A SYSTEM OF LOGIC, RATIOCINATIVE AND INDUCTIVE, BEING A CONNECTED VIEW OF THE PRINCIPLES OF EVIDENCE, AND THE METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION by JOHN STUART MILL Eighth Edition New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, Franklin Square 1882 Contents  Preface To The First Edition  Preface To The Third And Fourth Editions  Introduction  Book I Of Names And Propositions   Chapter II Of Names  Chapter III Of The Things Denoted By Names  Chapter IV Of Propositions  Chapter V Of The Import Of Propositions  Chapter VI Of Propositions Merely Verbal  Chapter VII Of The Nature Of Classification, And The Five Predicables   Chapter I Of The Necessity Of Commencing With An Analysis Of Language Chapter VIII Of Definition Book II On Reasoning  Chapter I Of Inference, Or Reasoning, In General  Chapter II Of Ratiocination, Or Syllogism  Chapter III Of The Functions And Logical Value Of The Syllogism  Chapter IV Of Trains Of Reasoning, And Deductive Sciences  Chapter V Of Demonstration, And Necessary Truths  Chapter VI The Same Subject Continued  Chapter VII Examination Of Some Opinions Opposed To The Preceding Doctrines  Book III Of Induction  Chapter I Preliminary Observations On Induction In General  Chapter II Of Inductions Improperly So Called  Chapter III Of The Ground Of Induction  Chapter IV Of Laws Of Nature  Chapter V Of The Law Of Universal Causation  Chapter VI On The Composition Of Causes  Chapter VII On Observation And Experiment  Chapter VIII Of The Four Methods Of Experimental Inquiry  Chapter IX Miscellaneous Examples Of The Four Methods  Chapter X Of Plurality Of Causes, And Of The Intermixture Of Effects  Chapter XI Of The Deductive Method  Chapter XII Of The Explanation Of Laws Of Nature  Chapter XIII Miscellaneous Examples Of The Explanation Of Laws Of Nature  Chapter XIV Of The Limits To The Explanation Of Laws Of Nature; And Of Hypotheses   Chapter XVI Of Empirical Laws  Chapter XVII Of Chance And Its Elimination  Chapter XVIII Of The Calculation Of Chances  Chapter XIX Of The Extension Of Derivative Laws To Adjacent Cases  Chapter XX Of Analogy  Chapter XXI Of The Evidence Of The Law Of Universal Causation  Chapter XXII Of Uniformities Of Co-Existence Not Dependent On Causation  Chapter XXIV Of The Remaining Laws Of Nature   Chapter XV Of Progressive Effects; And Of The Continued Action Of Causes Chapter XXV Of The Grounds Of Disbelief Book IV Of Operations Subsidiary To Induction  Chapter I Of Observation And Description  Chapter II Of Abstraction, Or The Formation Of Conceptions  Chapter III Of Naming, As Subsidiary To Induction  Chapter IV Of The Requisites Of A Philosophical Language, And The Principles Of Definition   Chapter VI The Principles Of A Philosophical Language Further Considered  Chapter VII Of Classification, As Subsidiary To Induction   Chapter V On The Natural History Of The Variations In The Meaning Of Terms Chapter VIII Of Classification By Series Book V On Fallacies   Chapter II Classification Of Fallacies  Chapter III Fallacies Of Simple Inspection; Or A Priori Fallacies  Chapter IV Fallacies Of Observation  Chapter V Fallacies Of Generalization  Chapter VI Fallacies Of Ratiocination   Chapter I Of Fallacies In General Chapter VII Fallacies Of Confusion Book VI On The Logic Of The Moral Sciences  Chapter I Introductory Remarks  Chapter II Of Liberty And Necessity  Chapter III That There Is, Or May Be, A Science Of Human Nature  Chapter IV Of The Laws Of Mind  Chapter V Of Ethology, Or The Science Of The Formation Of Character  Chapter VI General Considerations On The Social Science  Chapter VII Of The Chemical, Or Experimental, Method In The Social Science  Chapter VIII Of The Geometrical, Or Abstract, Method  Chapter IX Of The Physical, Or Concrete Deductive, Method   Chapter XI Additional Elucidations Of The Science Of History   Chapter X Of The Inverse Deductive, Or Historical, Method Chapter XII Of The Logic Of Practice, Or Art; Including Morality And Policy Footnotes [pg 003] Preface To The First Edition This book makes no pretense of giving to the world a new theory of the intellectual operations Its claim to attention, if it possess any, is grounded on the fact that it is an attempt, not to supersede, but to embody and systematize, the best ideas which have been either promulgated on its subject by speculative writers, or conformed to by accurate thinkers in their scientific inquiries To cement together the detached fragments of a subject, never yet treated as a whole; to harmonize the true portions of discordant theories, by supplying the links of thought necessary to connect them, and by disentangling them from the errors with which they are always more or less interwoven, must necessarily require a considerable amount of original speculation To other originality than this, the present work lays no claim In the existing state of the cultivation of the sciences, there would be a very strong presumption against any one who should imagine that he had effected a revolution in the theory of the investigation of truth, or added any fundamentally new process to the practice of it The improvement which remains to be effected in the methods of philosophizing (and the author believes that they have much need of improvement) can only consist in performing more systematically and accurately operations with which, at least in their elementary form, the human intellect, in some one or other of its employments, is already familiar In the portion of the work which treats of Ratiocination, the author has not deemed it necessary to enter into technical details which may be obtained in so perfect a shape from the existing treatises on what is termed the Logic of the Schools In the contempt entertained by many modern philosophers for the syllogistic art, it will be seen that he by no means participates; though the scientific theory on which its defense is usually rested appears to him erroneous: and the view which he has suggested of the nature and functions of the Syllogism may, perhaps, afford the means of conciliating the principles of the art with as much as is well grounded in the doctrines and objections of its assailants The same abstinence from details could not be observed in the First Book, on Names and Propositions; because many useful principles and distinctions [pg 004]which were contained in the old Logic have been gradually omitted from the writings of its later teachers; and it appeared desirable both to revive these, and to reform and rationalize the philosophical foundation on which they stood The earlier chapters of this preliminary Book will consequently appear, to some readers, needlessly elementary and scholastic But those who know in what darkness the nature of our knowledge, and of the processes by which it is obtained, is often involved by a confused apprehension of the import of the different classes of Words and Assertions, will not regard these discussions as either frivolous, or irrelevant to the topics considered in the later Books On the subject of Induction, the task to be performed was that of generalizing the modes of investigating truth and estimating evidence, by which so many important and recondite laws of nature have, in the various sciences, been aggregated to the stock of human knowledge That this is not a task free from difficulty may be presumed from the fact that even at a very recent period, eminent writers (among whom it is sufficient to name Archbishop Whately, and the author of a celebrated article on Bacon in theEdinburgh Review) have not scrupled to pronounce it impossible.1 The author has endeavored to combat their theory in the manner in which Diogenes confuted the skeptical reasonings against the possibility of motion; remembering that Diogenes's argument would have been equally conclusive, though his individual perambulations might not have extended beyond the circuit of his own tub Whatever may be the value of what the author has succeeded in effecting on this branch of his subject, it is a duty to acknowledge that for much of it he has been indebted to several important treatises, partly historical and partly philosophical, on the generalities and processes of physical science, which have been published within the last few years To these treatises, and to their authors, he has endeavored to do justice in the body of the work But as with one of these writers, Dr Whewell, he has occasion frequently to express differences of opinion, it is more particularly incumbent on him in this place to declare, that without the aid derived from the [pg 005]facts and ideas contained in that gentleman's “History of the Inductive Sciences,” the corresponding portion of this work would probably not have been written The concluding Book is an attempt to contribute toward the solution of a question which the decay of old opinions, and the agitation that disturbs European society to its inmost depths, render as important in the present day to the practical interests of human life, as it must at all times be to the completeness of our speculative knowledge—viz.: Whether moral and social phenomena are really exceptions to the general certainty and uniformity of the course of nature; and how far the methods by which so many of the laws of the physical world have been numbered among truths irrevocably acquired and universally assented to, can be made instrumental to the formation of a similar body of received doctrine in moral and political science [pg 007] Preface To The Third And Fourth Editions Several criticisms, of a more or less controversial character, on this work, have appeared since the publication of the second edition; and Dr Whewell has lately published a reply to those parts of it in which some of his opinions were controverted.2 I have carefully reconsidered all the points on which my conclusions have been assailed But I have not to announce a change of opinion on any matter of importance Such minor oversights as have been detected, either by myself or by my critics, I have, in general silently, corrected: but it is not to be inferred that I agree with the objections which have been made to a passage, in every instance in which I have altered or canceled it I have often done so, merely that it might not remain a stumbling-block, when the amount of discussion necessary to place the matter in its true light would have exceeded what was suitable to the occasion To several of the arguments which have been urged against me, I have thought it useful to reply with some degree of minuteness; not from any taste for controversy, but because the opportunity was favorable for placing my own conclusions, and the grounds of them, more clearly and completely before the reader Truth on these subjects is militant, and can only establish itself by means of conflict The most opposite opinions can make a plausible show of evidence while each has the statement of its own case; and it is only possible to ascertain which of them is in the right, after hearing and comparing what each can say against the other, and what the other can urge in its defense Even the criticisms from which I most dissent have been of great service to me, by showing in what places the exposition most needed to be improved, or the argument strengthened And I should have been well pleased if the book had undergone a much greater amount of attack; as in that case I should probably have been enabled to improve it still more than I believe I have now done In the subsequent editions, the attempt to improve the work by additions and corrections, suggested by criticism or by thought, has been continued [pg 008]The additions and corrections in the present (eighth) edition, which are not very considerable, are chiefly such as have been suggested by Professor Bain's “Logic,” a book of great merit and value Mr Bain's view of the science is essentially the same with that taken in the present treatise, the differences of opinion being few and unimportant compared with the agreements; and he has not only enriched the exposition by many applications and illustrative details, but has appended to it a minute and very valuable discussion of the logical principles specially applicable to each of the sciences—a task for which the encyclopedical character of his knowledge peculiarly qualified him I have in several instances made use of his exposition to improve my own, by adopting, and occasionally by controverting, matter contained in his treatise The longest of the additions belongs to the chapter on Causation, and is a discussion of the question how far, if at all, the ordinary mode of stating the law of Cause and Effect requires modification to adapt it to the new doctrine of the Conservation of Force—a point still more fully and elaborately treated in Mr Bain's work [pg 017] Introduction § 1 There is as great diversity among authors in the modes which they have adopted of defining logic, as in their treatment of the details of it This is what might naturally be expected on any subject on which writers have availed themselves of the same language as a means of delivering different ideas Ethics and jurisprudence are liable to the remark in common with logic Almost every writer having taken a different view of some of the particulars which these branches of knowledge are usually understood to include; each has so framed his definition as to indicate beforehand his own peculiar tenets, and sometimes to beg the question in their favor This diversity is not so much an evil to be complained of, as an inevitable and in some degree a proper result of the imperfect state of those sciences It is not to be expected that there should be agreement about the definition of any thing, until there is agreement about the thing itself To define, is to select from among all the properties of a thing, those which shall be understood to be designated and declared by its name; and the properties must be well known to us before we can be competent to determine which of them are fittest to be chosen for this purpose Accordingly, in the case of so complex an aggregation of particulars as are comprehended in any thing which can be called a science, the definition we set out with is seldom that which a more extensive knowledge of the subject shows to be the most appropriate Until we know the particulars themselves, we can not fix upon the most correct and compact mode of circumscribing them by a general description It was not until after an extensive and accurate acquaintance with the details of chemical phenomena, that it was found possible to frame a rational definition of chemistry; and the definition of the science of life and organization is still a matter of dispute So long as the sciences are imperfect, the definitions must partake of their imperfection; and if the former are progressive, the latter ought to be so too As much, therefore, as is to be expected from a definition placed at the commencement of a subject, is that it should define the scope of our inquiries: and the definition which I am about to offer of the science of logic, pretends to nothing more than to be a statement of the question which I have put to myself, and which this book is an attempt to resolve The reader is at liberty to object to it as a definition of logic; but it is at all events a correct definition of the subject of this volume § 2 Logic has often been called the Art of Reasoning A writer3 who has done more than any other person to restore this study to the rank from which it had fallen in the estimation of the cultivated class in our own country, has adopted the above definition Buckle's History of Civilization, i., 30 2 8 4 I have been assured by an intimate friend of Mr Buckle that he would not have withheld his assent from these remarks, and that he never intended to affirm or imply that mankind are not progressive in their moral as well as in their intellectual qualities “In dealing with his problem, he availed himself of the artifice resorted to by the Political Economist, who leaves out of consideration the generous and benevolent sentiments, and founds his science on the proposition that mankind are actuated by acquisitive propensities alone,” not because such is the fact, but because it is necessary to begin by treating the principal influence as if it was the sole one, and make the due corrections afterward “He desired to make abstraction of the intellect as the determining and dynamical element of the progression, eliminating the more dependent set of conditions, and treating the more active one as if it were an entirely independent variable.” The same friend of Mr Buckle states that when he used expressions which seemed to exaggerate the influence of general at the expense of special causes, and especially at the expense of the influence of individual minds, Mr Buckle really intended no more than to affirm emphatically that the greatest men can not effect great changes in human affairs unless the general mind has been in some considerable degree prepared for them by the general circumstances of the age; a truth which, of course, no one thinks of denying And there certainly are passages in Mr Buckle's writings which speak of the influence exercised by great individual intellects in as strong terms as could be desired Essay on Dryden, in Miscellaneous Writings, i., 186 In the Cornhill Magazine for June and July, 1861 It is almost superfluous to observe, that there is another meaning of the word Art, in which it may be said to denote the poetical department or aspect of things in general, in contradistinction to the scientific In the text, the word is used in its older, and I hope, not yet obsolete sense Professor Bain and others call the selection from the truths of science made for the purposes of an art, a Practical Science, and confine the name Art to the actual rules The word Teleology is also, but inconveniently and improperly, employed by some writers as a name for the attempt to explain the phenomena of the universe from final causes For an express discussion and vindication of this principle, see the little volume entitled “Utilitarianism.” ***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SYSTEM OF LOGIC, RATIOCINATIVE AND INDUCTIVE*** Credits January 31, 2009 Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 Produced by David Clarke, David King, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) A Word from Project Gutenberg This file should be named 27942-h.html or 27942-h.zip This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/7/9/4/27942/ Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old editions will be renamed Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the Project Gutenberg™ concept and trademark Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the rules is very easy You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research They may be modified and printed and given away — you may do practically anything with public domain eBooks Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution The Full Project Gutenberg License Please read this before you distribute or use this work To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License (available with this file or online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license) Section 1 General Terms of Use & Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works 1.A By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your possession If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8 1.B “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement See paragraph 1.C below There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic works See paragraph 1.E below 1.C The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States If an individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge with others 1.D The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United States 1.E Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: 1.E.1 The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed: This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at http://www.gutenberg.org 1.E.2 If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9 1.E.3 If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work 1.E.4 Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™ 1.E.5 Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License 1.E.6 You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ web site (http://www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1 1.E.7 Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9 1.E.8 You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gut applicable taxes The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but Literary Archive Foundation Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each returns Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenber about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.” You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e Project Gutenberg™ License You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of t to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a w reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ 1.E.9 If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below 1.F 1.F.1 Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment 1.F.2 LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES — Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described inparagraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3 YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE 1.F.3 LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND — If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem 1.F.4 Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS,' WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE 1.F.5 Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions 1.F.6 INDEMNITY — You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause Section 2 Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middleaged and new computers It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™'s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will remain freely available for generations to come In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org Section 3 Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541 Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/pglaf Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S federal laws and your state's laws The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr S Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous locations Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email business@pglaf.org Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official page at http://www.pglaf.org For additional contact information: Dr Gregory B Newby Chief Executive and Director gbnewby@pglaf.org Section 4 Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without wide spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visithttp://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States U.S laws alone swamp our small staff Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation methods and addresses Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations To donate, please visit:http://www.gutenberg.org/fundraising/donate Section 5 General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works Professor Michael S Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S unless a copyright notice is included Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's eBook number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII, compressed (zipped), HTML and others Corrected editions of our eBooks replace the old file and take over the old filename and etext number The replaced older file is renamed Versions based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving new filenames and etext numbers ... cut the matter short by saying, two ideas They would say, that the subject and predicate are both of them names of ideas; the idea of gold, for instance, and the idea of yellow; and that what takes... conception, and the like? Probably all these would have been placed by the Aristotelian school in the categories of actio and passio; and the relation of such of them as are active, to their objects, and. .. Whether moral and social phenomena are really exceptions to the general certainty and uniformity of the course of nature; and how far the methods by which so many of the laws of the physical