Minor Field Studies No 176 STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT on shrimp farms in the southeast of Thailand Teresia Lindberg and Anna Nylander Supervisor in Sweden: Hans-Georg Wallentinus, Associate Professor and Director of the EIA Center, SLU, Department of Landscape Planning Ultuna, Uppsala Supervisor in Thailand: Magnus Torell, Project leader at ICLARM _ Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences International Office Uppsala, November, 2001 ISSN 1402-3237 The Minor Field Studies series is published by the International Office of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Minor Field Studies are carried out within the framework of the Minor Field Studies (MFS) Scholarship Programme, which is funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) The MFS Scholarship Programme offers Swedish university students an opportunity to undertake two months´ field work in a developing country to be analysed, compiled and published as an in-depth study or graduation thesis work The studies are primarily made on subjects of importance from a development perspective and in a country supported by Swedish development assistance The main purposes of the MFS programme are to increase interest in developing countries and to enhance Swedish university students´ knowledge and understanding of these countries and their problems and opportunities An MFS should provide the student with initial experience of conditions in such a country A further purpose is to widen the Swedish human resource base for international development cooperation The International Office of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences administers the MFS programme for the rural development and natural resources management sectors The responsibility for the accuracy of information presented rests entirely with the respective author The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the International Office Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences International Office Box 7070 SE-750 07 UPPSALA Sweden Telephone: Fax: E-mail: Website: +46 18 672309 +46 18 673556 Monica.Halling@adm.slu.se http://www-ibyr.adm.slu.se Tryck: SLU/Repro, Uppsala 2001 Preface This Minor Field Study (MFS) was performed by Teresia Lindberg and Anna Nylander, who are both studying Eco-toxicology at Uppsala University in Sweden The report is a Master´s thesis for Teresia Lindberg The Swedish International Development Agency (Sida) finances a number of so-called Minor Field Studies for students or young people to carry out a research project in a developing country The study usually takes place in one of Sida´s target countries and is part of a local Sida-sponsored aid programme The study was located on the south east coast of Thailand with the Coastal Resources Institute (CORIN) at the Prince of Songkhla University in Hat Yai as a study centre The field work was carried out from the end of February until the end of April, 2001 A number of people have been a great help for us during our study We would first like to thank our supervisor Hans-Georg Wallentinus at the Department of Landscape Planning Ultuna, SLU for help and support and Magnus Torell at ICLARM for providing us with very useful contacts in Thailand At CORIN in Hat Yai we would like to thank Somsak Boromthanarat and Ayut Nissapa for letting us work at their office and for helping us with contacts We would also like to express our gratitude to Siri Tookwinas at the Department of Fisheries in Bangkok, Noparat Bamroongrugsa at the Prince of Songkhla University, Putth Songsangjinda at the Department of Fisheries in Songkhla, Max Andersen at DANCED (Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development) in Ranod and Jim Enright at The Mangrove Action Project in Trang for assistance during our field study A special appreciation to Simon Funge-Smith at FAO in Bangkok who has been a tremendously good source of information both in Thailand and when questions turned up in Sweden Sara Gräslund at the Institute of Applied Environmental Research at the Stockholm University and Johan Sundberg at Sida have provided us with informative material Last, but not least our sincere thanks to all helpful and friendly Thai people and especially the shrimp farmers Abstract This Strategic Environmental Assessment was carried out in order to collect up-to-date material about the situation of the coastal shrimp farming industry in the south east of Thailand and to compare different shrimp farming methods The semi-closed intensive shrimp farming system, which is the most commonly applied farming method in Thailand, is compared with a closed farming system where the water is recirculated and a system where the sludge is removed on a regular basis The study was performed in five provinces on the southeast coast of Thailand where, during the spring of 2001, the authors interviewed shrimp farmers as well as expertise at Departments, University institutions and Environmental organisations The black tiger shrimp dominates the Thai production and about 90% of the cultivated shrimps are exported for luxury consumption in industrialised countries Marine shrimp farming has expanded greatly during recent decades and can today be found in every coastal province of the country The intensive farms have been constructed by converting a variety of land uses, including former extensive shrimp farms, mangroves, rice paddies and other plantations The environmental and socio-economic impacts of the different shrimp farming systems are described in the report and the alternatives are evaluated and compared with each other with reference to the different impacts The main environmental impacts are due to chemical use, mangrove destruction, salinisation, eutrophication, sedimentation, extraction of ground water and spread of diseases and genes The socio-economic impacts are, for example, health problems, loss of livelihood and fresh water resources, impacts on agriculture, marginalisation and changes in employment According to the comparison, it is apparent that the semi-closed system has the most negative environmental and socio-economic impacts Both the closed recirculating system and the sludge removal system have less negative impacts on the environment and on the social and economic systems than the semi-closed farming system Concerning mangrove forest destruction, extraction of ground water and loss of mangrove values and products, the alternatives give no impact at all The closed recirculating system is considered to be the most sustainable alternative due to the many issues where no negative impacts occur This is only true providing that the system is successful despite some managerial problems If the system should not work entirely, the sludge removal system or a closed recirculating system without waste water recirculation are still much more sustainable alternatives than the semi-closed farming systems that are used in Thailand presently The major problems connected to the two alternative methods described in this report are the high construction and operation costs It is not realistic to expect a poor farmer to adopt one of the alternative systems described in this report without external economic support A reasonable possibility for a farmer could be to continually invest in more sustainable methods Keywords: Shrimp farming, aquaculture, ecotoxicology, strategic environmental assessment, environmental impacts, socio-economic impacts, intensive shrimp farming, chemicals, mangrove forest, Thailand INTRODUCTION 1.1 Objectives 1.2 Methodology SCOPE DEFINITIONS AND GLOSSARY HISTORY 11 PRESENT STATUS OF SHRIMP FARMING IN THAILAND 13 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTINGS 16 6.1 Black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) 16 6.2 The natural cycle of shrimp development 16 6.3 The mangrove forest 16 6.4 Hatcheries 18 6.5 Grow-out techniques 19 6.6 Inland shrimp farming 21 6.7 Production process and water treatment 21 6.8 Diseases of cultured black tiger shrimp 23 6.9 Artificial shrimp feed 24 6.10 Chemicals and biological products 25 DESCRIPTION OF THE ALTERNATIVES 28 7.1 Zero alternative: Semi-closed intensive system 28 7.2 Alternative 1: Closed recirculating system 29 7.3 Alternative 2: Sludge removal system 30 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 31 8.1 Mangrove deforestation 31 8.2 Physical barriers 32 8.3 Pollution by chemicals and water treatment products 33 8.4 Sedimentation 34 8.5 Salinisation and the extraction of groundwater 35 8.6 Eutrophication and water quality issues 37 8.7 Energy usage 39 8.8 Diseases and genetic pollution 40 8.9 Trawling for wild brood stock and for fish meal 41 8.10 Decreased need for trawling wild shrimp 42 SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS 43 9.1 Land conversion and loss of livelihood 43 9.2 Employment and inequity 44 9.3 Public health problems 45 9.4 Impacts on the agriculture 47 9.5 National versus local economy 48 10 EVALUATION OF THE ALTERNATIVES 50 10.1 Evaluation of the alternatives concerning environmental impacts 50 10.2 Evaluation of the alternatives concerning socio-economic impacts 52 11 CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION 55 12 MITIGATION 57 13 SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES 62 14 UNCERTAINTIES 65 15 REFERENCES 66 APPENDIX GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS AND PLANNING 72 APPENDIX CHEMICALS COMMONLY USED IN THAILAND 76 APPENDIX DIRECT AND INDIRECT PRODUCTS FROM THE MANGROVE FOREST 78 Introduction 1.1 Objectives The aim of this study was to collect up-to-date material about the situation of the shrimp farming industry in the southeast of Thailand and to compare the most common shrimp farming method in Thailand with two other, hopefully more sustainable, methods This was done by making a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) The reason for this study was to assist the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Sida, in their investigation of possible future support to shrimp farming The present work is part of a larger study on shrimp farming, which is being performed by the EIA-centre at SLU on behalf of Sida One of the goals with this study is to be able to set up a checklist for review of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), including SEAs, for shrimp farming EIAs are always needed in project proposals, which are submitted to Sida for assessment Both the Rio Declaration and the Agenda 21 emphasise the importance of using EIAs in development co-operation A purpose of this SEA is to add to Sida´s EIA-handbook The report can hopefully also be used to facilitate and improve the EIA-process for project directors and consultants 1.2 Methodology The study includes interviews with shrimp farmers and with expertise at Departments, University institutions and Environmental organisations Employees at feed processing factories and independent researchers were also interviewed Most of the shrimp farms were family-owned, but some were big shrimp farming companies such as Chareon Pokphand (CP-company) or research farms like the DANCED funded shrimp farm in Ranod and the Department of Fisheries shrimp farm in Songkhla Field observations and literature studies were also performed in this study The material is summarised and compared in a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) This report is a back-casting SEA, which means that it investigates the impacts of already existing shrimp farms Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process that examines the environmental consequences of development actions in advance EIA is also a document that should describe and compare different alternatives The zero-alternative, which describes the situation providing that nothing changes in the future, should be included in the comparison An EIA shall take into consideration direct or indirect effects on: • People, flora and fauna • Land, water, air, climate and landscape • Material assets and cultural heritage • Interaction between the above-mentioned factors The assessment how a project relates to environmentally sustainable development should be performed in a holistic perspective Therefore, equally environmental, health-related, social and economic aspects should be considered SEA is a relatively new tool and has not yet been so widely applied in practice Therefore there is no determined, defined method for how a SEA should be prepared and applied While EIAs are made for specific projects, Strategic Environmental Assessments are used for programmes, policies and plans that are loosely structured and that are continuously reformed A SEA has more diverse angles of approach than an EIA and the work takes place on an allembracing level A project EIA deals, for example, first with the question how a project or an activity shall be worked out, while a SEA concentrates on the questions if various projects are suitable to carry through and if so where they are to be located Even the question why can be important to raise (Naturvårdsverket, 2000) In addition to what has been written on EIAs above, the SEA should, according to Sida, include (Sida, 1998): • A description and analysis of the environmental situation in the sector/region in question • A description and analysis of environmental work in the sector, including legislation and environmental regulations • Other relevant information on the institutional situation • An analysis of the combined effects of different activities/measures in the sector/programme • Proposals for capacity building measures for environmentally sustainable development in the sector/programme Due to different figures in the literature and at interviews concerning, for example, production and the frequency of different shrimp farming systems, it has sometimes been hard to select information However, the most reliable information according to the authors´ estimations has been chosen Scope In this document we have accepted that the Thai shrimp industry is already developed, thus issues of sustainability must focus on maintaining production, increasing resource use efficiency and minimizing further impact on coastal resources Therefore this report excludes the assessment of extensive and semi-intensive shrimp farming We believe that it is impossible to move backwards in terms of development and technology The fact that it is forbidden to construct shrimp farms in the mangrove forest in Thailand today is yet another reason for excluding these farming systems from the study There are very few extensive and semi-intensive shrimp farms left in Thailand today In this report three different shrimp farming systems are discussed and compared Semiclosed intensive shrimp farming is the most common method in Thailand today and is therefore the zero-alternative This alternative is divided into two examples: zero-alternative A that is situated in a coastal area far away from the mangrove forest and zero-alternative B that is located in a mangrove area The two other alternatives are the closed, recirculating system and the sludge-removal system Both these systems are under development It is concluded that a combination of these two alternatives is not economically possible, even though it might be more sustainable The geographical constraint is the southeast coast of Thailand That includes five provinces: Surat Thani, Nakhon Sri Thammarat, Pattalung, Songkhla and Pattani (Figure 1) The focus of this report is on environmental impacts To a certain degree we have also evaluated social and economic impacts This document focuses on coastal shrimp farming However, inland shrimp farming is an important issue in Thailand The activity still proceeds although the activity was banned in Thailand in 1998 Therefore, this shrimp farming method is not included in the impact assessment Related industries such as hatcheries and processing factories are issues that are too large to be evaluated within the allowed time frame The construction phase in shrimp farming is only mentioned briefly in the report Our time perspective is about ten years, since a common shrimp farm in Thailand today can be operated during a maximum of this time Figure A map showing the geographical constraint of the study The provinces included in the study are Surat Thani, Nakhon Sri Thammarat, Pattalung, Songkhla and Pattani objective has presently expanded to include environmental awareness campaigns For instance the STSFA is encouraging farmers to adopt the “closed system”, to use settlement ponds and coordinate intake and out-going water to avoid self-pollution The water in the waterways is checked regularly for the presence of heavy metals, plankton and pathogens The association also provides shrimp health check services to members and non-members and economically supports research activities by Universities and the DOF The STSFA arranges meetings where the members are informed about on-going activities through the association’s newsletters Seminars, which are held by researchers from various Universities and Institutions, are organised so that, for example, information on new feeding techniques and disease prevention, is spread It is important to increase knowledge about the value of the mangroves and to campaign against construction of new shrimp ponds in mangrove areas Generally, members of the association appear to be more aware of management techniques and environmental impacts than non-members Yadfon (meaning raindrop) is a small non-governmental organisation that was initiated in 1985 and is situated in the Trang province in the southwest of Thailand (Quarto, 1996) The primary foundation source for Yadfon is the European Union The organisation works together with local communities to encourage sustainable community management of natural resources and to create independent rural people The organisation hopes to spread their working method to other parts of Thailand and to other countries (de Silva, 1995) The organisation has five objectives: To strengthen community leaders and people’s organisations in coastal fishing villages in Trang province so that the communities will be able to handle their own resources in a sustainable manner To support the economy in communities through alternative income projects such as fish cage aquaculture, animal husbandry and handicraft production To provide input, analysis and feedback on government policies, regulations, laws and infrastructure development projects, which are affecting coastal fishing communities and the marine environment To educate people in coastal fishing communities to promote the protection and rehabilitation of coastal resources such as mangrove forests, seagrass beds and coral reefs, through raising awareness about the use of destructive fishing gear, creation of marine conservation zones and community mangrove forests To act as a centre for local, regional and international collaboration and networking by sharing information, housing visiting groups and individuals, sitting on advisory committees and by providing training and participating in forums, workshops and conferences This collaboration effort extends to other NGOs, government agencies, academic institutions, researchers, private sector institutions, international development agencies, founders and the media 64 14 Uncertainties For this study a large number of articles have been collected, written by many different authors Concerning various issues the authors have different opinions and definitions about shrimp farming It has therefore been difficult to establish which information is the most reliable Sometimes there have been problems to find data on specific matters, especially figures that are up to date Some figures used in this report are old and the situation may have changed by now During the fieldwork, interviews with farmers or employees on different kinds of shrimp farms were carried out To be able to this we needed translators in most of the cases Because of the difficulty to find good translators in the area, we were unable to perform as many interviews as we had planned At some interviews we did not obtain all the information we required because of language difficulties It was difficult to know if we obtained the truth from the persons that we interviewed or if they wanted to give us a more positive picture of the situation Quite a few of the references we used are unpublished articles and many of them are not marked with a date when they are written Despite this, we have found the sources very useful and reliable, although it might be a hassle to retrieve the articles A number of data gaps about shrimp farming have been found during this study For example, there is not much information about what the sludge consists of in terms of chemicals and how long the antibiotics may stay active in the sludge Shrimps should be tested for residues other than antibiotics after harvest, and controls should be introduced in practise in a wider sense, for example in recipients and if seepage occurs to the groundwater 65 15 References Aksornkoae S Sustainable use and conservation of mangrove forest resources with emphasis on policy and management practices in Thailand Faculty of Forestry, Kasesart University, Bangkok, Thailand Unpublished Alderman D.J and Hastings T.S 1998 Antibiotic use in aquaculture: development of antibiotic resistance-potential for consumer heath risks International Journal of Food Science and Technology 33, pp 139-155 Andersen M 2000 Sustainable Shrimp Aquaculture Project Progress Report Third Production Cycle Progress Report No DANCED Ref No M 123/340-0026 ASCC News (Asian Shrimp News)1996 Asian Shrimp Culture Council Collected Volume 1989-1995 ISSN 0859-4120 Published by the Asian Shrimp Culture Council Asian Aquaculture Magazine 2000 The ban on inland shrimp farming eased Nov/Dec 2000 Bangkok Post 1996 Rogue trawlers take their toll on the sea and fishing villages 19 June, 1996 Bangkok Post 1998 Inland shrimp farms replace paddy fields 18 May, 1998 Bangkok Post 2001 Higher tariffs lead to lower sales of shrimp to Europe Now competitive with low tax nations 20 April, 2001 Barraclough S and Finger-Stich A 1996 Some Ecological and Social Implications of Commercial Shrimp Farming in Asia Clay J W 1997 Toward sustainable shrimp aquaculture World Aquaculture, September Clough B Evaluating the success of failure of mangrove afforestation/rehabilitaion projects NACA, Thailand Unpublished CORIN (Coastal Resources Institute) Shrimp farming experiences in Thailand - A continued pathway for sustainable coastal aquaculture Prince of Songkla University Thailand Unpublished Dagens Nyheter 2000 “Odlare blir slavar” Fiske av jätteräkor 10 May, 2000 de Silva D Grassroots, Hope in a Raindrop Our Planet Vol 9, No Dierberg F E and Kiattisimkul W 1996 Issues, Impacts and Implications of Shrimp Aquaculture in Thailand Environmental Management Vol 20, No 5, pp 649-666 Flaherty M and Karnjanakesort C 1995 Marine Shrimp Aquaculture and Natural Resource Degradation in Thailand Environmental Management Vol 19, No 1, pp 27-37 66 Flaherty M, Vandergeest P and Miller P 1999 Rice paddy or shrimp pond: Tough decisions in rural Thailand World development Vol 27, No.12 pp 2045-2060 Flaherty M., Szuster B and Miller P 2000 Low salinity inland shrimp farming in Thailand Ambio Vol 29 No 3, May Funge-Smith S J Water and sediment quality in different intensive shrimp culture systems in southern Thailand Institute of Aquaculture, Stirling University, Scotland Unpublished Funge-Smith S J and Steward A J 1996 Coastal aquaculture: Identification of social, economic and environmental constraints to sustainability with reference to shrimp culture Funge-Smith S J and Briggs M R P 1998 Nutrient budgets in intensive shrimp ponds: Implications for sustainability Aquaculture 164, pp 117-133 GESAMP 1999 Working Group on Environmental Impacts of Coastal Aquaculture Planning and Management for Sustainable Coastal Aquaculture Development Goss J Aquaculture shrimp farms or shrimps harm? The Late Friday News, 78 th Edition, Mangrove Action Project Gregow K and Zetterström T 2000 Swedish Society for Nature Conservation Faktablad April Gräslund S 1999 Chlorination of shrimp ponds in Thailand – effects on water and sediment quality based on acute toxicity tests with Nitocra spinipes (Crustacea) Dept of Systems Ecology, Univ of Stockholm Gräslund S and Bengtsson B E 2001 Chemicals and biological products used in Southeast Asia shrimp farming and their potential impact on the environment Dept of Systems Ecology, Univ of Stockholm In press Gujja B and Finger-Stich A 1996 What Price Prawn? Shrimp Aquaculture in Thailand Environment, Vol 38, No 7, September Hambrey J The mangrove question Asian Institute of Technology, http://www.agriaqua.ait.ac.th/Mangroves/Haarintr.html Hambrey J., Phillips M., Chowdhury M A Kabir and Shivappa R B 2000 Guidelines for the environmental assessment of coastal aquaculture development Huitric M., Folke C and Kautsky N 2000 Development, drivers and impact of the shrimp farming industry in Thailand Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, Sweden and Beijer Institute, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden Kautsky N, Berg H, Folke C, Larsson J and Troell M 1997 Ecological footprint for assessment of resource use and development limitations in shrimp and tilapia aquaculture Aquaculture Research, 28, pp 753-766 67 Kautsky N., Rönnbäck P., Tedengren M and Troell M., 2000, Ecosystem perspectives on management of disease in shrimp pond farming Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, Sweden and Beijer Institute, Royal Swedish Academy of Science, Stockholm, Sweden Miller Paul J 1999 Investigation of the shrimp industry in Thailand for the Swedish market Final report for the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation 31 March Naturskyddsföreningen Mother Jones 1996 Wetlands International Prince of Songkhla University, Thailand Naturvårdsverket 2000 Strategiska miljöbedömningar - Ett användbart instrument i miljöarbetet ISBN 620-5109-1 Patmasiriwat D., Kuik O and Pendekar S 1998 The Shrimp Aquaculture Sector in Thailand: A Review of Economic, Environmental and Trade Issues Pednekar S and Ochieng C Integrating mangrove rehabilitation and shrimp aquaculture: A case study at Don Sak, Surat Thani, Southern Thailand Shrimp aquaculture component Wetlands International-Thailand programme Unpublished Plathong J 1998 Status of mangrove forest in southern Thailand Wetlands InternationalAsia Pacific Publication No Plathong J and Sitthirach N 1998 Traditional and current uses of mangrove forests in southern Thailand Wetlands International Publication No Primavera J H 1993 A Critical review of Shrimp pond Culture in the Philippines Reviews in Fisheries Science, 1(2) pp 151-201 Primavera J H 1998 Tropical shrimp farming and its sustainability Tropical mariculture, pp 257-289, ISBN 0-12-210845-0 Primavera J H., Lavilla-Pitogo C.R., Ladja J.M and Dela Pena M.R 1993 A survey of chemical and biological products used in intensive prawn farms in the Philippines Marine pollution bulletin, Vol 26, No 1, pp 35-40 Quarto A 1996 Cases of successful community involvement in sustainable management of coastal resources Aquaculture Asia, October-December Rosenberry B (Ed.) 1999 World shrimp farming 1999 Shrimp News International, San Diego, USA Rosenberry B (Ed.) 2001 World shrimp farming 2000 Shrimp News International, San Diego, USA Rönnbäck P., 2001, Shrimp aquaculture “State-of-the-art” EIA Centre, Swedish Univ of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala In press Sida 1997 Hav och kust Miljö och naturresurser i u-ländernas havs- och kustområde 68 Sida 1998 Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessments in International Development Cooperation ISBN 91-586-6078-X Stevensson N J Disused shrimp ponds: Options for redevelopment of mangrove http://darwin.bio.uci.edc/~sustain/shrimpecos/CNJsgsp.html Stevensson N J and Burbridge P R Abandoned shrimp ponds: Options for mangrove rehabilitation Intercoast network-Mangrove edition Unpublished TED Case Studies Thailand’s Shrimp Farming http://gurukul.ucc.american.edu/TED/THAISHMP.HTM The Mangrove Action Project http://www.earthisland.org The Nation 1998 Government bans farming of shrimps - Inland operators up in arms July, 1998 Thongrak S., Prato T., Chiayvareesajja S and Kurtz W 1997 Economic and Water Quality Evaluation of Intesive Shrimp production Systems in Thailand Aquacultural Systems, 53, pp.121-141 Tobey J., Clay J and Vergne P 1998 Maintaining a balance: The economic, environmental and social impacts of shrimp farming in Latin America Coastal Resources Management Project II A partnership between USAID, ENV and Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island Tookwinas S 1995 Environmental Impact Assessment for Intensive Marine Shrimp Farming in Thailand Coastal Aquaculture Division, Department of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand Tookwinas S 2000 Closed-recirculating shrimp farming system Southeast Asian fisheries development center State-of-the-art series November Tookwinas S The National Plan for Marine Shrimp Farming Development in Thailand Marine Shrimp Research and Development Institute, Department of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand Unpublished Tookwinas S., Dirakkait S., Promjom W., Boyd E C and Shaw R Marine Shrimp Culture Industry of Thailand; Operating Guidelines for Shrimp Farms Department of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thai marine Shrimp Farmers Association, Surajthani, Department of Fisheries and Aquacultures, Auburn University, Alabama, USA Unpublished Tookwinas S and Thanomkiat K Shrimp Farming in Thailand: Successes and Failures Marine Shrimp Research and Development Institute Department of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand Unpublished Vandergeest P., Flaherty M and Miller P 1999 A political ecology of shrimp aquaculture in Thailand Rural sociology Vol 6, No 4, pp 573-596 Von Post C and Åhman U 1997 The dependency of commercial fisheries and aquaculture on the mangrove forest in Thailand Minor Field Studies No 69 References used for inspiration Barg U C 1992 Guidelines for the Promotion of Environmental Management of Coastal Aquaculture Development Italy, Rome Boethius H and Miglavis I J 1990 A study of small-scale prawn hatcheries in Thailand Fisheries Development Series 52 Courtland S 1999 Recirculating System technology for Shrimp Maturation The Advocate, December, 1999 Csavas I and Chansnoh P 1993 Thailand: Time to close the global casino In defence of land and livelihood Coastal communities and the shrimp industry in Asia 1997 Folke C and Kautsky N 1992 Aquaculture with its Environment: Prospects for sustainability Ocean & Coastal Management 17, pp 5-24 Godhe A 1997 Shrimp Farming in Third World Countries Sida Unpublished Havanond Sopon Bill of particulars http://www.biology.aau.dk/center/TCEP Kaly U L and Jones G P 1998 Mangrove restoration: Potential tool for coastal management in tropical developing countries Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1998 Ambio Vol 27, No 8, Dec Kongeo H 1997 Comparison of intensive shrimp farming systems in Indonesia, Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand Aquaculture Research 28, pp 789-796 Quarto A., Cissna K and Taylor J 1996 Choosing the Road to Sustainability http://www.earthsland.org/map/rdstb.htm Thongrak S 1990 The Economic, Social and Environmental Impact of Shrimp Farming in Southern Thailand: A Preliminary Assessment Songklanakarin J Sci Technol Vol 12, No Oct-Dec Thongrak S 1995 Sustainable shrimp farming in Thailand Tookwinas S., Sangrungruang C and Matsuda O Aquatic Environmental Management in Intensive Marine Shrimp Aquaculture: Mitigating the Impact of Discharge Water on the Coastal Area by Zero Water Discharge Systems.Unpublished Tookwinas S., Thanomikiat K and Promjom W 1999 Using multiple-use criteria for coastal zone planning for marine shrimp culture in Thailand Phuket Marine Biological Center Special Publication 20:101-112 Wang J.K 1990 Managing shrimp pond water to reduce discharge problems Aquacultural Engineering Vol pp.61-73 70 Personal communications Andersen M 2001 DANCED (Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development) Enright J 2001 The Mangrove Action Project Funge-Smith, S 2001 FAO (The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Gräslund, S., 2001 Institute of Applied Environmental Research at the Stockholm University Horphisuttisarn, E 2001 Deputy general manager CP-farm Ranod, Songkhla Kaewrattana, A 2001 Farm owner Ranod, Songkhla Kunjera, S 2001 Charoen Pokphand (CP) feed company Laddavong, S 2001 Farm owner Ranod, Songkhla Lapwaree, S 2001 Farm owner Songkhla Mingwitwan, R 2001 Employee at a shrimp farm Ranod, Songkhla Noosawat, P 2001 Farm owner Songkhla Nosen S 2001 Farm owner, Ranod, Songkhla Panyosuk, K 2001 Employee at a shrimp farm Ranod, Songkhla Songsangjinda P 2001 Department of Fisheries Supamattaya, K 2001 Associate Professor, Head of Aquatic Animal Health Research Center, PSU Tookwinas S 2001 Department of Fisheries Viroj, T 2001 The Forestry Department Nakorn Sri Thammarat Yokrat, S 2001 Farm owner Ranod, Songkhla 71 Appendix Government regulations and planning The marine shrimp farming industry in Thailand has grown hugely in the last 10 years and has a big economic effect on the country Shrimp farming provides both employment and earning of the national income The DOF is responsible for both the promotion and regulation of shrimp farming and the Royal Forestry Department is controlling the use of the mangrove forest The DOF in Thailand has very strong policies to encourage sustainable shrimp farming in the country The government plans and policies will be concluded as follows (Tookwinas unpublished): Regulated shrimp farming area Marine shrimp farming area all over the country should not exceed 76 000 Regulations according to the Fisheries Act Regulations for shrimp farming in Thailand, announced by the DOF on November 1991 under the Fisheries Act 1947 are: • Shrimp farmers must be registered with DOF at Fisheries District Officer • Shrimp farms larger than must be equipped with wastewater treatment or sedimentation ponds not covering less than 10% of the pond area • Water released from the shrimp pond area must contain a BOD less than 10 mg/l • Saltwater must not be drained into public freshwater resources or other agricultural areas • Sludge or bottom mud sediment should be kept in suitable areas and not pumped into public area or canals Strengthening the hatchery and farm registrations The shrimp hatchery and shrimp farm registrations must be strengthened in order to get the information about culture activities The law enforcement about the effluent regulation can be done effectively along with the registration Monitoring programme and antibiotic residue inspection The coastal aquaculture centre and station under the DOF in every coastal province should have an environmental monitoring programme for the marine shrimp farm areas The purpose is to collect environmental data and to provide technical advice to farmers The water, sediment and shrimp in cultured ponds should be collected and analysed for antibiotic residues The finished product in frozen form should also be inspected for sanitary and antibiotic residue certification prior to export Seawater irrigation system The seawater irrigation project is one of the main policies for the marine shrimp farming industry´s development for sustainability Shrimp farms should be provided with good quality seawater and the system should also collect effluent water from each farm for physical and biological treatment Then treated effluents should be discharged into the coastal water In the Songkhla province in the south of Thailand there are some extra regulations for shrimp farming (CORIN, unpublished): • Pumping of artesian well water into shrimp ponds is not allowed • Drainage pipes must extend at least 10 m into the ocean • Ponds must be no more than km from the shoreline and not closer than 100 m from fresh water canals 72 • Digging of ponds in the Songkhla province is not allowed The code of conduct In 1998, the marine shrimp industry in Thailand developed a code of conduct for its operations The code is a set of principles and processes that provides a framework to meet the industry’s goals for environmental, social and economic responsibility (Tookwinas et al., unpublished 1) The code of conduct is a new concept in Thailand The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) produced a “code of conduct for responsible fisheries” less than five years ago From this programme Thailand made their own code of conduct (Songsangjinda pers comm., 2001) The World Bank is also in the process of developing guidelines for the planning of shrimp farming and recommended practices The code is directed at all sections of the shrimp industry, including shrimp producers, feed and farm product producers and sellers, processors and exporters Information about the code is provided in a range of papers, reports, technical manuals, training programs and workshops, among others The code of conduct is voluntary, even though a wide variety of industry stakeholders have signed the code The code commits the signatories to specific actions, including the development of a series of operating guidelines and procedure manuals These actions will help the industry to carry out the operations in a way consistent with the intention of the code of conduct The code of conduct consists of four main components: a mission statement, policy statements, operating guidelines and producers manuals and a certification scheme The foundation of the code of conduct is the following mission statement: “The marine shrimp farming industry in Thailand is devoted to producing high quality, hygienic products in a sustainable manner, which provides for environmental, social and economic benefits to present and future generations.” Policy statements have been formulated to outline actions that the industry will undertake to meet the commitments that are set forth in the mission statement These policy statements cover a wide range of topics, including (Tookwinas et al., unpublished 1) • • • • • • • • • • • • Environmental protectio Regulatory compliance Quality and safety Efficiency Social responsibility Education and training International trade Public consultation Location Continue improvement Research and development Monitoring and auditing 73 Research programmes and priorities The research priority for the sustainable intensive marine shrimp farming development should be due to many subjects The urgent needs for the longterm development consist of: • • • • Domesticated broodstock At present, the broodstock is caught in the wild Studies of domesticated broodstock should be the first priority in order to increase the ability of genetic improvement studies, in relation to, for example, disease resistance and growth rate The recycle culture system Recycle culture systems or closed culture systems may be able to minimize the discharged loading The effluent should be purified in the culture area and returned to the culture pond Research work has already been performed in the field, but more research is needed Effluent treatment process The effluent and accumulated sediment from shrimp ponds are the major environmental impacts on the coastal areas A lot of research has been done to minimize the concentration of effluents both by physical, chemical and biological methods No method may so far be able to achieve the purpose More research in this field has to be done Formulated feed Many scientists have shown that the shrimp feed is one of the main accumulated materials in the cultured ponds According to research only 14% of the artificial feed is incorporated in the shrimp biomass The remaining 86% is either metabolized or accumulated on the bottom of the pond More research in producing better artificial formulated feed should be done in the future Disease and prevention The disease outbreaks have caused great losses to the shrimp farm industry in recent years There is a need for more research on disease prevention in the future Ban on inland shrimp farming The Thai government banned inland shrimp farming in July 7, 1998 in planned freshwater areas (Flaherty et al., 2000) During this time all inland shrimp farms were ordered to stop stocking shrimp The farmers were, though, allowed to continue with their existing crops (Rosenberry, 1999) Provincial governors in coastal provinces were instructed to identify and map brackish water areas, where shrimp farming would be permitted, and freshwater areas, where shrimp farming would be banned Anxiety continues about the capacity and willingness of the government to enforce the ban (Flaherty et al., 2000) According to The Office of Environmental Policy and Planning (OEPP), black tiger shrimp farms that are located in the prohibited area can be allowed to run their cultivation if they have access to salt water through natural water ways In addition, they have to adopt the zero discharge system The farms that are located further inland can be granted approval to grow shrimp if a study conducted by the OEPP, Fisheries and Lands departments reveals that they not pose a threat to nearby paddy fields and orchard plantations The central plain, which is known as Thailand’s biggest rice and fruit production site, is off limits for from black tiger shrimp farming (Asian Aquaculture Magazine, 2000) 10 Ban on groundwater pumping A ban on groundwater pumping for aquaculture use has been required in many coastal areas in Thailand to protect agricultural and domestic water supplies (Flaherty et al., 2000) 74 11 The RAMSAR convention The mangrove forest is considered as wetland and would fall under the RAMSAR convention In Iran in 1971 the convention was conceived with an aim to promote the conservation of wetlands and waterfowl Thailand is considering placing three wetland sites under the care of RAMSAR, which would in effect make them signatory of the agreement The three wetlands are all national parks that have been intruded with illegal shrimp farmers seeking out new land for farming If designated as RAMSAR sites, the land would gain international attention and local recognition, which would promote more efficient conservation measures mostly from the Forestry and Fishery Departments This would help to focus the destruction on other areas that have not been designed as protected areas (TED Case Studies, http://gurukul.ucc.american.edu/TED/THAISHMP.HTM) 12 Prohibition against trawling and the use of push nets Prohibition against trawls and push nets operating within the protected coastal zone has been in place since 1972 In 1989 the Ministry of Agriculture stopped granting fishing permits for trawls and push nets in an attempt to protect rapidly depleting marine resources In 1996, the ministry announced a delay of the 1989 order It changed registration of the previous unregistered boats and granted new permits between May and October (Bangkok Post, 1996) 13 Ban on the construction of shrimp farms in mangrove In September 1996, the Thai government banned the construction of shrimp farms in the mangrove forest 14 No EIA needed for aquaculture In Thailand an EIA is not needed at the present for establishment of any aquaculture including shrimp farms 15 The mangrove forest has been divided into three zones On the Cabinet Resolution of 1989, the mangrove forest in Thailand has been divided in three zones The Conservation zone is only for preservation purposes, the Economic zone A is for timber and charcoal businesses Economic zone B is an unproductive area, which can be leased for any purpose from the government 16 Chemical regulations The DOF partly regulates 12 chemicals commonly used in aquaculture (acetic acid, benzalkonium chloride, calcium hypochlorite, chlorine, fentin acetate, trichlorfon, formaldehyde, hydrochloric acid, rotenone, sodium hydroxide, sodium hypochlorite and trifluralin) Import of these substances must be registered at the DOF and the product labels must declare all relevant information in Thai (Gräslund and Bengtsson, 2001) Laws and regulations concerning the use of chemotherapeutants in aquaculture are well described in many countries but Thailand though has yet not developed such a legislation (Flaherty et al., 1999) 75 Appendix Chemicals commonly used in Thailand Chemicals Soil and water treatment • Lime (Dolomite is the most common liming material) • Zeolite Purpose Hazard Neutralise pH, increase total alkalinity and sterilise pond bottom Low environmental risk Absorb ammonia, hydrogen sulphide Low environmental risk and other toxic gases in the pond Disinfectants • Formalin • Hypochlorite • Benzalkonium chloride (BKC) • Iodophores Acute toxic to aquatic life at low concentrations Dilution is necessary before discharge Is a potential carcinogen and should be handled carefully to avoid skin contact and inhalation Moderate risk Chlorine is highly toxic to Disinfectant in hatcheries and for water treatment in the grow-out pond aquatic life, kills bacteria and viruses and Used as a biocide to kill other also small crustaceans and other crustacean species in the pond and invertebrates that may act as vectors for disease- origin organisms Release of excessive phytoplankton blooms chlorinated water to the receiving water body without neutralisation with sodium thiosulfate could have localised biological effects Used to disinfect influent water, to stimulate shrimp moulting and as a bactericide in the late stages of production General disinfectant Used as a algicide to kill phytoplankton bloom and to remove ammonia in the pond Treatment for protozoan infections Disinfectant for aquaculture equipment and water in the grow-out pond Moderate environmental risk, the risk is associated with disposal Chicken and other manures used in brackish water shrimp culture Increases the growth of natural food Many fertilizers are used to increases the growth of natural food Low environmental risk from eutrophication/dissolved oxygen reduction if used in large quantities Low environmental risk from eutrophication/dissolved oxygen reduction if used in large quantities Synthetic anitibiotics like furazolidone and nifurpirinol These are effective against many bacteria and protozoa Oxytetracycline is the most common antibiotic in the aquaculture, effective against a wide range of bacteria for example Vibrio Norfloxacin and Oxolinic acid are two common antibiotics in this group Norfloxacin can act against a wider spectrum of bacteria than oxolinic acid They are suspected to be carcinogenic and are therefore forbidden in the food animal industry in the EU Fertilizers • Organic manures • Inorganic fertilizers Antibiotics • Nitrofurans • Tetracyclines • Quinolones 76 Resistance increases readily, treatment is often ineffective Therapeutants other than antibiotics • Formalin Widely used antifungal agent and controls ectoparasites • Malachite green (Banned in Thailand) Used as an antifungal and antiprotozoan agent in the shrimp culture • General disinfectant Used for treatment of fungal infections Effective against external protozoans and some bacterial disease Can be used to induce moulding in shrimp • Potassium permanganate Copper compounds Acute toxic to aquatic life at low concentrations Dilution is necessary before discharge Is a potential carcinogen and should be handled carefully to avoid skin contact and inhalation The chemical is a respiratory enzyme poison Necessary with long removal period after application because of persistent residues Low environmental risk Low environmental risk Pesticides • Tea seed cake • Added during the preparation phase Medium environmental risk in ponds as a piscicide before stocking the shrimp Also used to induce moulting in shrimp Benzalkonium chloride Used to stimulate shrimp moulting and as a bactericide in the late (BKC) stages of production • Organophosphates (ex.Dipterex ) To control ectoparasitic crustaceans Effects of organophosphates on non-target in freshwater fish and some aquatic organisms, particularly the infections in shrimp hatcheries crustaceans are of major concern The discharge of pond water containing residues or direct release of the substances to the water bodies may result in potential effects on nearby organisms Due to the high neurotoxity of the organophosphates the health of fish farm workers is also of concern Inhalation by workers may lead to Used as a piscicide to remove • Rotenone respiratory paralysis nuisance fish from ponds before stocking Herbicides are used to control weed Herbicides/Algaecides growth in freshwater aquaculture, have limited applications in marine aquaculture Applied in shrimp ponds to control Low environmental risk • Copper compounds algae • Benzalkonium chloride Used as an algicide to reduce phytoplankton density (BKC) (Source: Hambrey et al., 2000; Gräslund and Bengtsson, 2001; Funge-Smith and Stewart, 1996) 77 Appendix Direct and indirect products from the mangrove forest Direct products Use Fuel Construction Fishing Agriculture Paper production Food, drugs and beverages Household items Textile and leather production Others (Source: Plathong et al., 1998) Indirect products Source Fishes (many species) Crustaceans (shrimp, crabs) Molluscs (oysters, mussels, cockles) Bees Mammals Birds Reptiles Other fauna (e.g amphibians, insects) (Source: Plathong et al., 1998) Product Firewood for cooking, heating, smoking fish, smoking sheet rubber and burning bricks, charcoal and alcohol Timber for scaffolds and heavy construction (e.g bridges), railroad ties, mining pit props, deck piling beams and poles for building, flooring, paneling, boat building materials, fence ports, water pipes, chipboards and glues Poles for fish traps, fishing floats, fish poison, tannins for net preservation and fish attracting shelters Fodder and green manure Paper of various kinds Sugar, cooking oil, vinegar, tea substitutes, fermented drinks, dessert topping, condiment from bark, sweet meats from propagules, fruits or leaves, cigarette wrappers, medicines from bark, leaves and fruits Furniture, glue, hairdressing oil, tool handles, rice mortar, toys, match sticks and incense Synthetic fibers, dye for cloth and tannins for leather preservation Packing boxes Product Food and fertilizer Food Food Honey and wax Food and recreation (watching, hunting) Food and recreation (watching, hunting) Skin, food and recreation Food and recreation 78 ... material about the situation of the shrimp farming industry in the southeast of Thailand and to compare the most common shrimp farming method in Thailand with two other, hopefully more sustainable,... question • A description and analysis of environmental work in the sector, including legislation and environmental regulations • Other relevant information on the institutional situation • An... lines, one along the Gulf of Thailand (1870 km) and one along the Andaman sea (800 km) Today, Thailand is one of the leading tourism destinations in Southeast Asia Foreign tourists visiting Thailand