F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 1 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM Ga sTurbine Engineering Ha ndbook Second Edition F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 2 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 3 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM GasTurbine Engineering Handbook Second Edition Meherwan P. Boyce Managing Partner, The Boyce Consultancy Fellow, American Society of Mechanical Engineers Fellow, Institute of Diesel and Gas Turbine Engineers, U.K. Boston Oxford Auckland Johannesburg Melbourne New Delhi F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 4 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Butterworth  ±Heinemann. Copyright # 2002 by Butterworth  ±Heinemann. Previously copyrighted # 1995. 1982 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas A member of the Reed Elsevier group All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Butterworth  ±Heinemann prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible. Butterworth  ±Heinemann supports the efforts of American Forests and the Global ReLeaf program in its campaign for the betterment of trees, forests, and our environment. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Boyce, Meherwan P. Gas turbine engineering handbook / Meherwan P. Boyce. ± 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-88415-732-6 (alk. paper) 1. Gas-turbines±Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title. TJ778 .B67 2001 621.43 H 3±dc21 2001040520 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Illustration Credit: Unless otherwise cited, the illustrations appearing in this book are supplied courtesy and used with the permission of the Turbomachinery Laboratories, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843. These illustrations were published and are copyright # by the Turbomachinery Laboratories in the annual proceedings of their Turbomachinery Symposia. The publisher offers special discounts on bulk orders of this book. For information, please contact: Manager of Special Sales Butterworth  ±Heinemann 225 Wildwood Avenue Woburn, MA 01801-2041 Tel: 781-904-2500 Fax: 781-904-2620 For information on all Gulf Professional Publishing publications available, contact our World Wide Web home page at: http://www.gulfpp.com 10987654321 Printed in the United States of America F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 5 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM To the memory of my father, Phiroz H.J. Boyce F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 6 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 7 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii Foreword to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv Part I Design: Theory and Practice 1 An Overview of Gas Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Gas Turbine Cycle in the Combined Cycle or Cogeneration Mode. Gas Turbine Performance. Gas Turbine Design Considerations. Categories of Gas Turbines. Major Gas Turbine Compon- ents. Fuel Type. Environmental Effects. Turbine Expander Section. Materials. Coatings. Gas Turbine Heat Recovery. Supplementary Firing of Heat Recovery Systems. Bibliography. 2 Theoretical and Actual Cycle Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 The Brayton Cycle. Actual Cycle Analysis. Summation of Cycle Analysis. A General Overview of Combined Cycle Plants. Compressed Air Energy Storage Cycle. Power Augmentation. Summation of the Power Augmentation Systems. Bibliography. 3 Compressor and Turbine Performance Characteristics . . . . . . . . . .112 Turbomachine Aerothermodynamics. The Aerothermal Equations. Efficiencies. Dimensional Analysis. Compressor Performance Characteristics. Turbine Performance Characteristics. Gas Turbine Performance Computation. Bibliography. 4 Performance and Mechanical Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141 Major Variables for a Gas Turbine Application. Performance Standards. Mechanical Parameters. Application of the Mechanical Standards to the Gas Turbine. Specifications. Bibliography. 5 Rotor Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178 Mathematical Analysis. Application to Rotating Machines. Critical Speed Calculations for Rotor Bearing Systems. Electromechanical Systems and Analogies. Campbell Diagram. Bibliography. Part II Major Components 6 Centrifugal Compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221 Centrifugal Compressor Components. Centrifugal Compressor Performance. Compressor Surge. Process Centrifugal Compressors. Bibliography. 7 Axial-Flow Compressors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275 Blade and Cascade Nomenclature. Elementary Airfoil Theory. Laminar-Flow Airfoils. Cascade Test. Velocity Triangles. Degree of Reaction. Radial Equilibrium. Diffusion Factor. The Incidence Rule. The Deviation Rule. Compressor Stall. Performance Characteristics of an Axial-Flow Compressor. Stall Analysis of an Axial-Flow Compressor. Bibliography. 8 Radial-Inflow Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319 Description. Theory. Turbine Design Considerations. Losses in a Radial-Inflow Turbine. Performance of a Radial-Inflow Turbine. Bibliography. vii F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 8 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM 9 Axial-Flow Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337 Turbine Geometry. Impulse Turbine. The Reaction Turbine. Turbine Blade Cooling Concepts. Turbine Blade Cooling Design. Cooled-Turbine Aerodynamics. Turbine Losses. Bibliography. 10 Combustors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370 Combustion Terms. Combustion. Combustion Chamber Design. Fuel Atomization and Ignition. Typical Combustor Arrangements. Air Pollution Problems. Catalytic Combustion. Bibliography. Part III Materials, Fuel Technology, and Fuel Systems 11 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411 General Metallurgical Behaviors in Gas Turbines. Gas Turbine Materials. Compressor Blades. Forgings and Nondestructive Testing. Coatings. Bibliography. 12 Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436 Fuel Specifications. Fuel Properties. Fuel Treatment. Heavy Fuels. Cleaning of Turbine Components. Fuel Economics. Operating Experience. Heat Tracing of Piping Systems. Types of Heat-Tracing Systems. Storage of Liquids. Bibliography. Part IV Auxiliary Components and Accessories 13 Bearings and Seals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469 Bearings. Bearing Design Principles. Tilting-Pad Journal Bearings. Bearing Materials. Bearing and Shaft Instabilities. Thrust Bearings. Factors Affecting Thrust-Bearing Design. Thrust- Bearing Power Loss. Seals. Noncontacting Seals. Mechanical (Face) Seals. Mechanical Seal Selection and Application. Seal Systems. Associated Oil System. Dry Gas Seals. Bibliography. 14 Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521 Gear Types. Factors Affecting Gear Design. Manufacturing Processes. Installation and Initial Operation. Bibliography. Part V Installation, Operation, and Maintenance 15 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541 Basic Oil System. Lubricant Selection. Oil Sampling and Testing. Oil Contamination. Filter Selection. Cleaning and Flushing. Coupling Lubrication. Lubrication Management Program. Bibliography. 16 Spectrum Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558 Vibration Measurement. Taping Data. Interpretation of Vibration Spectra. Subsynchronous Vibration Analysis Using RTA. Synchronous and Harmonic Spectra. Bibliography. 17 Balancing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584 Rotor Imbalance. Balancing Procedures. Application of Balancing Techniques. User's Guide for Multiplane Balancing. Bibliography. 18 Couplings and Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605 Gear Couplings. Metal Diaphragm Couplings. Metal Disc Couplings. Turbomachinery Uprates. Shaft Alignment. Bibliography. viii Contents F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 9 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM 19 Control Systems and Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634 Control Systems. Condition Monitoring Systems. Monitoring Software. Implementation of a Condition Monitoring System. Life Cycle Costs. Temperature Measurement. Pressure Meas- urement. Vibration Measurement. Auxiliary System Monitoring. The Gas Turbine. Failure Diagnostics. Mechanical Problem Diagnostics. Summary. Bibliography. 20 Gas Turbine Performance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .692 Introduction. Performance Codes. Flow Straighteners. Gas Turbine Test. Gas Turbine. Perform- ance Curves. Performance Computations. Gas Turbine Performance Calculations. Plant Losses. Bibliography. 21 Maintenance Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .722 Philosophy of Maintenance. Training of Personnel. Tools and Shop Equipment. Turbo- machinery Cleaning. Hot-Section Maintenance. Compressor Maintenance. Bearing Maintenance. Coupling Maintenance. Rejuvenation of Used Turbine Blades. Repair and Rehabilitation of Turbomachinery Foundations. Large Machinery Startup Procedure. Typical Problems Encountered in Gas Turbines. Bibliography. Appendix: Equivalent Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .778 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .782 About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .799 Contents ix F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 10 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM Preface Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook discusses the design, fabrication, installa- tion, operation, and maintenance of gas turbines. The second edition is not only an updating of the technology in gas turbines, which has seen a great leap forward in the 1990s, but also a rewriting of various sections to better answer today's problems in the design, fabrication, installation, operation, and main- tenance of gas turbines. The new advanced gas turbines have firing tempera- tures of 2600  F (1427  C), and pressure ratio's exceeding 40:1 in aircraft gas turbines, and over 30:1 in industrial turbines. Advances in materials, and coat- ings have spurred this technology, and the new edition has treated this new area in great detail. The emphasis on low NO x emissions from gas turbines has led to the development of a new breed of dry low NO x combustors, which are dealt in depth in this new edition. The second edition deals with an upgrade of most of the applicable codes both in the area of performance and mechanical standards. The book has been written to provide an overall view for the experienced engineer working in a specialized aspect of the subject and for the young engineering graduate or undergraduate student who is being exposed to the turbomachinery field for the first time. The book will be very useful as a textbook for undergraduate turbomachinery courses as well as for in-house company training programs related to the petrochemical, power generation, and offshore industries. The use of gas turbines in the petrochemical, power generation, and off- shore industries has mushroomed in the past few years. In the past 10 years, the power industry has embraced the Combined Cycle Power Plants and the new high efficiency gas turbines are at the center of this growth segment of the industry. This has also led to the rewriting of chapters 1 and 2. It is to these users and manufacturers of gas turbines that this book is directed. The book will give the manufacturer a glimpse of some of the problems asso- ciated with his equipment in the field and help the user to achieve maximum performance efficiency and high availability of his gas turbines. I have been involved in the research, design, operation, and maintenance of gas turbines since the early 1960s. I have also taught courses at the graduate and undergraduate level at the University of Oklahoma and Texas A&M University, and now, in general, to the industry. There have been over 3,000 students through my courses designed for the engineer in the field representing over 400 companies from around the world. Companies have x [...]... Simmang who has written the foreword to the first edition of this book is a deep loss not only to me but also to the engineering educational community and to many of his students from Texas A&M University Meherwan P Boyce Houston, Texas F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 12 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM Preface to the First Edition Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook discusses the design, fabrication,... offset that loss Heat Rate 8000 Btu/kWhr kJ/kWhr 6000 4000 2000 0 Simple Cycle GasTurbine Regenerative GasTurbine Steam Turbine Combined Cycle Power Plant Advanced Gas Turbine Combined Cycle Power Plant Type of Power Plants Figure 1-1 Typical heat rates of various types of plants Hybrid Power Plant Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook 10000 G:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/CHAPTER 1.3D ± 6 ± [1±57/57] 1.11.2001... energy supplied to a gas turbine The handbook should find its place in all the reference libraries of those xiv F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 15 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM Foreword to the First Edition xv engineers and technicians who have even a small responsibility for design and operation of gas turbines Clifford M Simmang Department of Mechanical Engineering Texas A&M University College... consulting and engineering company The tenth symposium was held recently and attracted more than 1,200 engineers representing many different countries This important new handbook comes to us from an experienced engineer at a most opportune time Never has the cost of energy been greater, nor is there a promise that it has reached its price ceiling Dr Boyce is aware of these concerns, and through this handbook. .. Dr M Simmang, Chairman of the Texas A&M University Department of Mechanical Engineering, who were instrumental in the initiation of the manuscript I wish to acknowledge and give special thanks to my wife, Zarine, for her readiness to help and her constant encouragement throughout this project I sincerely hope that this new edition will be as interesting to read as it was for me to write and that it...F:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 11 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM Preface xi used the book, and their comments have been very influential in the updating of material in the second edition The enthusiasm of the students associated with these courses gave me the inspiration to undertake this endeavor The many courses I have taught over the past 25 years have been an educational... 75±100 75±100 150±300 100±250 1,900± 3,500 NA NA 150±300 NA O & M Cost ($/kWh) 0.007±0.015 0.005±0.012 0.003±0.008 0.006±0.010 0.005±0.010 0.001±0.004 0.007±0.012 0.006±0.011 0.005±0.010 Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook Technology Comparison G:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/CHAPTER 1.3D ± 4 ± [1±57/57] 1.11.2001 3:42PM 4 Table 1-1 Economic Comparison of Various Generation Technologies G:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/CHAPTER... considerations and concerns which confront design and operating engineers of gas turbines These include bearings, seals, fuels, lubrication, balancing, couplings, testing, and maintenance Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook presents necessary data and helpful suggestions to assist engineers in their endeavors to obtain optimum performance for any gas turbine under all conditions Meherwan Boyce is no stranger... 92±95% 16±18 Gas engine generator power plant 650±750 7300±7701 47 5.2 4.7 92±96% 96±98% 12±16 G:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/CHAPTER 1.3D ± 8 ± [1±57/57] 1.11.2001 3:42PM Capital Cost $/kW Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook Net Efficiency Fixed Availability Reliability Time from Variable Operation Planning to Operation Completion & & Months Maintenance Maintenance ($/MWh) ($/MWh) Type of Plant Advanced gas... growth of the Pressure Ratio and Firing Temperature The growth of both the Pressure Ratio and Firing Temperature G:/GTE/FINAL (26-10-01)/CHAPTER 1.3D ± 10 ± [1±57/57] 1.11.2001 3:42PM 10 Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook 45 40 Pressure ratio 35 30 25 Pressure ratio aircraft Pressure ratio industrial 20 15 10 5 0 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year Figure 1-3 Development of engine pressure ratio . (26-10-01)/FRONT MATTER.3D ± 3 ± [1±16/16] 1.11.2001 12:46PM GasTurbine Engineering Handbook Second Edition Meherwan P. Boyce Managing Partner, The Boyce Consultancy Fellow,. 12:46PM Preface Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook discusses the design, fabrication, installa- tion, operation, and maintenance of gas turbines. The second edition is not