Republican Legal Theory The History, Constitution and Purposes of Law in a Free State M.N.S Sellers Republican Legal Theory Also by M.N.S Sellers AMERICAN REPUBLICANISM: Roman Ideology in the United States Constitution THE SACRED FIRE OF LIBERTY: Republicanism, Liberalism and the Law AN ETHICAL EDUCATION: Community and Morality in the Multicultural University (editor) THE NEW WORLD ORDER: Sovereignty, Human Rights and the Self-Determination of Peoples (editor) Republican Legal Theory The History, Constitution and Purposes of Law in a Free State M.N.S Sellers Regents Professor of the University System of Maryland and Director of the Center for International and Comparative Law School of Law University of Baltimore © M.N.S Sellers 2003 All rights reserved No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 First published 2003 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries ISBN 1–4039–1575–X hardback This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress 10 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham and Eastbourne This book is dedicated to Nicholas Sellers on the occasion of his seventieth birthday In primisque hominis est propria veri inquisitio atque investigatio Ergo unum debet esse omnibus propositum, ut eadem sit utilitas unius cuiusque et universorum; quam si ad se quisque rapiet, dissolvetur omnis humana consortio M Tullius Cicero, de officiis, III.vi.26 Omnino qui rei publicae praefuturi sunt, duo Platonis praecepta teneant, unum, ut utilitatem civium sic tueantur, ut, quaecumque agunt, ad eam referant obliti commodorum suorum, alterum, ut totum corpus rei publicae curent, ne, dum partem aliquam tuentur, reliquas deserant M Tullius Cicero, de officiis, I.xxv.85 Contents viii Preface Introduction The Origins of Republican Legal Theory Republican Influences on the French and American Revolutions 16 Republican Legal Systems 26 Republican Impartiality 32 Republican Authority 42 The Actual Validity of Law 56 Ideals of Public Discourse 62 Group Rights and Democracy 71 10 Republicanism, Liberalism and the Law 77 11 Basic Elements of Legislative Structure 96 12 History, Liberty and Comparative Law 99 13 Legal Historians and Social Change 102 14 Republican Government in the United States of America 106 15 Republican Principles in International Law 120 16 Conclusion 139 Notes 146 Short Bibliography on Republicanism 186 Index 191 vii Preface Republican legal theory is not new, not complicated and not very controversial, once it is understood; but neither is it very well known, to most lawyers and politicians Republican doctrines, institutions and attitudes dominate the political and legal structures of North America and Western Europe, and recently also of South America and Eastern Europe, with growing influence in Asia and Africa, but the theoretical coherence and republican nature of most such political and legal advances go unremarked and unexamined Many people not know what republicanism is (even as they pursue it) and avoid using the word, or use it in some partisan sense, peculiar to their own national politics and local situation This book grew out of my observation that political liberty began with the self-consciously republican reforms of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, my belief that republican government has vastly improved the human condition since then, and my conviction that deliberately and reflectively republican law and politics will advance the public good more effectively once republican history and purposes are fully explained and recognized by their beneficiaries Legal and political systems fall into two broad categories: those that work for the common good of the people and those that not The first are republics in the word’s broadest sense (in that they serve the res publica), whatever their actual constitutions Most states claim to be republics in this sense, by serving the common good, but many are not Republican legal theory works out which laws and what constitution will serve the common good best The broad outlines of republican government have been known (as the eighteenth-century republican John Adams observed) since “the neighing of the horse of Darius”, but seldom fully implemented The fundamental requirements of republican government include: popular sovereignty, the rule of law, a deliberative senate, a democratic popular assembly, elected executives, an independent judiciary, and a general system of checks and balances, to protect public liberty against corruption and to safeguard the equal individual rights of all citizens against each other and against the state Together these institutions secure the republican virtues in government, which have introduced a new era of justice into politics, wherever they have prevailed Republican principles and virtues have advanced in recent years, but not usually under that name Republican legal theory enjoyed a brief vogue in American law schools in the mid-1980s, when law professors opposed to President Ronald Reagan’s constitutional “originalism” seized on the United States Constitution’s republican principles as a counterweight to (what they viii Preface ix criticized as) America’s dominant “liberal” ideology But academic lawyers of the left, who had clutched at republican doctrine to support judicial activism and local democracy, soon found its reliance on checks and balances and the rule of law inconvenient Academic lawyers of the right, for whom republicanism now evoked their opponents’ recent tactics, were happy to see the concept dropped, as a possible threat to their market-oriented convictions Both sides in the shallow academic culture wars had approached republican doctrine in the spirit of litigants, quarrying history for partisan advantage, without real interest in learning from the past or understanding republican legal theory for its own sake This discredited republican ideas for many lawyers, put off by this partisanship, who might have benefitted from a better understanding of republican legal institutions Lawyers, like all thoughtful people, should study republican legal theory for two primary reasons: first, because republican principles have formed the central institutions of Western liberal democracy, and second, because they provide the only true, correct, and just way of viewing the law Law and government should serve the common good of the people The common good of the people will be found best through the checks and balances of the republican form of government All law does claim to serve justice, and to so, must take the common good of the people properly into account Most people, when given the opportunity, have embraced these truths The march of liberation over the past four centuries has followed this republican path This book will try to make the way a little clearer, by explaining what republican legal doctrine is, where it came from, why it is useful, and how it might be improved to serve the common good of the people better, with greater liberty and justice for all Most of the discourses that appear in this book repeat or develop remarks made earlier in articles and public talks, some of them already published: Chapter was published as “Republican philosophy of law” in C.B Gray (ed.), The Philosophy of Law: An Encyclopedia (1999); Chapter as “Republicanism (philosophical aspects)” in the International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (2001); Chapter as “The Roman republic and the French and American revolutions” in H.I Flower (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic (2002); Chapter as “Republican legal systems” in R Dreier, C Faralli and V.S Nersessiants (eds), Law and Politics Between Nature and History (1998); Chapter as “Republican impartiality” in 11 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies (1991); Chapter as “Republican authority” in Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence (1992); Chapter as “The actual validity of law” in 37 American Journal of Jurisprudence (1992); Chapter as “Ideals of public discourse” in J Schonsheck et al (eds), Civility (2003); Chapter 10 as “Republicanism, liberalism and the law” in 86 Kentucky Law Journal (1997); Chapter 14 as “Republican government in the United States of America” in N de Araujo, P Messitte, E.G Northfleet and M.N.S Sellers (eds), Liberty e Liberdade: Justice and the Courts in Brazil and the United States of Short Bibliography on Republicanism Aalders, G.J.D (1968) Die Theorie der gemischten Verfassung im Altertum Amsterdam Adams, J (1787–1788) A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America vols, London, England Aristoteles Politica [W.D Ross (ed.) 1957 Oxford University Press Oxford, England.] Ayres, P (1997) Classical Culture and the Idea of Rome in Eighteenth-Century England Cambridge, England Bailyn, B (ed.) (1993) The Debate on the Constitution vols, New York Baron, H (1966) The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in the Age of Classicism and Tyranny Revised edn, Princeton, New Jersey Baron, H (1988) In Search of Florentine Civic Humanism Princeton, New Jersey Bartolus of Sassoferrato (1983) De regimine civitatis, in D Quaglioni (ed.), Politica e diritto nel Trecento italiano Il “De tyranno” de Bartolo da Sassoferrato (1314–1357) Con l’edizione critica dei trattati “De Guelphis et Gebellinis” e “De tyranno” Rome Berstein, S and Rudelle, O (1992) Le modèle républicain Paris Bleicken, J (1972) Staatliche Ordnung und Freiheit in der römischen Republik Kallmunz Blythe, J.M (1992) Ideal Government and the Mixed Constitution in the Middle Ages Princeton, New Jersey Bock, G., Skinner, Q and Viroli, M (eds) (1990) Machiavelli and Republicanism Cambridge, England Bohman, J and Rehg, W (eds) (1997) Deliberative Democracy: Essays on Reason and Politics Cambridge, Massachusetts Botana, N.R (1984) La tradición republicana Buenos Aires Bouwsma, W.J (1968) Venice and the Defense of Republican Liberty: Renaissance Values in the Age of the Counter-Reformation Berkeley, California Brugger, B (1999) Republican Theory in Political Thought: Virtuous or Virtual? Basingstoke, England Brunt, P (1988) The Fall of the Roman Republic and Related Essays Oxford, England Bruun, C (ed.) (2000) The Roman Middle Republic: Politics, Religions and Historiography c 400–133 BC Rome Büchner, K (1984) M Tullius Cicero, De Re Publica, Kommentar Heidelberg Cizek, E (1990) Mentalités et institutions politiques romaines Paris Chinard, G (1940) “Polybius and the American Constitution” Journal of the History of Ideas 38–58 The Classical Tradition in the South, 1977 Special issue of the Southern Humanities Review Colbourn, T (1965) The Lamp of Experience: Whig History and the Intellectual Origins of the American Revolution 2nd edn 1998, Indianapolis, Indiana Constant, B (1819) De la liberté des anciens comparée a celle des modernes Paris Constant, B (1988) Political Writings B Fontana (ed and trans.) Cambridge, England Contarini, G (1543) De magistratibus e Republica Venetorum Paris Cornelius Tacitus, P Ab excessu divi Augusti annalium libri [C.D Fisher (ed.) 1906 Oxford, England.] Cornelius Tacitus, P Historiarum libri [C.D Fisher (ed.) 1911 Oxford, England.] Corwin, E.S (1955) The “Higher Law” Background of American Constitutional Law Ithaca, New York 186 Short Bibliography on Republicanism 187 Dagger, R (1997) Civic Virtues: Rights, Citizenship, and Republican Liberalism Oxford de la Court, P and deWitt, J (1642) Interest van Holland Trans 1702 The True Interest and Political Maxims of the Republick of Holland and West Friesland London Earl, D (1967) The Moral and Political Tradition of Rome Ithaca, New York Everdell, W.R (1983) The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans New York Fabre, M.-H (1987) La République: sa perception constitutionnelle par les Franỗais Aix-en-Provence Ferry, L and Renaut, A (1985) Philosophie politique: des droits de l’homme a l’idée républicaine Paris Fink, Z.S (1962) The Classical Republicans: An Essay in the Recovery of a Pattern of Thought in Seventeenth Century England 2nd edn, Evanston, Illinois Fisher, H.A.L (1911) The Republican Tradition in Europe New York Flüeler, C (1992) Rezeption und Interpretation der Aristotelischen Politica im späten Mittelalter Amsterdam Foner, E (1970) Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War New York Fontana, B (ed.) (1994) The Invention of the Modern Republic Cambridge, England Furet, F and Ozouf, M (1992) La République Paris Gabba, E (ed.) (1973) Polybe Geneva Gell, C (1995) Le Dix-huitième siècle et l’antiquité en France, 1680–1789 Oxford Gianotti, D (1540) Libro della Repubblica de’ Viniziani in F Diaz (ed.) 1974 Opere politiche Milan Gilbert, F (1965) Macchiavelli and Guicciardini: Politics and History in Sixteenth-Century Florence Princeton, New Jersey Gordon, T (1728–1731) The Works of Tacitus with Political Discourses upon that Author vols London Gordon, T (1744) The Works of Sallust translated into English with Political Discourses upon that Author London Gummere, R.M (1963) The American Colonial Mind in the Classical Tradition: Essays in Comparative Culture Cambridge, Massachusetts Gwynn, W.B (1965) The Meaning of the Separation of Powers The Hague Habermas, J (1992) Faktizität und Geltung: Beiträge zur Diskurstheorie des Rechts und des demokratischen Rechtsstaats Frankfurt am Main [1996 Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy Cambridge, Massachusetts.] Hamilton, A., Jay, J and Madison, J (eds) “Publius” (1787–1788) The Federalist New York Harrington, J (1656) The Commonwealth of Oceana: and, A System of Politics J.G.A Pocock (ed.) 1992 Cambridge, England Higonnet, P (1988) Sister Republics: The Origins of French and American Republicanism Cambridge, Massachusetts Horwitz, J.M (1987) “Republicanism and Liberalism in American Constitutional Thought” 57 William and Mary Law Review, 29 Holt, M (1978) Slavery, Republicanism and the Republican Party New York Houston, A.C (1991) Algernon Sidney and the Republican Heritage in England and America Princeton, New Jersey Isoart, P and Bidegaray, C (1988) Des Républiques franỗaises Paris Johnson, J.W (1967) The Formation of English Neo-Classical Thought Princeton, New Jersey Kant, I (1781) Zum ewigen Frieden Reprint 1994 Stuttgart 188 Short Bibliography on Republicanism Kant, I (1991) Kant’s Political Writings H Reiss (ed.), H.B Nisbet (trans.), 2nd enlarged edn, Cambridge, England Kempshall, M.S (1999) The Common Good in Late Medieval Political Thought Oxford Koenigsberger, H.G (ed.) (1988) Republiken und Republikanismus im Europa der frühen Neuzeit Munich Kramnick, I (1990) Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism: Political Ideology in Late Eighteenth-Century England and America Ithaca, New York Lintott, A (1999) The Constitution of the Roman Republic Oxford, England Livius, T Ab urbe condita VI–X [C.F Walters and R.S Conway (eds) 1919 Oxford, England.] Livius, T Ab urbe condita I–V [R.M Ogilvie (ed.) 1974 Oxford, England.] Macchiavelli, N (1517) Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio [G Inglese (ed.) 1984 Milano.] Malcolm, J.L (ed.) (1999) The Struggle for Sovereignty: Seventeenth-Century English Political Tracts vols, Indianapolis, Indiana Maltz, E.M (1990) Civil Rights, The Constitution, and Congress, 1863–1869 Lawrence, Kansas Marsilius of Padua 1324 Defensor Pacis [M Conetti (ed.) 2001 Milan.] Marsilius of Padua 1340 Defensor Minor [C Jeudy and J Quillet (eds) 1979 Paris] Michelman, F (1986) “The Supreme Court 1985 Term – Foreword: Traces of Self Government” no 100 Harvard Law Review, 4–77 Millar, F (2002) The Roman Republic in Political Thought Hanover, New Hampshire Milton, J (1651) Defensio pro Populo Anglicano trans., in J Alvis (ed.), 1999 Areopagitica and other Political Writings of John Milton Indianapolis, Indiana Milton, J (1660) The Readie and Easie Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth, in J Alvis (ed.), 1999 Areopagitica and Other Political Writings of John Milton Indianapolis, Indiana Montesquieu, C de Secondat, baron de la Brède et de (1734) Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence [1967 G Truc (ed.) Paris.] Montesquieu, C de Secondat, baron de la Brède et de (1748) De l’esprit des lois [R Derathé (ed.) 1973 vols, Paris.] Moyle, W (1796) Essay upon the Constitution of the Roman Government [C Robbins (ed.) 1969 Two English Republican Tracts Cambridge, England.] Nedham, M (1656) The Excellencie of a Free State or the Right Constitution of a Commonwealth London Neville, H (1681) Plato Redivivus, or A Dialogue concerning Government [C Robbins (ed.) 1969 Two English Republican Tracts Cambridge, England.] Nicolet, C (1982) L’idée républicaine en France (1789–1924): Essai d’histoire critique Paris Nicolet, C (1988) Le métier de citoyen dans la Rome républicaine 2nd edn, Paris Nicolet, C (1992) La République en France: état des lieu Paris Nino, C.S (1996) The Constitution of Deliberative Democracy New Haven, Connecticut Nippel, W (1980) Mischverfassungstheorie und Verfassungsrealität in Antike und früher Neuzeit Stuttgart Onuf, N.G (1998) The Republican Legacy in International Thought Cambridge, England Paine, T (1776) Common Sense, in B Kuklick (ed.), 1989 Paine: Political Writings Cambridge, England Paine, T (1791) The Rights of Man: Part I, in B Kuklick (ed.), 1989 Paine: Political Writings Cambridge, England Paine, T (1792) The Rights of Man: Part II, in B Kuklick (ed.), 1989 Thomas Paine: Political Writings Cambridge, England Short Bibliography on Republicanism 189 Parker, H.T (1937) The Cult of Antiquity and the French Revolutionaries: A Study in the Development of the Revolutionary Spirit Chicago, Illinois Peltonen, M (1995) Classical Humanism and Republicanism in English Political Thought 1570–1640 Cambridge, England Pettit, P (1997) Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government Oxford Plato, Politeia [reprinted in J Burnet (ed.) 1902 Platonis Opera vol IV Oxford, England.] Plato, Nomoi [reprinted in J Burnet (ed.) 1902 Platonis Opera vol V Oxford, England.] Plutarchos, Bioi paralleloi [reprinted in C Lindskog and K Ziegler (eds) 1949–1971 Plutarchi Vitae Parallelae Leipzig.] Pocock, J.G.A (1975) The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition Princeton, New Jersey Polybios, Historia [L Dindorf (ed.) 1866–1868 Leipzig.] Ponnet, J (1556) The Shorte Treatise of Politicke Power and the true Obedience which Subjects Owe to Kyngs London Powell, J.G.F and North, J.A (eds) (2001) Cicero’s Republic London Powell, J.G.F (1995) Cicero the Philosopher Oxford, England Rahe, P.A (1992) Republics Ancient and Modern: Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution Chapel Hill, North Carolina Reinhold, M (1984) Classica Americana: The Greek and Roman Heritage in the United States Detroit Richard, C.J (1994) The Founders and the Classics: Greece, Rome, and the American Enlightenment Cambridge, Massachusetts Robbins, C (1959) The Eighteenth-century Commonwealthsman: Studies in the Transmission, Development and Circumstance of English Liberal Thought from the Restoration of Charles II until the War with the Thirteen Colonies Cambridge, Massachusetts Rousseau, J.-J (1762) Du contrat social [H Guillemin (ed.) 1973 Paris.] Rush, B (1777) Observations upon the Present Government of Pennsylvania in Four Letters to the People of Pennsylvania Philadelphia Sallustius Crispus, C Bellum Catilinae [in L.D Reynolds (ed.) 1991 Catilina; Jugurtha; Historiarum Fragmenta Selecta; Appendix Sallustiana Oxford, England.] Sallustius Crispus, C Bellum Iugurthinum [in L.D Reynolds (ed.) 1991 Catilina; Jugurtha; Historiarum Fragmenta Selecta; Appendix Sallustiana Oxford, England.] Sandel, M.J (1996) Democracy’s Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy Cambridge, Massachusetts Sellers, M.N.S (1994) American Republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Constitution New York and Basingstoke, England Sellers, M.N.S (1998) The Sacred Fire of Liberty: Republicanism, Liberalism and the Law New York and Basingstoke, England Sidney, A (1798) Discourses Concerning Government [T.G West (ed.) 1990 Indianapolis, Indiana.] Skinner, Q (1978) The Foundations of Modern Political Thought vols, Cambridge, England Skinner, Q (1998) Liberty Before Liberalism Cambridge, England Skinner, Q (2002) Visions of Politics Vol II Renaissance Virtues Cambridge, England Skinner, Q and van Gelderen, M (2002) Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage vols, Cambridge, England Spitz, J.-F (1995) La Liberté politique Paris Sunstein, C.R (1993) “The Enduring Legacy of Republicanism”, in S.E Elkin and K.E Soltan (eds), A New Constitutionalism: Designing Political Institutions for a Good Society Chicago, Illinois Symposium: The Republican Civic Tradition (1988) 97 The Yale Law Journal, 1493–1723 190 Short Bibliography on Republicanism Trenchard, J and Gordon, T (1723) Cato’s Letters or Essays on Liberty, Civil and Religious, and Other Important Subjects vols, [R Hamowy (ed.) 1995 vols, Indianapolis, Indianapolis.] Tullius Cicero, M De legibus [C.F.W Mueller (ed.) 1914 Leipzig.] Tullius Cicero, M De officiis [M Winterbottom (ed.) 1994 Oxford, England.] Tullius Cicero, M De re publica [K Ziegler (ed.) 1969 Leipzig.] Tullius Cicero, M In M Antonium orationes Philippicae [P Fedeli (ed.) 1986 2nd edn, Leipzig.] Tullius Cicero, M Orationes in L Catilinam [A.B Clark (ed.) 1901 Oxford, England.] Tullius Cicero, M Pro L Flacco oratio [in C.F.W Mueller (ed.) 1906 M Tulli Ciceronis orationes, Pro P Sulla, Pro A Licinio Archia poeta, Pro L Flacco Leipzig.] Tullius Cicero, M Pro P Sulla oratio [in C.F.W Mueller (ed.) 1906 M Tulli Ciceronis orationes, Pro P Sulla, Pro A Licinio Archia poeta, Pro L Flacco Leipzig.] Vile, M.J.C (1967) Constitutionalism and the Separation of Powers Oxford, England Vindiciae contra Tyrannos (1660) “Stephanus Junius Brutus” [= Hubert Languet or Philippe Duplessis – Mornay.] Amsterdam Viroli, M (1990) Macchiavelli and Republicanism Cambridge, England Viroli, M (1999) Repubblicanesimo Roma [ = Republicanism 2002 (A Shugaar trans.) New York.] von Fritz, K (1954) The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity New York Washington, G (1789) The First Inaugural Speech [W.B Allen (ed.) 1988 in George Washington: A Collection Indianapolis, Indiana.] Weiss, R (1969) The Renaissance Rediscovery of Classical Antiquity Oxford, England White, G.E (1994) “Reflections on the ‘Republican Revival’: Interdisciplinary Scholarship in the Legal Academy” Yale Journal of Law & the Humanities, 1–35 White, M (1987) Philosophy, The Federalist, and the Constitution New York White, M (1978) The Philosophy of the American Revolution New York Wiecek, W.M (1972) The Guarantee Clause of the U.S Constitution Ithaca, New York Wiecek, W.M (1977) The Sources of Anti-Slavery Constitutionalism in America, 1760–1848 Ithaca, New York Wilson, R.C (1989) Ancient Republicanism: Its Struggle for Liberty Against Corruption New York Wiltshire, S.F (1992) Greece, Rome, and the Bill of Rights Norman, Oklahoma Wirzubski, C (1950) “Libertas” as a Political Ideal at Rome during the Late Republic and Early Principate Cambridge, England Witt, R.G (1971) “The Rebirth of the Conception of Republican Liberty in Italy”, in A Molho and J.A Tedeschi (eds), Renaissance: Studies in Honour of Hans Baron, pp 173–199 DeKalb, Illinois Wolff, C (1764) Jus gentium methodo scientifica pertractum [J.H Drake, trans 1934 New York.] Wood, G.S (1969) The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 Chapel Hill, North Carolina Wood, N (1991) Cicero’s Social and Political Thought Berkeley, California Index Aaland Islands 133 Adams, John viii, 2, 17, 45–7, 81, 107, 108, 109, 126 bicameralism 110 checks and balances 12, 19, 23, 108 Cicero 19, 108 common good 46 Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America 3, 8, 9–10, 19, 21, 45, 122 education 107 equality 46 judiciary 107 liberty 9, 84 nature 108 Polybius 20 representation 12–13, 107, 108 republican government 14 Rome 19 rule of law 13–14, 29, 84, 107–8 senate 11–12, 108 separation of powers 13, 106, 110 Thoughts on Government 3, 107 unicameralism 12, 13 veto 107 Addison, Joseph 23, 100 Africa viii, 130 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights 131 altruism 68 anarchy 48, 51, 79, 125 Antifederalist 109 de Araujo, Nadia x aristocracy Aristotle 1, 2, 10 common good 10 mixed government 10 sovereignty of law 10, 14 Asia viii, 130 Athens 28, 105 Augustus see Julius Caesar Octavianus, Gaius Austin, John 42, 47–8, 49, 50, 55, 82, 84, 85 command theory 47–8 democracy 48 positivism 48 authority 42–55 advisory 43, 48–9, 50, 55 defined 43 legitimate 43, 48, 49, 50–1, 52, 55, 94 moral 94, 138 of law 42, 44 of the people 11 of the senate 11 peremptory 43, 44–5, 51, 55 sovereign 44, 45, 47, 48 see also republican authority autonomy 5, 86, 93, 127, 131 Babeuf, Francois Noel 23 balanced government see mixed government; republican checks and balances Baron, Hans Bauguess, Joyce x Bentham, Jeremy 82, 85 Berlin, Isaiah 81, 82, 83 bicameralism 2, 3, 4, 11, 53, 71, 96–8, 108, 111, 143, 145 Blackstone, William 47, 49, 85 Bodin, Jean 124 Bonaparte, Napoléon 5, 23, 24, 29, 78 borders 75, 110, 131, 138 British empire 130 Brown v Board of Education 113 Brutus see Junius Brutus, Lucius Butler, Joseph 46 Caesar see Julius Caesar, Gaius Catiline Cato see Porcius Cato, Marcus 191 192 Index Cato’s Letters 7, 9, 17, 22 liberty 17 republic 17 see also Gordon, Thomas; Trenchard, John chauvinism 62 checks and balances see republican checks and balances see also mixed government Charles I 22 Charles II Charles X 79 Cicero see Tullius Cicero, Marcus Cincinnati, Society of the 25, 100 Cincinnatus see Quinctius Cincinnatus, Lucius citizenship viii, 67, 71, 72, 145 see also United States of America, citizenship civility 62, 65, 142 defined 62 Cliteur, Paul x coercion 40, 69, 81 Coke, Sir Edward 79, 81, 104, 105 comitia see Rome, popular assemblies commerce common good vi, ix, x, 1, 2, 7, 10, 14, 17, 26, 27–8, 31, 62, 63–4, 139, 145 of humanity 135, 138 possibility of 73 search for 32, 43 see also res publica; utility common law 42, 49, 102 Commonwealth 79 see also England; Massachusetts; Pennsylvania; republic; Virginia community 5, 9, 15, 30, 31, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 70 comparative law see law, comparative Confederate States of America 102 consent x, 10, 94, 108 Constant, Benjamin 5, 15, 21, 27, 78, 80, 81, 83, 90, 93, 127 De la liberté des anciens comparée celle des modernes, constitution best x republican 96 see also republican form of government; United States of America, Constitution cooperation 39, 41, 87 coordination problems 57, 64 corruption viii, 3, 5, 29, 78, 97 defined 29 Cromwell, Oliver 17, 29, 78 culture 31, 75, 110, 114, 128, 134 Darius viii, 107 David, Jacques-Louis 23 Davis, Jefferson 105 decemviri 113 Déclaration des droits de l’homme et du citoyen 80, 129 Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States 133 deliberation 2, 13, 32, 35, 36, 38, 74, 81, 90, 91, 128 rational 93 see also democracy; deliberation; discourse democracy 4, 5, 7, 8, 28, 31, 39, 48, 71–6, 83, 96, 127–8, 142 defined 71 deliberation 38, 41, 135 direct 3, 13, 25, 37 fear of 88 Greek 4, 11, 12, 25, 90 group rights and 71–6 liberal ix, 27, 127 local ix majority 63 representative 32, 33–4, 36–7, 40, 41 republican 33–4, 38–9, 74 Roman 25 simple 111 slavery and 25 society 34 truth 35 tyranny 20, 90 see also elections; popular assembly Democratic Party 105, 117 Desmoulins, Camille 16, 23 despotism 48, 63, 121, 125, 127, 135 see also domination; tyranny Index discourse 62–70, 90 private see private discourse public see public discourse republican see republican discourse see also deliberation discretion 40 diversity 88 see also pluralism domination 1, 6, 9, 15, 145 see also tyranny dominium see domination Dred Scott v Sanford 72 due process of law Eastern Europe viii elections viii, 2, 3, 11, 13, 17, 29, 32, 33, 96, 97, 123, 131, 145 see also democracy empire 130, 132 see also Britain, Empire; imperium emperors 113 England 1, 26, 77–9, 139 Civil War 7, 17, 18, 47 Commonwealth 7, 17, 18, 42, 44, 46, 77, 100 legal culture 42 liberalism 78–9, 85 mixed government 22 republic 17, 22 see also Glorious Revolution Enlightenment, the epistemology 87 equal concern and respect x equal rights see rights, equal equality civic of possessions Spartan under law 121 see also Fourteenth Amendment ethnicity 68, 74, 75, 112, 113, 131 Europe Eastern see Eastern Europe Western see Western Europe exclusion 67 executive viii, 38, 114, 145 veto see also magistrates experts 113 faction 2, 21, 47, 66, 67, 110 family 68, 74 federalism 30–1, 71, 74–5, 110, 119, 120, 125–6, 140 see also republican federalism Federalist, The 3, 8, 21, 72, 106, 109 see also Hamilton, Alexander; Jay, John; Madison, James; “Publius” fidelity 112 Filmer, Sir Robert 80, 94 liberty 94 Fink, Zera Finland 133 Flower, Harriet x Fourteenth Amendment 4, 114, 115, 116 France 1, 26, 135, 139, 140 bicameralism 24 checks and balances 24 corrupt 22, 24 liberals 24, 80 liberty 25 republicanism 12, 16–25, 42 revolution 2, 5, 8, 15, 16–25, 27, 77, 83, 92, 105, 120 Third Republic unicameralism 4, 8, 24 virtue 18, 22 Frank, Donna x Franklin, Benjamin 18, 116 Galba see Sulpicius Galba, Servius general will see public will Geneva George I 22, 79 George III 122 Gianotti, Donato 14, 17 Glorious Revolution 5, 7, 18, 46, 47, 104 good, conceptions of 32, 34, 37, 73, 89, 91, 92 Gordon, Thomas 7, 9, 17, 46, 79 see also Cato’s Letters government mixed see mixed government purpose of x, republican see republican form of government Gray, Christopher x 193 194 Index Greece democracy see democracy, Greek slavery 25 unicameralism 11 greed 64 Grotius, Hugo 120, 124, 135 group rights see rights, group Guarantee Clause 8, 20, 30, 95, 106, 110, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 128, 144 see also republican form of government Habermas, Jürgen Hamilton, Alexander 8, 16, 21, 106, 107, 109 federalism 106, 107 judges 13 representation 13, 106 separation of powers 13, 106 see also Federalist, The; “Publius” happiness x, 64 harm 93, 142, 145 see also Mill, John Stuart harmony 88, 100, 121 see also Tullius Cicero, Marcus, harmony Harrington, James 2, 4, 10, 11, 17, 45–6, 77, 111–12 Commonwealth of Oceana 3, democracy 12 representation 13 senate 12 sovereignty of law 14, 29, 84 Hart, H.L.A 42, 58, 85 hegemony 130 historians 8, 102–5, 143–4 bad 103–4 history ix, 99–101, 143 Hoadly, Benjamin 46 Hobbes, Thomas 9, 17, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 55, 81, 84, 92, 124 checks and balances 18 Cicero 17 good 44, 51 justice 44 liberty 81–2 monarchy 44 power 49 sovereignty 49 human nature 22, 28, 29, 31, 64, 69, 92, 96, 104, 109, 127, 138, 145 human rights see rights, human Hume, David 46 humility 34–5, 41, 65, 91, 121 impartiality 18, 75, 119 see also objectivity; republican impartiality imperialism 130 imperium 15 imperium legum 14, 29 see also sovereignty, of the laws imperium populi 11, 71, 121, 125, 129, 131 see also popular sovereignty incivility 62 independence 78, 122, 123 individual rights see rights, individual individualism 74, 90 injustice 44 Inquisition 73 insincerity 66 interest groups see also private interests; res privata International Court of Justice 136, 137 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 123, 128, 132, 137 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 123, 128, 132 international law 120–38, 144 purposes of 129 international organizations 135–8 legitimacy 135–8 Interregnum 46 see also England; Commonwealth intolerance 69 intuition 35, 37, 40 Italy 1, 17, 26, 77, 139 Jackson, Andrew 29 James I 79 James II 124 Jay, John 159 see also Federalist, The; “Publius” Jones, Barbara x Joy, Gloria x judiciary 90, 102, 114 independent viii, 29, 31, 137 quam diu se bene gesserint 117 Index Julius Caesar, Gaius 6, 14, 16, 17, 29, 46, 78 Julius Caesar Octavianus, Gaius 5, 6, 16, 17 Junius Brutus, Lucius 9, 17 jurisdiction 51, 52–3 justice viii, ix, x, 1, 2, 9, 28, 31, 32, 38, 44, 46, 51, 63, 72, 93, 121, 138 search for 73–4 justification 33, 37, 59, 60 Kahlert, Martha x Kant, Immanuel 2, 30, 83, 122, 123, 138 democracy 121 federalism 30, 120, 125–6, 138 peace 138 representation 121 republicanism 30, 120, 121–2 rights 123 separation of powers 121 small republics 128 Zum ewigen Frieden kings 3, 8, 16, 19, 73, 92 see also monarchy law ix, 39–40, 143, 145 command theory 44, 45, 47–8, 50 comparative 99–101 constitutional defined 139 due process of see due process of law equal protection of the 4, 10, 14 essence of 31 impartial 18 international 120–38 liberalism and 77–95 liberty and 15 morality 46, 48, 51–2, 56–7, 61 natural 4, 14, 51, 84 obligation to obey 40, 42, 48, 50–1, 53–4, 60, 139 positive 94; see also positivism purpose of ix, 1, 138, 139 republicanism and 77–95 rule of see rule of law sovereignty of see sovereignty of the laws validity of 54, 56–61 lawyers x, 2, 8, 99, 103 195 legal systems 145 see also republican legal systems legislators see also legislature legislature structure 96–8 see also bicameralism; legislature; senate; Rome, popular assemblies legitimacy liberalism ix, 4, 5, 9, 14, 26–7, 31, 77–95, 142–3 defined 34, 78–9 democracy and see democracy, liberal modern 89, 90 political 86–8 republicanism and 77–95 liberation ix, 73 liberty viii, ix, x, 1, 2, 9–10, 27, 92, 99–101, 140, 143 defined 7, 9, 10, 71, 79–80, 82, 99–100, 139, 145 fundamental requirements 10 law and 15, 95 liberal 79 negative 81–2 positive 82–4, 90, 128 see also republican liberty; Rome liberty license 9, 81, 82, 84, 92, 94, 100, 143 defined 27, 80 Lincoln, Abraham 2, 105, 117 Livius, Titus 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, 10, 21, 25, 77, 121 elections 17 liberty 17, 84 sovereignty of law 14, 17, 18, 29 Locke, John 46, 79, 81, 83, 93, 104, 105 law 84 liberty 80, 84 license 94 Long Parliament 78 Louis XVI 22 Louis XVIII 79 Luther v Borden 116 Lycurgus 4, 18 Mably, Gabriel Bonnot de 12, 21 Macchiavelli, Niccolò 2, 4, 7, 8, 77 Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio 3, people 11 196 Index Madison, James 3, 8, 16, 21, 77, 106, 109, 126 checks and balances 23 common good 71 democracy 13, 20, 71 representation 13, 20, 110 republic 20, 71 rule of law 29 see also Federalist, The; “Publius” magistrates 2, 3, 40, 134 elected magistratus est lex loquens 134 see also executive Massachusetts Commonwealth of 19 Constitution 19, 117 Michelman, Frank 89, 90 Mill, John Stuart 79, 80, 83, 87, 93 harm principle 80, 82 Milton, John 46 minorities 76, 97, 131–3, 142 mixed government 3, 7, 10, 18, 79 see also republican checks and balances monarchy 3, 5, 7, 17, 44, 124 constitutional 78 see also kings Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de la Brède et de 2, 3, 4, 24, 83, 109 Causes de la grandeur des Romains et de leur décadence checks and balances 23 De l’esprit des lois 3, 8, 21 large republics 18, 22–3 law 84 liberty 84 representation 13 senate 12 small republics 21, 72, 128 morality 45, 46, 48, 50, 51–2, 58, 84 see also intuition; validity, moral Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 83 multiculturalism 126 Nagel, Thomas 33–4, 36 nationalism 30, 31, 126–8 nations 130, 132, 138 defined 130 natural law see law, natural Netherlands 7, 17, 100, 124, 125, 139 Nicolet, Claude North America viii, objectivity see also impartiality O’Flaherty, Luciana x oligarchy 63 oppression x, 5, 9, 84, 93, 97, 105 Oregon 115 originalism viii outrage 66–7 Paine, Thomas 14, 16, 106, 107 Common Sense 22 representation 32, 106 res publica 32, 106 peace 4, 122, 138 Peale, Charles Willson 23 Penn, William 18 Pennsylvania 100 Commonwealth of 17 Constitution 18, 107 Republican Society 18 unicameralism 18, 107 people ix, 5, 11, 26, 71, 72, 132 assembly see popular assembly authority see authority, of the people defined 26, 130 of Rome sovereignty see imperium populi; popular sovereignty see also common good; democracy peoples 127, 129–31, 138 Pettit, Philip x Philip II 124 Pitt, William 23 Plato vi, 1, common good 10 democracy 10 plebiscites 4, 24, 115, 119 Plessy v Ferguson 112, 113 pluralism 5, 27, 34–5, 73, 81, 84, 87, 89, 90, 121 contested 91 see also diversity Plutarchus, L Mestrius 3, 7, 18 Pocock, J.G.A 8, 89 politics viii, 86–8 Index Polybius 1, 2, 4, 7, 23, 77 book six 20 mixed government 20 Pope, Alexander 106, 107 popular assembly viii, 1, 3, 20 popular sovereignty viii, 1, 3, 5, 10–11, 13, 27, 28, 31, 72, 73, 79, 111, 121–2, 140–1, 145 defined 28 see also imperium populi Porcius Cato, Marcus 25, 100 positivism 42–3, 44, 45, 47–8, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 84, 85, 102, 135 mistaken 54, 55 power 49, 55, 69, 89 see also separation of powers Price, Richard 10 privacy 74, 86 private discourse 67 defined 62 private interests 4, 5, 17, 29, 32, 45, 62, 63, 89, 90, 121 see also interest groups; res privata private will 1, 6, pseudonyms see republican pseudonyms public discourse 9, 62–70, 142 defined 62 ideals 63 see also deliberation; reason public good see common good public reason see reason, public public will 5, 12, 14 “Publius” 3, 16, 19, 106 see also Federalist, The; Hamilton, Alexander; Madison, James Quinctius Cincinnatus, Lucius 25 race 68, 74, 75, 113, 115, 132 Rawls, John 9, 33–4, 36, 86–7, 89 original position 89, 92 Raz, Joseph 42, 49–50, 58 pre-emption thesis 52 sources thesis 58 Reagan, Ronald viii, 91 reason 27, 34, 35, 39, 49, 84, 85, 108, 118, 145 public 88–9 see also public discourse 197 reasonable 87, 88–9, 92 Reformation 46 relativism 86 religion 68, 74, 75, 92, 113 Renouvier, Charles representation 3, 4, 5, 6, 12–13, 29, 33–4, 37–8, 71, 97, 111, 121, 140 virtual, 90 see also democracy, representative republic vi, viii, 6–7, 64–5 definition of 7, 43–4, 52, 64–5, 109 federal 71 large 13, 18, 126 small 4, 21, 30, 72, 124, 125, 128 see also res publica; Rome, republic republican authority 42–55, 141 defined 43, 54–5 republican checks and balances viii, ix, x, 3, 5, 7, 9, 17, 20, 23, 29, 110–11, 140, 145 see also mixed government; separation of powers republican constitution see republican form of government republican discourse 64, 90 republican doctrine viii, ix, 120 republican federalism 74–5, 134 republican form of government x, 1, 4, 7, 9, 10, 20, 26, 109–12 fundamental requirements viii, 3, 6, 15, 25, 78, 112, 118–19, 139, 145 purpose of 14, 72 United States 106–19 see also Guarantee Clause republican impartiality 32–41, 64–5, 141 republican legal systems 26–31, 140 defined 26, 31 republican legal theory viii, ix, x, 1, 2, 5, 14–15, 26, 120, 139, 144–5 origins of 6–15 republican liberty 3, 6, 9, 16, 25 defined 16, 25, 26, 27, 77, 79 see also liberty Republican Party 4, 105, 117 republican political philosophy republican principles viii, ix, 1, 112, 119, 121–2, 131–2, 144 in international law 120–38, 144 198 Index republican pseudonyms 19 republican revival 8–9, 89–91 republican revolutions 16–25 Republican Society 18 republican tradition 7–8 republican virtue viii, 3, 4, 5, 22 republicanism 33, 77–95, 121–2 American 4, 106–19 defined 77–8 French 4, 16–25 law and 77–95 liberal 91, 94 liberalism and 77–95 United States 16–25, 106–19 res privata 2, 27, 64, 81 see also private interests res publica 2, 6, 14, 16, 17–18, 26, 27, 32, 62, 79, 81, 96, 100, 139, 145 see also common good; republic revolution 104–5 see also France, revolution; Glorious Revolution; republican revolutions; United States of America Rhode Island 115 rights 54, 80–1 civil 128–9, 132, 145 economic 128, 129 equal viii, 133 fundamental 115, 122, 132, 133, 134 group 71–6 human 27, 115, 122, 126–7, 128–9, 132, 133, 134 inalienable x, 51 individual viii, 79 international 31 natural 47, 132 political 128–9, 145 universal 133 see also African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; United States of America, Bill of Rights; Universal Declaration of Human Rights Robbins, Caroline Robespierre, Maximilien 4, 21, 24 Rollin, Charles 23 Rome 1, 14, 118, 139 bicameralism 11 citizens 71 constitution consuls 20 kings 16 liberty 9, 16, 23, 46, 71 people 6, 71 popular assemblies 20, 23 popular sovereignty 28 republic 11, 16, 46, 71, 77, 140 senate 11, 20 tyranny rotation in office see also elections Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 2, 3–4, 21–2, 24, 77 common good 21 democracy 21 Du contrat social 4, 8, 21 general will 21 large republics 22–3 magistrates 22 monarchy 22 people 12, 25 popular sovereignty 21, 23 representation 13, 21 rule of law 13, 21, 29 senate 12 slavery 23 small republics 21, 128 Sparta 23 virtue 21 rudeness 62, 69 rule of law viii, ix, 3, 4, 8, 9, 13–14, 17, 31, 40, 96, 111 defined 29, 60 Rush, Benjamin 11, 13 sadism 64 Sallustius Crispus, C 3, 7, 25 corruption 18 Sandel, Michael San Marino 12 Schonsheck, Jonathan x secession 132 self-determination 122–3, 131, 132, 133, 134, 138 self government 90 self-righteousness 62, 69 Index Sellers, Cora Mary Stead x Sellers, Frances Mary Stead x Sellers, Nicholas v, x senate 2, 3, 11–12, 111 authority see authority, of the senate deliberative viii, separation of powers 6, 28–9, 31, 110 see also republican checks and balances Sidney, Algernon 2, 4, 10, 46, 77 democracy 12 Discourses Concerning Government 3, 7, law 84 liberty 9, 84 mixed government 12 people 12 representation 13 rule of law 29 senate 12 slavery sincerity 66 Skinner, Quentin Slaughterhouse Cases 102, 114 slavery 4, 18, 23, 47, 105, 116, 124 defined social change 102–5 social stability 102–3 South America viii South Carolina 116 sovereignty 44, 47, 49, 52, 122, 123–5, 127 of the laws, 10; see also imperium legum of the people, see popular sovereignty; see also imperium populi Sparta 4, 10, 18, 23, 24 Spinoza, Baruch 83 states 122, 123–4, 130 defined 130 equality 123, 133–4 independence 123, 124 legitimacy 131 stoicism 84 Sulpicius Galba, Servius 18 Sunstein, Cass 89, 91 Switzerland 7, 100, 125, 139 Tacitus, Cornelius 3, 7, 17, 18, 24, 25 Tarquinius Superbus 16 Terror 4, 21 toleration 27, 68–9, 87, 92 199 Trenchard, John 7, 9, 17, 46, 79 see also Cato’s Letters tribes 68 truth ix, 28, 31, 32, 38, 39, 40–1, 50, 55, 60, 86, 87, 145 avoided 92 perceptions of 34–5, 37, 38, 65 search for v, 28, 32, 66, 88 self-evident 35–6 Tullius Cicero, Marcus vi, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 25, 46, 77, 81, 100, 107, 108, 109, 118, 120, 139, 140 Aristotle and 10 Catilinam checks and balances 19, 108 common good vi, 10, 14, 19 de legibus 2, 10 democracy 12 de officiis vi, de re publica 2, 7, 10, 19 harmony 19, 83 imperium populi 11, 121 law 84 liberty 84 people 11, 12, 26 Philippicae Plato vi, 10 pro Flacco 12 public will 14 republican government 19 senate 12 tyranny utility vi virtue 11 Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques 12, 13, 21 unicameralism 21 tyranny x, 5, 6, 10, 20, 78, 82, 132, 139 see also despotism; domination unicameralism 4, 8, 12, 21, 97 Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics 130 United Nations 129, 133 Charter 122, 123, 128, 130, 134, 135 Economic and Social Council 136–7 General Assembly 123, 133, 136, 137 Secretariat 136, 137 Security Council 136 Trusteeship Council 136, 137 200 Index United States of America 26, 125, 133, 135, 140 Bill of Rights 80, 115 citizenship 4, 72, 116 Civil War 4, 21, 80, 102, 117, 134 Congress 108, 113, 114 Constitution viii, 4, 8, 9, 20, 72, 74, 89, 95, 99, 101, 109, 112, 126, 136, 143, 144; see also due process of law; Fourteenth Amendment; Guarantee Clause Constitutional Convention 20, 107 Declaration of Independence 122 federalism 30, 74, 75, 109–10, 114, 119 House of Representatives 20, 118 liberty 25, 99, 128 people 16, 112 President 20 representation 119 republicanism of 16–25, 42, 106–19, 144 revolution 2, 5, 8, 16–25, 100, 101, 104, 120 Senate 16, 20, 118, 136 slavery 25, 119 Supreme Court 89, 90, 117 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 123, 128, 132 utility vi, 47, 82, 145 see also common good uti possidetis juris 130 Valerius Publicola, Publius 16 validation paradox 56, 61 defined 58, 141 validity 56–61 actual 56, 58–9, 60–1, 141–2 defined 56 legal 56, 58–60, 61, 88 moral 56–7, 59, 61, 120, 133 paradox 56, 57, 61, 141 systemic 58 see also law Valley Forge 100 Vattel, Emmerich de 120, 122, 123–4, 135 veto Vindiciae contra tyrannos 46 Virginia Commonwealth 80 Declaration of Rights 80 virtue 2, 11, 140, 145 civic 89 see also republican virtue Voltaire, Franỗois Marie Arouet de 23 Waldron, Jeremy x Washington, George 9, 16, 77, 99, 100, 101, 115–16, 143 Western Europe viii will 81 general see public will private see private will public see public will William III 79, 124 Wilson, Woodrow 122 Wolff, Christian 30, 120 Wood, Gordon 8, 89 World War I 122 World War II 80 Zoethout, Carla x ... liberty against corruption and to safeguard the equal individual rights of all citizens against each other and against the state Together these institutions secure the republican virtues in government,... commitment to law, citing passages from 14 Republican Legal Theory Sidney, Harrington, Aristotle, and Livy, who all demanded an “imperia legum” or “empire of laws and not of men”.92 Adams and Harrington... Theory The History, Constitution and Purposes of Law in a Free State M.N.S Sellers Regents Professor of the University System of Maryland and Director of the Center for International and Comparative