Rubber plantation performance in the Northeast and East of Thailand in relation to environmental conditions Laura Rantala A thesis submitted for an M.Sc degree in Forest Ecology Department of Forest Ecology/ Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI) University of Helsinki Finland 2006 PREFACE This M.Sc thesis was done under the framework of a project “Improving the productivity of rubber smallholdings through rubber agroforestry systems in Indonesia and Thailand” The project is being financed by the Common Fund for Commodities (CFC) It is coordinated by the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), and research partners include the Indonesian Rubber Research Institute, Kasetsart University (KU) and Prince of Songkhla University in Thailand, and the University of Helsinki (UH) I received funding from the UH for travel expenses to Thailand and for participation in a bilateral exchange programme between the universities of Kasetsart and Helsinki My initial knowledge of rubber cultivation and the tropical environment was limited to say the least I am grateful to everyone involved in this work for the time they have generously given for guiding me through the various stages of this work Firstly I wish to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Professor, Dr Olavi Luukkanen (UH), Director of the Viikki Tropical Resources Institute (VITRI), for making my participation in this project possible I am grateful for his supervision, valuable comments and interest in my work During my field work in Thailand, I received much academic as well as practical help from Associate Professor, Dr Suree Bhumibhamon and Dr Damrong Pipatwattanakul (KU) Without their support my work in Thailand would not have been possible I am indebted to Dr Vesa Kaarakka (UH) for his help during various stages of my work and especially for thoughtful comments on my manuscript In Thailand, I had the privilege to receive help from many people I want to mention the staff members of the Office of the Rubber Replanting Aid Fund in Bangkok, Nong Khai and Buriram, who kindly assisted me in finding suitable sites for field study I am grateful to Mr Arak Chantuma and Mrs Pisamai Chantuma from Chachoengsao Rubber Research Centre for providing me with the necessary facilities and assistance with the arrangements for my field work I want to thank Mr and Mrs Chorruk, Mr and Mrs Choochit and Mrs Sompong Puksa in Ban Kruen, Buriram, Mrs Boonhouse Nanoy, Mr Prasittiporn Sankarn and Mr and Mrs Arlapol in Pak Khat, Nong Khai and Mrs Pa Noom Thurtong in Lad Krating for information, hospitality and for letting me conduct field inventories in their rubber plantations My field work would have not been possible without the help of Mr Prin Kalasee, Mr Jakrapong Puakla, Ms Waranuch Chansuri, Ms Supanee Nakplang and Ms Pantaree Kongsat I want to thank Mr Chakrit Na Takuathung for helping me in finding literature from Thailand once I had already returned to Finland Finally I want to thank all those who helped me and were very friendly to me making my short stay in KU and in Thailand an unforgettable one I want to thank Professor, Dr Jouko Laasasenaho and Timo Melkas for helping me with calculating wood volume estimates for trees, and Riika Kilpikari for helping me with statistics Thanks are also due to Dr Mohamed El Fadl for help in data search and comments as well as to other VITRI staff and students for their comments Last but not least I want to thank my family and friends for their support Dublin, November 2006 Laura Rantala This study was financed by the Common Fund for Commodities, an intergovernmental financial institution established within the framework of the United Nations, headquartered in Amsterdam, the Netherlands CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study 1.2 Scope and objective of the study 10 LITERATURE REVIEW 11 2.1 Botany and distribution of Hevea brasiliensis 11 2.1.1 Distribution of Hevea brasiliensis in Thailand 12 2.2 Climatic requirements of the rubber tree 14 2.3 Soil requirements of the rubber tree 17 2.4 Rubber cultivation in Southeast Asia 18 2.4.1 General characteristics 18 2.4.2 Agroforestry practices 19 2.4.3 Environmental considerations 21 2.5 Uses of Hevea brasiliensis 22 MATERIAL AND METHODS FOR FIELD STUDY 23 3.1 Material 23 3.1.1 Field work and study areas 23 3.1.2 Plantation inventory 27 3.1.3 Interviews and field observations 28 3.1.4 Climatic conditions and soil types 28 3.2 Methods 31 3.2.1 Estimation of wood volume and biomass 31 3.2.2 Mann-Whitney's U-test 33 RESULTS 34 4.1 Plantation performance 34 4.1.1 Height and crown structure 34 4.1.2 Wood volume and biomass 37 4.2 Farming systems 44 4.2.1 General characteristics 44 4.2.2 Agroforestry practices and land use history 45 DISCUSSION 46 5.1 Variation in wood production potential between clones and study areas 46 5.2 Agroforestry practices in northeastern Thailand 49 5.3 Wood production potential in the Northeast and East compared to the South 50 5.4 Critical assessment of the study 54 5.4.1 Aims achieved 54 5.4.2 Limitations of the study 55 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 57 REFERENCES 59 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BPM Bank Pertanian Malaysia's rubber clone number 24 BB19 10-year old RRIM 600 stand in Buriram, 14°38'50 N, 103°12'72 E BR10 16-year old RRIM 600 stand in Buriram, 14°38'56 N, 103°12'79 E BR16 16-year old RRIM 600 stand in Buriram, 14°38'56 N, 103°12'79 E BR03 3-year old RRIM 600 stand in Buriram, 14°38'65 N, 103°13'47 E CB16 16-year old BPM 24 stand in Chachoengsao, 13°5' N, 101°5' E CB08 8-year old BPM 24 stand in Chachoengsao, 13°5' N, 101°5' E CR16 16-year old RRIM 600 stand in Chachoengsao, 13°5' N, 101°5' E CR06 6-year old RRIM 600 stand in Chachoengsao, 13°5' N, 101°5' E CR03 3-year old RRIM 600 stand in Chachoengsao, 13°59'41 N, 101°43'81 E CRRC Chachoengsao Rubber Research Center (of the Rubber Research Institute of Thailand) DBH Tree diameter at breast height (1.3 m) DOA Department of Agriculture of Thailand FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GIS Geographic Information System GPS Global Positioning System LDD Land Development Department of Thailand NB16 16-year old BPM 24 stand in Nong Khai, 18°37'11 N, 103°35'59 E NB07 7-year old BPM 24 stand in Nong Khai, 18°36'09 N, 103°35'68 E NR16 16-year old RRIM 600 stand in Nong Khai, 18°37'36 N, 103°35'60 E NR08 8-year old RRIM 600 stand in Nong Khai, 18°36'09 N, 103°35'68 E NR03 3-year old BPM 24 stand in Nong Khai, 18°37'07 N, 103°35'15 E ORRA The Office of the Rubber Replanting Aid Fund RFD Royal Forest Department of Thailand RIS Rubber Information System developed by the Department of Agriculture of Thailand RRIM 600 Rubber Research Institute Malaysia's rubber clone number 600 RRIT Rubber Research Institute of Thailand TMD Thai Meteorological Department INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study The rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis (Muell.) Arg., is a major crop for smallholders in Thailand and an important commercial crop everywhere in Southeast Asia It is grown for latex production, while rubber wood is considered as a secondary product Therefore rubber is regarded as an agricultural crop However, recent improvements in wood technology have led to rubber tree becoming increasingly important as a source of wood products (Evans and Turnbull 2004) Rubber wood has enjoyed an environmentally friendly reputation as a raw material, because it is a by-product of latex production, and when grown in renewable plantations, it can substitute timber from natural forests The natural range of Hevea, of the family Euphorbiaceae, covers the Amazon river basin and parts of the nearby uplands Within the genus, Hevea brasiliensis (also known as para rubber) is one of the most widely distributed species It grows in an area South of the Amazon river, extending towards the west in Peru and the south to Bolivia and Brazil (Wycherley 1992) The rubber tree has always been known for its latex, which was used by the ancient civilizations of Central and South America The commercial and large-scale exploitation of the tree did not begin until in the last quarter of the 19th century With the arrival of cars, discovery of the pneumatic tyre and following increase in rubber prices, the produced amount of plantation-originated rubber was soon larger than that of wild rubber At the same time, there were strong geo-political pressures to move the rubber production away from South America (Jones and Allen 1992) While searching for a cash crop for its eastern colonies, the British identified rubber as a potential crop for planting in Southeast Asia (Hong 1999) Rubber was first introduced in Asia in 1876, when seeds were first shipped from the Amazonas to the United Kingdom and further to Ceylon and planted there In the following year, rubber trees were planted in Singapore and Malaya (Hong 1999) Although rubber was first an estate crop, local individual farmers soon adopted the crop and so they were drawn into the world commercial economy (Courtenay 1979) Nowadays rubber is cultivated worldwide in most parts of the lowland humid tropics, but the production is heavily concentrated into Asia, where over 90 % of the world’s natural rubber is being produced Rubber seeds were first brought to Thailand from Malaya in 1900 and planted in Trang province in southern Thailand (RFD 2000) Estate agriculture was for political reasons discouraged in Thailand, unlike in Malaya, in the beginning of the 20th century Rubber growing became important as a smallholder crop, when local farmers responded to the improved rubber prices in mid-1920s and planted rubber in southern Thailand (Courtenay 1979) Favourable climatic conditions, free land areas and easy railway access enabled the adoption of rubber growing in the South (Pendleton 1962) Small areas were planted elsewhere, mainly in Chantaburi province, where rubber seeds and seedlings from Malaya were first taken in 1908 Later the cultivation extended to some other eastern provinces (RFD 2000) Peninsular Malaysia has been the world's most important rubber cultivation area, and the present wealth of this area was largely based on production of natural rubber (Collins et al 1991) In the year 2005, Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia produced 33 %, 23 % and 13 % of the world’s natural rubber, respectively (FAO 2006) Lately, the rubber plantation area has been decreasing in Malaysia, but in Thailand the trend has been reverse and plantations have started to spread to new areas in the East and Northeast of Thailand This area has been referred to as non-traditional for rubber cultivation (Chantuma et al 2005) Today Thailand has the second largest area of rubber plantations in the world following Indonesia, is the world's largest producer of natural rubber (FAO 2006) and also the world leader in rubber wood production and export (LDD 2005a) The rubber plantation area in Thailand is much larger than the area of forest plantations in the country According to FAO (2005), the total area of rubber plantations in Thailand was 680 000 in 2005 According to the statistics of the Rubber Research Institute of Thailand (RRIT 1996 cited in RFD 2000), the rubber plantation area was larger already in the year 2000, when it was recorded as 959 000 In comparison, the area of forest plantations in Thailand in the year 2000 was 355 000 hectares The area of natural forest in the same year was 16 486 500 hectares (RFD 2001) In this study, areas of Thailand are referred to as South, Central, East, Northeast and North A map of Thailand and names of provinces in these areas is in Appendix Rubber has been referred to as a woody agricultural crop (FAO 2005) together with the oil palm and coconut In Thailand, the rubber plantation area is larger than the plantation area of these two crops In the year 2005, the plantation areas of rubber, oil palm and coconut were 680 000 ha, 315 000 and 343 000 ha, respectively (FAO 2006) The plantation areas of both oil palm and rubber have been growing Oil palm is cultivated in the South of Thailand, which is also the traditional area for rubber cultivation Competition for land area from other crop species has been identified as one factor driving the establishment of rubber in new areas In Thailand the smallholder rubber is intensively supported by the Royal Thai Government, in forms of technology and production inputs such as seedlings, land preparation and fertilizer (Joshi 2005) In recent years the Thai Government has been promoting rubber planting also in new areas In the year 2004, the goal was to extend the planted area, with a target of one million rai (160 000 hectares) extension within two years from 2004 to 2006 (RRIT 2005) The establishment of new rubber plantations has been promoted especially in the North and Northeast of Thailand The estimated extension of rubber cultivation area is 400 000 hectares by the year 2010 (RRIT 2005) In contrast to Malaysia, where rubber is mainly grown on large estates, in Thailand 90 % of rubber is grown in family-owned smallholdings less than eight hectares in size, the average area of a plantation being only two hectares (Pratummintra 2005) Rubber yields per hectare in Thailand are the highest of the three leading rubber-producing countries This is due to governmental support for smallholder rubber cultivation, and especially to the use of improved planting material Of the three leading rubber producers, the yield per hectare is lowest in Indonesia, where rubber has traditionally been grown in “jungle rubber“ agroforestry systems In these systems, the low yields have been reported to result from a low level of maintenance and use of non-improved planting material (Wibawa et al 2005) Therefore, improving the productivity of rubber agroforestry has much potential especially in In this study, the term smallholding is used to refer to family-owned small rubber plantations The Department of Agriculture (DOA) of Thailand has classified smallholdings, medium-sized holdings and estates as those where rubber area is less than hectares, 8-40 hectares and more than 40 hectares, respectively (Pratummintra 2005) According to Courtenay (1979), the smallholding is usually family-owned, managed by the family head and worked by family labour The plantation in turn is frequently owned by a company or a government enterprise, and usually professionally managed (Courtenay 1979) In this study, the term plantation is, however, used to refer to any organized planting regardless of size and management Indonesia In Thailand’s case, a potential for increased production could lie in the establishment of rubber in new areas Therefore research on the performance of rubber in these new areas is needed Rubber grows best in a climate similar to that in its area of origin in the Amazonas, where the rainfall is heavy and there is no dry season (Rao and Vijayakumar 1992) In northeastern Thailand, the annual rainfall is less than optimal for rubber and the dry season lasts for approximately six months In this climate, smaller wood volumes per hectare have been reported in comparison with plantations in the traditional cultivation area (Chantuma et al 2005) So far, comparative studies on the effect of climatic conditions to wood volume per hectare and to individual volumes of trees in relation to plantation age have not been done In order to contribute to improving the productivity of rubber cultivation in Thailand, this kind of information is needed It has been presented that unfavourable environmental conditions would more drastically affect the latex yield than the timber production of rubber (Grist et al 1998) In areas where rubber cultivation is less favored by environmental conditions, improved farming systems such as agroforestry could be an option for increasing the economical profitability as well as environmental and social benefits of rubber cultivation Rubber plantations are usually established using vegetatively propagated and often improved planting material Clones perform differently in response to stress from external factors such as drought (Rao and Vijayakumar 1992) The performance and wood production potential of different clones in the non-traditional cultivation area (North and Northeast) in Thailand has not yet been studied The results from such studies would be useful in determining which clones would be best suited for marginal planting areas Although latex is still the main product of rubber cultivation, wood selling can increase the total productivity and enable reaching a maximum productivity of the rubber plantation earlier This is possible because wood selling can shorten the latex tapping period, after which trees can be either felled or used for further tapping depending on the current prices of latex and wood (Arshad et al 1997; Clément-Demange 2004) The wood production potential of rubber at a given site depends mainly on clone, planting density and tapping practices In the case of clones, their architecture, most importantly the branching pattern, is a critical characteristic Breeding of more suitable clones could lead to better rubber wood productivity and increased income in the long term, but meanwhile clonal recommendations can already be given (Clément-Demange 2004) The RRIT has already grouped rubber clones into three classes according to their latex, timber and joint production potential Clonal recommendations for the non-traditional area in Thailand could be very useful in order to determine which clones can be best adapted to a marginal cultivation environment Plantation forestry and estate crops are controversial issues due to their reported negative social and environmental impacts Indeed, rubber plantation establishment has had some direct negative environmental consequences in Thailand in the past The logging ban of all forests, which was declared in Thailand in 1989, was adopted following environmental degradation caused by logging and rubber plantation development on forest land (Collins et al 1991) After the ban, Thailand's timber has had to be taken from forest and rubber plantations This has been one of the main factors driving the increasing utilisation of rubber wood for industrial purposes Rubber has been and still is an important commercial crop in Thailand and Southeast Asia In Thailand’s case, income from rubber cultivation is especially important for rubber smallholders According to RRIT (2005), there are over one million rubber smallholders in the country The demand for natural rubber has been predicted to rise from 8.4 million tonnes in the year 2004 to 11.9 million tonnes in the year 2010 (Joshi 2005) As the demand for rubber wood products remains high as well, it is important to ensure a sustainable and sufficient future supply of rubber products while improving the productivity of farming systems in order to contribute to ensuring good income for rubber smallholders in Thailand This report studied the performance and wood production potential of two rubber clones in northeastern Thailand The study was conducted under the framework of a Common Fund for Commodities (CFC)- funded project “Improving the Productivity of Rubber Smallholdings through Rubber Agroforestry Systems” This project was coordinated by the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), and partners included the Indonesian Rubber Research Institute, Prince of Songkhla University and Kasetsart University in Thailand, and the University of Helsinki This study was also a joint undertaking in the long series of academic collaboration between the universities of Kasetsart and Helsinki 1.2 Scope and objective of the study The present study was carried out in Thailand in order to investigate the performance and wood production potential of two rubber clones, namely RRIM 600 and BPM 24, in three areas under different climatic conditions in northeastern and eastern Thailand The wood production potential was assessed through estimating the wood volume of individual trees and plantations per hectare As this study focused on the forestry-related uses of rubber, latex yields were not measured However when assessing the general profitability of rubber, the latex yield component is currently the most significant factor in determining the viability of rubber cultivation The general objective of this study was to investigate, using literature review and field data collection, the wood production potential of two rubber clones in northeastern and eastern Thailand in relation to environmental conditions and to study the characteristics of rubber farming systems in northeastern Thailand The specific objectives of this study were: 1) To investigate the wood production potential (wood volume and clear bole volume as related to plantation age) of rubber clones in relation to geographical area and climatic conditions 2) To compare the wood production potential of rubber clones in different geographical areas 3) To preliminarily investigate the effects of site characteristics, especially the previous landuse history, on the performance of rubber 4) To preliminarily identify and study components of agroforestry systems used at rubber plantations 10 very difficult In this study all sample plots were situated within the same climatic and geographical region and under similar soil types, but physiographic and chemical properties of the soil can vary The effect of these factors was not investigated in this study It can be questioned whether the sample plots chosen were good representatives of rubber plantations in the study areas For this study plantations needed to be of corresponding ages, and in the study areas rubber plantations were not widespread For this reason choosing representative plantations out of many was often not possible At smallest plantations the number of trees included as sample trees was small, approximately 20 trees, but this was chosen to be the practice due to the very uniform structure of the plantations in terms of age, size, form and condition of trees In order to compare the performance of rubber between study areas, individual wood volumes of trees were used and they were converted to a planting pattern of m x m This was the practice due to the variable number of trees per hectare, which was affected by landscape (for example, a small river ran through plantation NR16) and varying planting patterns At CRRC the number of trees was as low as 180-200 trees per hectare, because trees were planted in experimental pattern (in blocks of eight) The lowest planting densities at CRRC therefore resulted from experimental design and actually most trees were still growing in a m x m or m design The distance between blocks resulted in a low number of trees per hectare Comparing the wood volume estimates from plantations in different areas still needs precaution, since trees grown in higher densities usually develop longer boles and slimmer trunks compared to those grown with ample space It can be concluded that the girth of trees and therefore plantation volume in Chachoengsao may appear somewhat larger compared to Nong Khai or Buriram due to the tree spacing Due to the limitations of this study, it needs to be considered as a case study and farming systems characterization rather than a study to explore solely the effect of climatic conditions on rubber growth In order to investigate the influence of climate or soil, experimental conditions and more time would need to be used for this kind of study in order to get reliable results It is worth mentioning that research on the growth of rubber seedlings under water stress has already been conducted from instance in China (Jiang 1988) and in India (Chandrashekar et al 1998) 56 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS According to this study, the wood production potential of rubber in northeastern Thailand can on suitable sites be comparable to that in the South The highest wood production potential among the areas of present study lies in Nong Khai, where environmental conditions, apparently the rainfall, appear to favour rubber-growing Between Buriram and Chachoengsao there were no marked differences in plantation performance in terms of wood production, but even in these areas the wood production potential is not very far from that in Nong Khai However it has to be underlined, that the possible profitability of a rubber plantation in the Northeast is mostly dependent on the capability of trees for latex production in a marginal environment, at least in the present market situation This was beyond the scope of this study, and therefore recommendations can only be given concerning the overall performance and wood production of rubber It seems that while the wood production potential in northeastern Thailand is not drastically poorer than that of southern Thailand, differences between Malaysia and northeastern Thailand are already larger Especially the recommended latex-timber clones in Malaysia seem to yield much larger volumes of clear bole than the clones observed in the present study This is in line with previous experiences, since clones RRIM 600 and BPM 24 have been classified as high-yielding latex and not timber clones No difference was found in the wood production potential between the two clones in northeastern Thailand Clone BPM 24 was found to produce a longer clear bole and therefore to have a higher recovery rate than clone RRIM 600 This may be of interest to farmers who are considering combined latex-rubber wood production, given that latex yields of clone BPM 24 are comparable to those of clone RRIM 600 Unfavourable climatic conditions would more easily affect the latex yield than the wood production capacity of rubber trees Therefore, growing rubber for timber could have a potential in northeastern Thailand in particular, if the market prices for rubber wood would increase, thus making combined latex-timber or even timber-only production more profitable High-yielding timber clones or latex-timber clones would be the ones best suited for cultivation in this case Meanwhile, when latex prices are relatively high making the 57 production of natural rubber profitable in Thailand, establishing rubber plantations with highyielding latex clones is a practice to be preffered The income from smallholdings could be diversified using agroforestry and especially improved intercropping or rubber cultivation integrated with cattle or sheep herding The profitability of these systems in northeastern Thailand needs more research At present rubber monoculture was found to be the dominant practice in northeastern Thailand Rubber wood production still faces constraints in Thailand One particular problem related to the quality of extractable material is the plantation establishment practice using budded stumps Trees cultivated using seedlings could offer straighter stems, which would definitely be of interest if the goal is to produce wood of better quality Apart from the planting material, also the latex tapping and management practices, especially the planting density, affect the amount and quality of extractable timber These factors have to be considered when aiming for better rubber wood production Planting density would probably be the most critical characteristic that would need to be altered, since a higher density would help in the development of straighter and clearer trunks Rubber growing is very labour-intensive and tapping has to be done at night Maximum latex production is not necessarily a top priority for farmers, since there is the question of allocating labour in the most cost efficient way A rubber plantation established for timber production alone, or joint latex and timber production could be a less labour-intensive option for Thailand and possibly the Northeast in particular, especially if the stumpage price for rubber wood will 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and Industrial Constraints and Development Potential Presentation held in the appraisal meeting on ”Improving the Productivity of Rubber Smalholdings through Rubber Agroforestry Systems” September 5.-8.2005, Hat Yai Wycherley, P R 1992 The genus Hevea- botanical aspects Pp 50-66 In: Sethuraj, M.R & Mathew, N.M 1992 Natural Rubber: Biology, Cultivation and Technology Developments in Crop Science 23 Elsewier, Netherlands 610 p ISBN 0-444-88329-0 Xavier, R 2004 Intensification of timber production in traditional rubber agroforestry systems Final report presented in the appraisal meeting on ”Improving the Productivity of Rubber Smalholdings through Rubber Agroforestry Systems” September 5.-8.2005, Hat Yai Yusoff, M.N.M 1999 Pulp and paper from rubberwood Pp 203-208 In: Hong, L.T & Sim, H.C (Editors) 1999 Rubberwood- Processing and Utilisation Malayan Forest Records 39 Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur 254 p ISBN 983-9592-27-0 Personal communications Bhumibhamon, Suree Associate Professor, Kasetsart University 7.11.2005, Bangkok Chantuma, Arak Agricultural Scientist, Rubber Research Institute of Thailand 30.8.2005, Chachoengsao Pintha, Noo Village soil doctor 24.10.2005, Somprasong, Nong Khai Sirianayu, Supote Office of the Rubber Replanting Aid Fund 7.9.2005, Bangkok Appendix 64 Provinces and areas of Thailand Provinces of Thailand Source: Wikipedia, www-document North Northeast Central Chiang Mai Amnat Charoen Ang Thong Chiang Rai Buriram Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Kamphaeng Phet Chaiyaphum Bangkok Lampang Kalasin Chainat Lamphun Khon Khaen Kanchanaburi Mae Hong Son Loei Lop Buri Nakhon Sawan Maha Sarakhan Nakhon Nayok Nan Mukdahan Nakhon Pathom Phayao Nakhon Phanom Nonthaburi 10 Phetchabun 10 Nakhon Ratchasima 10 Pathum Thani 11 Phichit 11 Nong Bua Lamphu 11 Phetchaburi 12 Phitsanulok 12 Nong Khai 12 Prachuap Khiri Khan 13 Phrae 13 Roi Et 13 Ratchaburi 14 Sukothai 14 Sakon Nakhon 14 Samut Prakan 15 Tak 15 Si Sa Ket 15 Samut Sakhon 16 Uthai Thani 16 Surin 16 Samut Songkhram 17 Uttaradit 17 Ubon Ratchathani 17 Saraburi 18 Udon Thani 18 Sing Buri 19 Yasothon 19 Suphan Buri 65 East South Chachoengsao Chumphon Chanthaburi Krabi Chon Buri Nakhon Si Thammarat Prachin Buri Narathiwat Rayong Pattani Sa Kaeo Phang Nga Trat Phattalung Phuket Ranong 10 Satun 11 Songkhla 12 Surat Thani 13 Trang 14 Yala 66 Appendix Questions presented to farmers Which rubber clone have you planted here? How big is the plantation in rai? How old is the plantation? When was latex tapping started and how old were the trees at that time? How often are these trees tapped? When the trees shed their leaves and for how long? What is the planting density? What is the history of this plantation? Why did you decide to plant rubber trees? How did you use this land before planting rubber trees? Have you planted any food crops or forest trees to grow with rubber? If so, what crops or trees? When did you plant the crops or trees and how long did they grow with rubber? (if there are no crops present) What was your experience from planting agricultural crops or trees with rubber? Have you used this land as grazing land for animals? Have you had any problems with this rubber plantation? 67 Appendix Statistical data on mean annual temperatures (Figure 1.) and extreme minimum temperatures (Figure 2.) in study areas (TMD 2005) Mean annual temperatures in study areas 30 Buriram 29,5 Nongkhai Chon Buri degrees celcius 29 28,5 28 27,5 27 26,5 26 25,5 25 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 00 01 02 03 04 Year Figure Minimum temperatures in study areas 25 Buriram 22,5 Nongkhai Chon Buri degrees celcius 20 17,5 15 12,5 10 7,5 2,5 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 Year Figure 68 95 96 97 98 99 Appendix Volume estimates (cubic meters per hectare) for rubber plantings in the South and East of Thailand, according to RFD 1988 A polynomic regression was fitted in order to get estimates for volume for younger plantings South and East, volume (cubic m/ha) as related to age 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 10 12 69 14 16 18 20 22 24 Appendix Standard deviations of individual volumes of trees at plantings visited Bole volume, exluding branches and leaves in figure and clear bole volume in figure Standard deviation of wood volume of one tree, dm3 280 230 dm3 180 130 80 30 BB19 BR16 BR10 NB16 NR16 NB07 NR08 CB16 CR16 CB08 CR06 Plantation Figure Standard deviation of clear bole volume of one tree, dm3 280 230 dm3 180 130 80 30 BB19 BR16 BR10 NB16 NR16 NB07 NR08 CB16 CR16 CB08 CR06 Plantation Figure Plantation abbreviations: BB19- Buriram, BPM 24, 19 years; BR16- Buriram, RRIM 600, 16 years; BR10Buriram, RRIM 600, 10 years; NB16- Nong Khai, BPM24, 16 years; NR16- Nong Khai, RRIM 600, 16 years; NB07- Nong Khai, BPM 24, years, NR08- Nong Khai, RRIM 600, years; CB16- Chachoengsao, BPM 24, 16 years; CR16Chachoengsao, RRIM 600, 16 years; CB08- Chachoengsao, BPM 24, years; CR06- Chachoengsao, RRIM 600, years 70 ... plantations in the country According to FAO (2005), the total area of rubber plantations in Thailand was 680 000 in 2005 According to the statistics of the Rubber Research Institute of Thailand (RRIT... potential in the Northeast and East compared to the South For assessing the wood production potential of rubber tree in the non-traditional area in Thailand, it was useful to compare the results of the. .. cited in RFD 2000) According to Chantuma (2005), presently % of the plantations are in northeastern and 10 % in eastern Thailand The Thai Government has targeted enlarging the area of rubber plantation