 107À19, 149À51, 157À8, 216, 247À8 column guard filters, 85À6 concepts, 1À18, 19À32, 46, 63À5, 80À119, 156À8, 180À212, 213À48 control systems, 7À8, 16À18, 27À30, 32, 37À8, 39À43, 46À7, 50À2, 58À60, 73, 94À5, 185À6, 198À212 costs, 16, 18, 21À4, 25À8, 30À1, 35, 43, 47À51, 60, 63À75, 98, 101, 104À7, 131, 160À77, 184À211, 214, 228À48 critique, 25À8, 63, 89, 180À1, 213À16 definitions, 3À18, 181À3 emerging applications, 28À32 food processing waste treatment, 155À77 fruit juices, 24, 33À43, 185, 214À16 fundamentals, 1À18, 156À8, 180À1, 195À200 historical background, 19À23, 46, 161À3, 213À16 hybrid processes, 28À32, 151 industry background, 23À5, 52À3, 88À9, 183À93, 235 manufacturer-specific constraints, 25, 34À5, 183À93 monoclonal antibodies, 24, 79À119 operations, 8À13, 46À60, 64À5, 80À6, 87À119, 180À212, 218À48, 263, 270À1 performance issues, 4À5, 25À8, 51, 89À93, 96À7, 106À7, 113À14, 181À93, 205À8 pilot-plant test, 88À9, 105À7, 186À93, 201À3, 216 pretreatment considerations, 7À8, 16, 17, 28, 52À3, 193À5 regulatory requirements, 18, 21À2, 27, 32, 155À8, 169À72, 233À5, 255À71 281 sales and lifetime picture, 21À4, 161À3, 205À6, 208À10, 216, 247À8 schematic representation, 3, 25, 180 ‘smart’ membranes, 32 soy sauce, 45À60, 214À16 standards, 25, 27 systems design, 7À8, 21À2, 25À32, 33À5, 65, 81À2, 97, 179À212 uses, 1À2, 19À23, 24À5, 33À43, 63À5, 80À119, 156À60, 180À1 vegetable oils, 21À3, 29À30, 63À75, 214À16 membrane-surface-modification fouling control method, concepts, 16, 17, 28 membranes see also asymmetric .; microporous .; pressure-driven bench-scale tests, 186À90 concepts, 1À18, 19À32, 47À51, 54À5, 63À5, 67À75, 93À119, 156À8, 182À212, 213À48 definition, 1À2, 181À3 fundamentals, 1À18, 156À8, 180À1, 195À200 historical background, 19À23, 46, 161À3, 213À16 materials, 6À7, 12À13, 23À8, 33À5, 47À51, 63À5, 67À75, 93À5, 182À212, 218À48, 255À71 modules, 6À8, 12À13, 17, 21À2, 23À5, 33À43, 47À52, 65, 67À75, 183À95, 203À5, 262À71 operations, 8À13, 46À60, 64À5, 80À6, 87À119, 180À212, 218À48, 263, 270À1 pilot-plant test, 88À9, 105À7, 186À93, 201À3, 216 regulatory requirements, 18, 21À2, 27, 32, 155À8, 169À72, 233À5, 255À71 reuse, 95À7 structures, 4À6, 65, 217À48, 262À71 surface-area calculations, 200À3 types, 2, 5À6, 12À13, 20, 47À51, 54, 67À70, 93À5, 183À93, 214À16, 217À48 Merry, Allen, 33À43 methanol, 72À5, 135, 142À4 methionine, 138À9 Mexico, 23 MF see microfiltration microbial enzymes, 132 see also enzymes 282 microbial/biological fouling see also membrane fouling definition, 222 microfiltration (MF) see also pressure-driven membrane processes; systems design bulk fermentation, 123À51 cleaning studies, 236À48 concepts, 1À17, 21À5, 28, 39, 46À60, 64À74, 80À119, 123À51, 156À77, 180À1, 184À93, 214À48 degumming, 66À70 dewaxing, 73, 215À16 food processing waste treatment, 156À77 industry statistics, 23À5 limitations, 89 monoclonal antibodies, 80À119 soy sauce, 46À60 TFF, 87À96, 107À19 uses, 2À3, 21À5, 28, 39, 46À60, 64À74, 123À51, 156À77, 180À1, 214À16 vegetable oils, 64À74 micron-particle range of molecular sizes, concepts, 3À5, 156À8, 180À1 microporous membranes see also microfiltration definition, 5À6 migration studies, regulatory requirements, 257, 260À2, 263À9 milk, 19, 24, 214À16, 223À48 see also dairy industry Millipore P1BC, 191 Millistak filter, 106 minute virus of mice (MVM), 98À107 mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSSs), 158À77 MLSSs see mixed liquor suspended solids modes of operation, pressure-driven membrane processes, 4À5, 196À200, 218À48 modules challenges, 26À8 industry statistics, 23À5 membrane concepts, 6À8, 12À13, 17, 21À2, 23À5, 33À43, 47À52, 65, 67À75, 183À95, 203À5, 262À71 pretreatment considerations, 7À8, 16, 17, 28, 52À3, 193À5 tests, 88À9, 105À7, 186À93 molecular sizes, pressure-driven membrane processes, 2À5, 156À8, 180À1, 219À48 Index molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) concepts, 3, 48À53, 68À75, 82, 93À119, 124, 142À4, 182À212, 223À48 definition, 3, 182À3 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) adsorption, 107, 115À19 buffers, 82À6, 89À119 column guard filters, 85À6 commercially available sterilizing grade filters, 84À6 concepts, 24, 79À119 dead-end mode of operation, 82À6, 96À7 flow diagram, 80À2 future uses of membranes, 82, 107À19 HP-TFF, 82, 111À19 intermediate product filtration, 86, 108 membrane fouling, 81À2, 87, 94À5, 96À7, 111, 214À16 membrane operations, 80À6 new techniques, 107À19 overview of purification, 80À2 primary separation by microfiltration, 87À9 regulatory requirements, 97À8 SP-TFF, 108À11, 118À19 TFF, 80À2, 86À97, 107À19 VCF, 88À119 virus reduction filtration, 80À1, 86, 97À107 monosodium glutamate see also glutamic acid concepts, 24, 139 multistage feed and bleed operations see also cascade concepts, 196À8 Muralidhara, H.S., 19À32 Mustang XT5000, 116 MVM see minute virus of mice MWCO see molecular weight cut-off N NaCI, 46À60, 124 NaCIO, 58À9 Nadir ., 191À2 nanofiltration (NF) see also pressure-driven membrane processes; systems design bulk fermentation, 123À51 concepts, 1À17, 46À60, 64À74, 80À119, 123À51, 156, 180À1, 184À93, 208À11, 214À16, 220À48 economic evaluations, 208À11 283 Index food processing waste treatment, 156À77 monoclonal antibodies, 80À119 soy sauce, 46À60 vegetable oils, 64À74 NaOH, 58À9, 85À111, 228À48 natural feedstock, 135, 151 NF see nanofiltration NF270-4040 separation performance, 54À60 NHPs see non-hydratable phospholipids nitric acid, 228À48 nitrogen, 51À60, 73 ‘no migration’, regulatory requirements, 257, 260À2, 263À6 non-hydratable phospholipids (NHPs), 66À70 nonaqueous applications, concepts, 29À30 noncarcinogenic substances, regulatory requirements, 260, 265 nonionic surfactants, 231À48 nonporous membranes concepts, 2, 69À70, 73À5 definition, degumming, 69À70 nonuniform (anisotropic) size of pores, definition, Norit, 188 normalized water permeability (NWP), 97 Novodan, 240 nutrient sources, 122À51 see also bulk fermentation O oil seeds, vegetable oils, 64À75 oils, 64À75, 220À48, 264À6 see also vegetable olives, 172, 174À5 operations concepts, 8À13, 46À60, 64À5, 80À6, 87À119, 180À212, 218À48, 263, 270À1 SOPs, 263, 270À1 orange juice, 38, 41À2 organic acids see also acetic .; citric .; gluconic .; itaconic .; lactic concepts, 24, 122, 124À6, 135À8, 151 definition, 135 organic fouling see also membrane fouling definition, 220 Osmonics ., 184, 191À2, 206 oxidants, 138À9, 140À2, 231À48 oxytetracyclin, 125 P Pall Life Sciences, 108À9, 116À17, 188 PAN membrane, 68À70 Parker, 188 partial pore blocking, membrane-fouling concepts, 13, 14, 58À9, 81À3, 217À48 particulate fouling see also membrane fouling definition, 222 parvovirus, 98À104 passes, definition, 35 Pasteur, Louis, 121, 144 pasteurization, 46 pathogenic organisms, 161À3 PCI, 188 PCPs see personal care products peach juice, 40 peanut oil, 67À70 pear juice, 39 pectin, 35À43, 215 penicillin see also antibiotics concepts, 24, 121À2, 125À31 peptides, 124, 228À48 performance issues, 4À5, 25À8, 51, 89À93, 96À7, 106À7, 113À14, 181À93, 205À8 see also efficiency .; productivity permeate flux see also productivity parameter of membrane processes concepts, 4À5, 13À18, 27À8, 47À60, 64À5, 67À75, 95À7, 181À3, 195À206, 223À4 definition, 4À5, 64À5, 181À3 enhancement/fouling-control methods, 16À18, 27À8 prediction models, 13À16, 223À4 permeate streams concepts, 3À18, 27À8, 95À7, 109À19, 181À3 definition, 3À5 personal care products (PCPs), 156 pervaporation (PV) concepts, 19À22, 23À5, 123, 135À8, 214À16 industry statistics, 23À5 uses, 24, 123, 214À16 pesticides, 257 petrochemical processing, 29 Pfizer, 121 284 pH adjustments, 27À8, 41À2, 93À119, 127À51, 205À6, 217À19, 226, 239À48, 263 pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs), 156 pharmaceuticals, 94, 97À8, 122, 148À51, 262À3 phosphates, 226À48 phosphoric acid, 228À48 pI values, 229 pilot-plant test concepts, 88À9, 105À7, 186À93, 201À3, 216 monoclonal antibodies, 88À9, 105À7 soy sauce processing, 55À8 plant enzymes see also enzymes definition, 132 plate-and-frame membrane modules, 7À8, 11, 23À5, 52À3, 133À5, 184À93 see also flat-sheet Poland, 23 polyamide, 70À5 polyethersulfone (PES), 25À6, 47À51, 58À60, 70À5, 93À119, 218À48 material limitations, 25À6 polymeric (organic) membranes see also materials concepts, 6, 23À8, 33À5, 39À43, 47À51, 58À60, 67À75, 184À93, 206, 209À11, 218À48 definition, industry statistics, 6, 23À5 polysulfone, 70À5, 218À48 polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), 38, 47À51, 67À75, 218À48 pore prediction model of permeate flux, concepts, 13À16 pore sizes concepts, 3À5, 6, 12À13, 47À51, 58À60, 66À70, 82À119, 148, 156À8, 180À93, 219À48 definition, virus reduction filtration, 98À107 porous membranes see also pressure-driven membrane processes concepts, 2, 5À6, 12À18 potassium hydroxide, 227À48 poverty, statistics, 23 preconcentration steps, 19À32 prediction models of permeate flux, concepts, 13À16, 223À4 Index pressure-driven membrane processes see also membrane .; microfiltration; nanofiltration; reverse osmosis; ultrafiltration challenges, 25À32, 157À8, 216, 247À8 classification issues, 2À5, 223À4 concepts, 1À18, 19À23, 156À8, 177, 180À212, 213À16 critique, 25À8, 63, 89, 180À1, 213À16 definitions, 3À18, 181À3 fundamentals, 1À18, 156À8, 180À1, 195À200 historical background, 19À23, 161À3, 213À16 industry background, 23À5, 52À3, 88À9, 183À93, 235 modes of operation, 4À5, 196À200, 218À48 molecular sizes, 2À5, 156À8, 180À1, 219À48 performance issues, 4À5, 25À8, 51, 89À93, 96À7, 106À7, 181À93 schematic representation, 3, 25, 180 systems design, 7À8, 21À2, 25À32, 33À5, 65, 81À2, 97, 179À212 types, 1À5, 20, 180À1, 214À16 pretreatment considerations, 7À8, 16, 17, 28, 52À3, 193À5, 218À48 primary separation by microfiltration, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), 87À9 ‘prior sanctioned’ substances, concepts, 257, 258, 266À7 product yield, definition, 182À3 product-recovery food applications, 24 productivity parameter of membrane processes see also permeate flux concepts, 4À5, 25À8, 181À3, 205À6 definition, 4À5 ‘promising technology’ group, 19À23 protein A affinity chromatography, 80À119 see also monoclonal antibodies protein membrane foulants, concepts, 12À13, 58À9, 214À48 protein products, 22, 29, 74, 214À48 protocols, cleaning protocols, 232À4 pumps for membrane skids, cost estimates, 207À8 pure water production see also reverse osmosis concepts, 2À3, 185, 214À16 pyrogen, 126À51 285 Index R rapeseed oil, 69À70 raw materials for fermentation, 122À51 see also bulk reactive absorption see also hybrid processes concepts, 31 reactive distillation see also hybrid processes concepts, 31 recovery, definition, 182À3 recycling, 22À3, 27, 30À2, 124, 126À7, 148À51, 157À77, 197À200, 214À16, 244À8 REED see reverse electro-enhanced dialysis regenerated cellulose, concepts, 25À6, 47 Regional Board Basin Plan in California, 170À2 ‘regulatory matrix’, 269À70 regulatory requirements, 18, 21À2, 27, 32, 155À8, 169À72, 233À5, 255À71 see also ‘adulterated’ food achievement of US compliance, 261À71 ‘adulterated’ food, 256À7 California, 169À72 CFR, 257À9, 261À2, 266À8, 270 chemical-cleaning fouling control method, 18, 37À8, 233À5 concepts, 255À71 costs, 269À71 definitions, 256À61 Delaney Clause, 260, 265 ‘end tests’, 263À4 example scenario, 264À6 FCNs, 257, 259, 267 FDA, 233, 235, 256À70 feed additive regulations, 256, 261, 271 FFDCA, 256À70 food additives regulations, 256À9 food and bioprocessing, 18, 27, 155À8, 169À72, 255À71 general framework, 256À61 GMP, 270À1 GRAS, 257À8, 267À70 monoclonal antibodies, 97À8 ‘no migration’, 257, 260À2, 263À9 pathway selections, 263À70 ‘prior sanctioned’ substances, 257, 258, 266À7 prior to choosing the pathway, 262À3 salt, 169À72 SOPs, 263, 270À1 TOR, 257, 259À60, 265À6, 268 US, 169À72, 255À71 virus reduction filtration, 978 ă ReichsteinGrussner process, 140 rejection concepts, 518, 181À3, 195À200, 205À6 definition, research and development (R&D), concepts, 23, 28À30 resistance prediction model of permeate flux see also cake resistance concepts, 15À16, 223À4 restaurants, 174 retentate streams concepts, 3À18, 109À19, 180À3, 196À205 definition, 3À5, 181À3 retention factor, definition, 4À5, 181À3 reuse, 157À77 reverse electro-enhanced dialysis (REED), concepts, 138 reverse osmosis (RO) see also concentration; desalination; pressure-driven membrane processes; pure water production; systems design bulk fermentation, 123À51 concepts, 1À17, 20À2, 23À5, 28, 30À1, 33, 39À43, 46À7, 53À60, 123À51, 156À77, 180À212, 214À16, 220À48 food processing waste treatment, 156À77 high concentration RO, 42À3 industry statistics, 23À5 orange juice, 41À2 soy sauce, 46À7, 53À60 tomato juice, 33, 40À1 uses, 2À3, 20, 23À5, 28, 30À1, 33, 39À43, 46À7, 53À60, 123À51, 156À77, 180À212, 214À16 reversible accumulation of rejected molecules see also concentration polarization concepts, 8À11 Reynolds numbers, membrane modules, 7À8, 11, 224 rice bran oil, 69À75 RO see reverse osmosis rotary vacuum filtration, 125À31 Russia, 23 S sales and lifetime picture, membrane processes, 21À4, 161À3, 205À6, 208À10, 216, 247À8 286 salt, 46À60, 124, 131À5, 157À77, 180À1, 219À48 health effects, 46 regulatory requirements, 169À72 soy sauce, 46À60 sanitizers, 232À48 Sartobind Jumbo, 116 Sartorius Stedim, 116 scale-up and membrane reuse, 95À7, 189À93 Schmidt number, 11 ‘scientific procedures’, GRAS status, 258, 267À8 Scimeca, Joseph, 255À72 SCOGS see select committee on GRAS substances screens, 3, 183À6, 189, 191À3 SDS see sodium dodecyl sulfate select committee on GRAS substances (SCOGS), 257 selling prices, product-concentration links, 22, 24 semicontinuous/continuous fermentation with/ without sidestream, 122À3 sensitivity analysis, 85 Sepa cell pressure testing unit, 190 Separa Systems, 43 see also FreshNote separation technologies see also adsorption; centrifugation; distillation; evaporation .; extraction; membrane processes concepts, 1À18, 19À23, 64À5, 125À6, 160À3, 189À212, 214À16 definitions, 3À18 historical background, 19À23, 160À3 Sepro, 188, 191À2 sequential cleaning, concepts, 246À7 sequestering agents, 226À48 shear rates, 51À60, 66À7, 89À119, 123, 217À48 Sherwood correlation, 11 sidestream concepts, bulk fermentation, 122À3, 148À51 sidestream MBRs, concepts, 149À51, 158À77 Siemens, 173À4 silica, 227À48 single pass TFF (SP-TFF), concepts, 108À11, 118À19, 196À8 skids cost estimates, 206À8 systems design, 196, 205À12 Index small-molecules membrane foulants, concepts, 12À13, 214À48 ‘smart’ membranes, concepts, 32 Smith, Martin P., 79À120 soapstock, 64À75 soda, 227 sodium chloride, 47À60 sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDSÀPAGE), 234À5 sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), 234À7 sodium hydroxide, 37À8, 42, 59, 227À48 sodium triphosphate (STP), 228 soluble microbial products (SMPs), 222 soluble solids excluding sodium chloride (SSESC), 47À60 solute nature/concentration, membrane fouling parameter, 12, 15À16, 217À48 solvent nature/concentration, membrane fouling parameter, 12, 29À30, 217À48 SOPs see standard operating procedures South Korea, 23 soy sauce clarification, 46À60 cleaning, 58À60, 214À48 coloring, 46, 51À2, 53À60, 215À16 concentration, 55À60, 214À16 concepts, 45À60, 214À16, 220À48 industry application of UF, 52À3 membrane fouling, 46, 50À2, 58À60, 214À48 pilot-plant test, 55À8 sterilization, 45À60 soybean oil, 67À70, 74 SP-TFF see single pass TFF SPF Innovations, 108À9 spiral-wound membrane modules concepts, 7À8, 23À5, 39À43, 52À3, 55À60, 74, 184À95, 203À11, 217À48, 262À71 definition, 7À8 elements, 205À8, 262À71 industry statistics, 23À5 spray drying, 134À5, 139, 142À3 squid, 175À6 SSESC see soluble solids excluding sodium chloride standard operating procedures (SOPs), concepts, 263, 270À1 standards, membrane processes, 25, 27 starch products, 22, 151, 214À16 State Board Polices in California, 170À2 steady state, 9À11, 15 287 Index steeping processes, 22À3 step yields, membrane adsorbers, 111, 118À19 sterilization, 4, 45À60, 83À119, 122À51, 185À212, 214À16, 226À48 storage tanks, cost estimates, 207À8 strawberry juice, 38À9 streptomycin, 125 submerged/integrated MBRs, concepts, 149À51, 158À77 substrate/fermentation media, 122À51 see also bulk sugar, 24, 33À43, 49À60, 124, 142À4, 151, 214À16 sunflower oil, 67À70, 73À5 surface-area calculations, systems design, 200À3 surfactants, 66À70, 226À48 Synder, 188 syrups, 24 systems design challenges, 27À32, 97 cleaning, 232À4 concepts, 7À8, 21À2, 25À32, 33À5, 65, 81À2, 97, 179À212 control systems, 198À200 cost estimates, 203À11 economic evaluations, 208À11 feed spacer design considerations, 201À3, 210À11 flaws, 27À8 food and bioprocessing, 7À8, 21À2, 179À212 housing, 189, 196, 203À11 membrane modules, 7À8, 21À2, 25À8, 31À2, 33À5, 65, 81À2, 97 modes of operation, 4À5, 196À200 parameters, 195À200 practical aspects, 179À212 pretreatment considerations, 193À5 recommended approach, 183, 186, 189, 210À11 selection issues, 183À93, 218À19 skids, 196, 205À12 surface-area calculations, 200À3 tests, 186À93 T Tami, 188 tangential flow filtration (TFF) concepts, 80À2, 86À97, 107À19, 196À8 examples, 107À14 HP-TFF, 82, 111À19 SP-TFF, 108À11, 118À19 TDSs see total dissolved solids temperature effects, cleaning, 243 TERG-A-ZYME, 229À30, 236, 240 tests, 88À9, 105À7, 186À93, 263À4 tetracyclines see also antibiotics concepts, 125À31 TFF see tangential flow filtration Threshold of Regulation rule (TOR), 257, 259À60, 265À6, 268 time factors, cleaning, 242À8 titers, 96À7, 108, 119 TOC see total organic carbon tomato juice, 33, 40À1 topped batch arrangement, concepts, 33À5 TOR see Threshold of Regulation rule Toray, 188 total dissolved solids (TDSs), 156À77, 191À3, 223À4 total flux, definition, 4À5 total nitrogen (TN), 51À60, 163À9 total organic carbon (TOC), 96À7, 157À8 total suspended solids (TSSs), 156À77 TP, 163À9 transfer tanks, cost estimates, 207À8 transmembrane pressure (TMP) concepts, 2, 5À18, 27, 43, 51À60, 87À119, 161À3, 201À5, 208À9, 218À48 definition, triglycerides, 70À3 Trisep, 188 TSSs see total suspended solids tubular membrane modules concepts, 7À8, 11, 23À5, 27, 33À5, 39À40, 41À2, 47À60, 67À75, 184À93, 209À11, 217À48 definition, 7À8 industry statistics, 23À5 turbulent flow regime, concepts, 7, 8, 11, 16À18, 47À51, 96À7, 218, 223À5 U UF see ultrafiltration UK, 23 ultrafiltration (UF) see also clarification; pressure-driven membrane processes; systems design bulk fermentation, 123À51 288 ultrafiltration (UF) (Continued) cleaning studies, 236À48 concepts, 1À17, 20À2, 23À5, 29, 36À43, 46À60, 64À74, 80À119, 123À51, 156À77, 180À1, 183À93, 214À16, 220À48 degumming, 66À70 diafiltration, 129À31 food processing waste treatment, 156À77 fruit juices, 36À43 industry statistics, 23À5, 52À3 monoclonal antibodies, 80À119 scale-up and membrane reuse, 95À7 soy sauce, 46À60 uses, 2À3, 20À2, 23À5, 29, 36À43, 46À60, 64À74, 80À119, 123À51, 156À77, 180À1, 214À16 vegetable oils, 64À74 Ultrasil, 229, 237 undiluted oils, degumming, 68À9 uniform (isotropic) size of pores, definition, unmodified ultrafllic, 26 US, 21À3, 41, 132, 142, 144, 148, 169À72, 233À4, 235, 240, 255À71 see also regulatory requirements Department of Agriculture (USDA), 22, 256 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 257 Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA), 256À70 Food and Drug Administration Act 1997 (FDAMA), 259 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 233, 235, 256À70 UV radiation, 195 V Valentas, 210 vapor permeation (VP), concepts, 123 vegetable oils bleaching, 63À5, 73À5 concepts, 21À3, 29À30, 63À75, 214À16, 220À48, 264À6 conventional processes, 64À5, 66 deacidification/neutralization, 63À5, 70À3, 215À16 degumming, 63À5, 66À70, 73À5 dewaxing, 63À75, 215À16, 221À2 hydrogenation processes, 64, 73À4 membrane fouling, 67À9, 73, 214À48 potential uses, 65 Index statistics, 21À3 velocity gradient-induced diffusion, concepts, 17À18 vinasse, 144À6 virtually safe dose (VSD), 265 virus reduction filtration area/LRV trade-offs, 104À7 clearance assessments, 102À6 clearance studies, 98À9 concepts, 80À1, 86, 97À107, 214À16, 219À48 costs, 98, 101, 104À7 critique, 98 economics, 104À7 filter-sizing considerations, 98À9 flux-decay profiles, 99À100 location considerations, 100À2, 104À7 modelling throughput, 100, 102 regulatory requirements, 97À8 viruses, 80À119 see also monoclonal antibodies viscosity, concepts, 11, 15À16, 36À43, 85À119, 180À1, 185, 223À4 vitamins B2 (riboflavin), 140 B12 (cyanocobalamin), 140 C, 140À2 concepts, 125, 140À2 definition, 140 statistics, 140 types, 140 volume reduction (VR), definition, 182À3 volumetric concentration factor (VCF), concepts, 88À119, 182À3 W Wagner, 210 Wan, Yinhua, 45À62 waste management applications, concepts, 19, 21À2, 29, 155À77 wastewater see also food bulk fermentation, 148 concepts, 19, 29, 122À3, 125, 148À51, 155À77, 180À212, 214À16 wastewater membrane bioreactors, 19, 29, 123, 125, 148À51, 157À77 water, 19À32, 55À60, 66À75, 97, 126À51, 155À77, 180À212, 214À16, 236À48, 256À71 polishing, 124, 174À5 rinsing, 236À48 289 Index water for injection (WFI), 97 water management programmes, 19À32, 157À77, 197À200, 214À16, 244À8 wax, vegetable oils, 63À75, 215À16, 221À2 wetting agents, 217À29 whey, 24, 138, 214À16, 219À48 white biotechnology, 122 WHO, 148 wine, 24, 214À16 winterization see also dewaxing definition, 73 X X-MuLV see xenotropic murine leukemia retrovirus xanthum gum see also biopolymers concepts, 124, 142À4 xenotropic murine leukemia retrovirus (XMuLV), concepts, 98À107 Y yeast see also bulk fermentation autolysis process, 146À7 concepts, 125, 144À7, 222À48 definition, 144 extract, 144, 146À7 statistics, 144 types, 144 uses, 144 Z ZENON, 175À6 ‘zero discharge’ paradigm, 30À1 .. .Membrane Technology Membrane Technology A Practical Guide to Membrane Technology and Applications in Food and Bioprocessing Edited by Z.F Cui and H.S Muralidhara AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG... critical flux helps to understand fouling and to guide the operation in theory, but difficulty appears in practical applications as (i) its value may be too low to be practically applied and (ii)... expensive than polymeric membranes 1.3.3 Membrane Modules Membrane module is the way the membrane is arranged into devices and hardware to separate the feed stream into permeate and retentate streams