2.2.1 Europe’s eSafety Vision [4] The European RSAP, developed by the EC, lays out the over-arching European strategy to road safety, including road design and operations, vehicle design (crashworthiness), emergency response, and active safety (eSafety). The concept of active safety is firmly established within the RSAP as an important program component. For example, some potential government policy and program mea - sures discussed in the RSAP are the following: • Regulatory measures for active safety systems; • Development of a plan to implement vehicle-vehicle and vehicle-roadside communications systems; • Fiscal incentives for purchasers of active safety systems. “eSafety,” a key component of the RSAP, is a government-industry initiative for improving road safety by using information and communications technologies. The overall objective is to join forces to create a European strategy to accelerate the research, development, deployment, and use of “intelligent integrated road safety systems” to achieve the 2010 goal noted above. Systems envisioned are colli- sion warning and mitigation, lane-keeping, vulnerable road user detection, driver condition monitoring, and improved vision. Other technologies will provide for automatic emergency calls, adaptive speed limitation, traffic management, and parking aids. As an indication of the significance of the eSafety initiative, eSafety strategy is led by a high-level group consisting of top executives in the automotive industry and government organizations. Implementation is then the responsibility of an eSafety working group, which is composed of key professionals in these domains. eSafety focuses on both stand-alone IV safety systems and cooperative systems that will enable essential safety information to be exchanged between vehicles and the infrastructure. This broader access to situational information will allow more accurate assessment of risk and a more robust response. Recommendations from the initial eSafety strategy group included the develop - ment of an implementation road map that balances business, societal, and user issues; development of digital maps capable of supporting safety systems; incentives to stimulate and support road users and fleet owners to buy vehicles with intelligent safety functions; and increased levels of international cooperation in areas such as standardization, development of test methodologies, legal issues, and benefits assessment. Participants describe the eSafety vision as follows: “The driver is sitting behind the steering wheel and is driving at 70 km/h. He [or she] steers the vehicle into a corner. To do so he [or she] uses information acquired by look - ing at the total road picture, the surroundings and his [or her] in-car instruments. The in-car applications continuously receive information from cameras (visible light and infrared), in-vehicle radar systems, digital maps, GNSS satellites for location informa - tion, vehicle-infrastructure communication, information from other vehicles and the like. The information collected by these sensors is verified by the in-vehicle control unit, integrated, analyzed and processed, and presented to the driver. 12 Goals and Visions for the Future The driver is aware that his [or her] car is equipped with a sophisticated safety sys - tem. Depending on the degree and timing of the danger the system would inform him [or her], warn him [or her], actively assist him [or her] or ultimately actively intervene to avoid the danger. If the intervention cannot avoid the crash completely, intelligent passive safety applications will be deployed in an optimal way to protect the vehicle occupants and possibly other parties involved in the accident (vulnerable road users). The system will also automatically contact the emergency services indi - cating the severity and location of the accident.” A significant set of R&D projects are now under way in Europe under the eSafety banner, as described in Chapter 4. 2.2.2 Sweden’s Vision Zero [11] Sweden has led the way in safety by introducing its Vision Zero concept—a future in which no one will be killed or seriously injured in road traffic. Vision Zero has strong backing from the Swedish parliament and forms the foundation for road traffic safety initiatives in Sweden. A key principle is to ensure that roads and vehicles are adapted to the limita - tions of human drivers, including automatic means of limiting vehicle speeds as appropriate to the situation. While full implementation will take many years, since the introduction of Vision Zero in 1995 and the beginning of road safety improve- ments, deaths and serious injuries on Swedish roads have not increased despite an increase in traffic. Vision Zero comprises the following eleven priority areas: • A focus on the most dangerous roads; • Safer traffic in built-up areas; • An emphasis on the responsibility of the road user; • Safer bicycle traffic; • Quality assurance of transport (shippers and freight carriers); • Winter tire requirements; • Better use of new Swedish technology; • The responsibilities of designers of the road transport system; • Societal handling of traffic crime; • The role of voluntary organizations; • Alternative methods for financing new roads. From a vehicle perspective, the approach encompasses greater cooperation between the automotive industry and road designers, as well as safer vehicle design in terms of crashworthiness and occupant protection. The continued development of IV safety systems by domestic car manufacturers Saab and Volvo is also supported. 2.2.3 ITS America’s Zero Fatalities Vision [12] The Intelligent Transportation Society of America (ITS America) was established in 1991 to coordinate the development and deployment of ITS in the United States. A 2.2 Visions for the Future 13 wide variety of organizations from the private and public sectors are currently mem - bers. ITS America’s mission is to improve transportation by promoting research, deployment, and operation of ITSs through leadership and partnerships with public, private, educational, and consumer stakeholders. In 2003, ITS America committed to a strategic goal of “zero fatalities.” ITS America sees the zero fatalities vision as the next critical step in the evolution and sophistication of our transportation system. The organization notes that it is impor - tant to begin looking at mobility and safety as a unified goal, as Americans both want to travel and to feel safe when traveling. ITS America is working with key organizations, agencies, and legislators to energize this vision. 2.2.4 ITS Evolution in Japan The Japanese ITS program is centered in the National Institute for Land and Infra - structure Management (NILIM) within the Road Bureau of MLIT. Drawing from [13, 14], the NILIM vision is described here. Within the overall ITS program, two platforms in Japan, now in advanced development and deployment, are promising for future deployment of advanced cooperative safety systems: • In-car navigation systems incorporating the vehicle information and commu- nications system (VICS); • Electronic toll collection (ETC) based on dedicated short-range communica- tions (DSRC). Today’s Japanese navigation systems combine digital road maps for route guidance, safety information, and tourist and local information with real-time infor- mation. The VICS real-time information system, which is deployed nationwide, pro- vides extensive data to drivers regarding congestion ahead, road surface conditions, crashes, road obstacles, roadwork, restrictions, and parking lot vacancies. Over 2 million car navigation with VICSs were sold in 2002, representing 54% of all new passenger vehicles sold. This is expected to reach close to 100% by 2010. Therefore, these systems are well on their way to becoming standard equipment for vehicles in Japan. Through interacting with onboard navigation systems, drivers are becoming accustomed to interacting with support systems on their vehicles. Nationwide ETC using 5.8-GHz active DSRC was launched in 2001. (DSRC is further described in Chapter 9). A total of 1.8 million units have been installed since the launch, with 10 million installed units expected by 2007. Prices have dropped by approximately a third since project inception to less than $100. Further evolution and integration is occurring as an increasing number of vehi - cles become equipped with these two platforms. Many tests and deployments are ongoing, in areas such as parking lot access, data transfer, electronic payment, gas purchase, and Internet access. The goal is to realize ITS services with a common, multiapplication onboard unit in vehicles. Next generation digital road maps (DRMs) and extensive information infrastructure will enable advanced message ser - vices, including safety messages. Proving tests at selected sites in Japan have been under way since 2002. 14 Goals and Visions for the Future A parallel progression is the ongoing rollout of IV systems sold on cars in Japan, with functions such as adaptive cruise control, lane keeping, and crash mitigation using active braking. Thus, NILIM envisions road vehicles becoming steadily smarter and advanced message services proliferating, leading to “cruise-assist services,” which are defined as cooperative vehicle-highway systems for safety and traffic efficiency. Current planning by MLIT calls for the deployment of roadside transponders in 2006. Man - ufacturing and availability of onboard units would also begin in 2006, with full deployment in vehicles by 2008. Figure 2.2 sums up the following progression. A comprehensive picture of the services to be provided is shown in Figure 2.3. Road-vehicle communications will be key to providing critical safety information to vehicles, as well as private-sector information services. Road management is enhanced by data coming from vehicles. These services and enabling technologies are expected to complement one another such that a successful business case can be made for each. 2.2.5 The Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (TNO) [15] TNO is a central figure in developing practical short- and long-term implementa - tions of cooperative vehicle-highway systems. TNO experts see separate road and vehicle developments gradually integrating, moving first to a coordination phase and then to full road-vehicle interaction. This progression is shown in Figures 2.4–2.6. In each figure, the vertical axis shows several “waves” of activity: “initiation” referring to pilot testing and initial deployment phases, “popularization” referring to extending the deployment widely throughout the road network or vehicle fleet, “management” referring to a mature and comprehensive implementation of the technology, and “integration and coordi- nation” in which vehicle and road systems can begin to link with one another. 2.2 Visions for the Future 15 Information infrastructure (sensing, processing, and provision) AHSs Advanced messaging support safe driving Smart Car Intelligent vehicles to ensure safety −2005 Toll and payment Read/write of IC cards Vehicle identification Internet access Data transfer Messaging etc Next generation DRMs (detailed, accurate, and dynamic) Car navigation system VICS Figure 2.2 Japanese Smartway evolution. (Source: NILIM.) 16 Goals and Visions for the Future Figure 2.3 Japan’s vision for Smartway services. ( Source: NILIM.) Road administrators Various uses for road administration Provide safety information coordinated with maps Detect phenomena that vehicle cannot GPS Car navigation systems Provision of information to drivers Use of vehicle information Road Use of high-volume two-way communications (DSRC) Variety of private-sector information services Internet, etc. Service provider (private sector, etc.) Utilization of a variety of ITS services Driver Provision of information from various media Vehicle Vehicle-to-vehicle communication (future) Roadside sensor DSRC Digital map ITS onboard unit Turn right OOm ahead!! Accident km ahead!!∆ You have e-mail In Figure 2.4, the evolution of roadside traffic management is depicted begin - ning with the many intelligent transportation measures already implemented, such as traffic responsive signal timing, coordinated incident management, and elec - tronic message signs. These measures then combine as popularisation progresses, both functionally as well as geographically, to create an intelligent network of high - way systems in the 2010 timeframe. At that point, extensive real-time coordination of roadside systems can be realized. With regard to vehicle systems, the last 10 years or so have seen the initiation and popularization of various electronic systems in the vehicle that are basically stand-alone, as shown in Figure 2.5. The current situation is now evolving from sep - arate instruments and individual wiring to extensive information networks, a pro - cess that TNO estimates will mature around 2010. Advanced driver assistance systems are seen as coming into broad usage from 2010 through 2020, creating the opportunity for intelligent road-vehicle interaction. 2.2 Visions for the Future 17 Initiation Popularization Management Integration and coordination Phases of growth Investment (costs) Current situation separate instruments and 5 km of copper wire in vehicles → Car area networks, component-based design ADA Car radio, car phone, motor management system, ABS ……………… Road-vehicle interaction possible 2002 2010 2020 Figure 2.5 Evolution of the IV. (Source: TNO.) 2000 2010 2015 Real-time coordination of measures Initiation Popularization Management Integration and coordination Phase of growth Effect of traffic management Separate measures Combination of measures Figure 2.4 Evolution of roadside traffic management. (Source: TNO.) Thus, in the final chart of the series, Figure 2.6, the cooperative intelligent road-vehicle system emerges as roadside traffic management and in-vehicle systems mature. Early stages focus on the sharing of information, such as traffic or road con- ditions ahead, moving onward to real-time road-vehicle interactions. For example, a collision warning system would automatically adjust the timing of driver warnings based on information about slippery road conditions ahead, so that the driver would be alerted sooner if an obstacle were to be detected. Road-vehicle interaction of this type would culminate around 2020, at which time vehicle-vehicle interactions would come into play, such as cooperative adaptive cruise control. 2.2.6 France [16] A more detailed vision of an intelligent road-vehicle future has been developed by French researchers within their ARCOS program (described further in Chapters 4 and 9). They have defined the concept of “target functions”—driver assistance func - tions that could be deployed in incremental steps with supporting research. The three levels of target functions that have been defined are described below. Key discriminators between the targets are different levels of technical challenge and development maturity. Key parameters are information capture capabilities (e.g., sensing) and an extension of spatial usability (i.e., availability on all or part of the road network). Target 1 (Figure 2.7) is basically a combination of autonomous sensing functions and basic vehicle-vehicle communications. Here, the vehicle has knowledge of braking capacity, usable longitudinal friction, visibility distance, vehicles ahead in the same lane (using forward sensing), and downstream hazards (using simple data broadcast tech - niques from vehicles ahead). Knowledge of distances and closing rates to both the front and rear, visibility distance, driver reaction time, local longitudinal road friction, and vehicle maximum braking capability are combined to create a “risk function.” Driver warnings or control interventions are based on the risk function. 18 Goals and Visions for the Future Phases of growth Effect of traffic management Roadside traffic management In-vehicle traffic management Road-vehicle information Road-vehicle interaction Vehicle-vehicle interaction Initiation Popularization Management Integration and coordination Interaction Self-regulation 2020 Figure 2.6 Evolution of a cooperative intelligent road-vehicle system. (Source: TNO.) Target 2 (Figure 2.8) increases the sensing perimeter and introduces vehi- cle-highway cooperation. Here, digital maps are at the submetric level, vehicles are communicating with each other and the roadway, and autonomous sensing capabil- ities are expanded to create a situational awareness of vehicle activity in both the current lane and adjacent lanes (using both forward and side sensors). A coopera- tive infrastructure informs the vehicle about relevant infrastructure elements (e.g., guardrails and road edges) and downstream road traction conditions via vehi- cle-highway communications. Knowledge of road-tire friction is also enhanced by vehicle-based traction sensors that provide both lateral and longitudinal friction. In this case, then, the risk function is expanded to include adjacent lane traffic, 2.2 Visions for the Future 19 Road database 2 D attributes submetric localization ½  Detection/perception Enhanced autonomous system V V cooperative systems− Communication V V alerts++ I V alerts − − Cooperative roads Acceptable rules, signals, positioning systems Target 2 Figure 2.8 French ARCOS target 2. (Source: LIVIC.) Current maps 2D geometry/decametric resolution Detection/perception Autonomous systems Short-distance One lane Communication Vehicle/vehicle Specific alerts − Target 1 Figure 2.7 French ARCOS target 1. (Source: LIVIC.) two-dimensional road-tire friction, upstream traction conditions, and geometric characteristics of the road. Target 3 (Figure 2.9) focuses on spatial extension of cooperative road elements (i.e., to more roads and types of roads), even more accurate digital maps (if needed), multisensor fusion, extended vehicle-infrastructure communications, and extended vehicle-vehicle communications (exchanging information such as vehicle operating characteristics and maneuver intentions). The perception ability extends quite far downstream due to the extensive communications network. The risk function then expands to include both a richer set of data for local conditions and more extensive downstream information on traffic conditions and the intentions of other vehicles. As an example, the three target levels can be considered in terms of a road departure scenario on a sharply curving road. In target 1, the vehicle has only forward sensing to rely upon for both forward obstacles and the road edge and no more than coarse information about the upcoming curve. Therefore, support is provided via instantaneous sensing to the degree possible as the road curves, with the look-ahead distance for both driver and sensors limited by the road geometry. In target 2, the vehicle has precise information as to the upcoming road geometry due to more detailed digital maps and knowledge of road friction in the curve via road-vehicle communication. In this case, the driver may be alerted to reduce speed if the road friction is low. In target 3, due to information sharing along the roadway, the vehicle is also aware of hazardous downstream events such as stopped traffic that may be within the curve—a situation beyond the view of onboard sensors. Target 1 has immediate safety benefits due to the ability to detect obstacles using onboard sensing. Target 2 offers higher benefits due to expanded situational aware- ness and vehicle-infrastructure information exchange—as a result, high-quality 20 Goals and Visions for the Future Extension of the cooperative roads Extension of the enhanced road database 2 D geometry Cm localization? ½ Detection/perception Multisource fusion Communications: Extended V V, V I communication positions, characteristics, maneuver parameters −− Target 3 Figure 2.9 French ARCOS target 3. (Source: LIVIC.) information exists as to the situation immediately around the vehicle as well as conditions downstream on the roadway. However, reaching target 2 functionality will take time, as roadside communications systems must be deployed and detailed map databases must be created. In the long term, target 3 shows the potential for significant gains in both safety and road capacity. 2.2.7 The Cybercar Approach [17] While most future visions address the proliferation of IV systems in automobiles, an alternative public vehicle approach is being promoted by the Cybercars project (fur - ther described in Chapter 10). Cybercars are characterized as road vehicles (microcar to minibus to buses) that are capable of low-speed driving automation in urban areas where their operations are segregated from regular road traffic (for example, in pedes - trian-only areas). They operate as highly flexible public personal transport vehicles in these settings. The typical evolution to automated driving for private vehicles relies on individ - ual cars becoming increasingly more intelligent over the years via onboard sensing and computing systems. Over the long term, automatic driving becomes possi - ble. Their capabilities apply to virtually every road situation encountered by the vehicle. The cybercar alternative more or less inverts this process. It begins with fully automatic vehicles, but their geographic extent is very limited because they operate in areas segregated from regular traffic. Initially, operations may be in pedestrian zones or private campus settings. However, as deployments proliferate, operations zones may be linked and spread across a city. Eventually, intercity tracks can be implemented as well as automated travel lanes. These road facilities may be accessed by properly equipped private vehicles, as well, to create a path to full auto- mation for both public and private vehicles. 2.2.8 Vision 2030 [18] A visioning and scenario planning process was begun in 1999 by the U.K. Highways Agency, using a 30-year timescale to encourage forward thinking. As starting points for the visioning process, three socioeconomic scenarios were created. The first was called “global economy” and referred to a market-driven approach. The sec - ond scenario, “sustainable lifestyle,” focused on community-based living and was described as “rural bliss in a hi-tech haven.” The third scenario, called “control and plan,” was based on greater regulation of movement, described as “responsible reg - ulated living.” Each of these was described in terms of policy, economic, societal, technological, legal, and environmental issues. Within Vision 2030, twelve transport visions were created: • Green highway: Strongly environmentally driven; • Zero accidents: Assumes strong political support and government action for safety, relying on extensive deployment of ADAS; • The connected customer: Keys on high-quality information to enable manage - ment of congested networks and provide real-time and predictive journey information to travelers; 2.2 Visions for the Future 21 [...]... journey booking, and strong enforcement to support these measures; • Cooperative driving on the automated highway system (AHS): AHS techniques used to enable predictable and reliable journey times and segregation of freight and car traffic; • Land use planning: Active planning and development control used to influence future patterns of supply and demand to achieve sustainable, integrated land use Based... drivers To have the alternative of handing control of the vehicle over to a trustworthy technology agent is quite attractive Prototype vehicles of this type have been developed and demonstrated, and professionals knowledgeable in automotive technology generally agree that self-driving cars are inevitable some time within the next few decades An early form of automated vehicle control likely to be very... if a vehicle immediately ahead of the equipped vehicle is moving at a slower speed, then throttle and braking of the host vehicle is controlled to match the speed of the slower vehicle at a driver-selectable time headway, or gap The desired speed is automatically reattained when the roadway ahead is unobstructed, either from the slower vehicle ahead leaving the lane or the driver of the host vehicle. .. with other vehicles Data from other vehicles can be received either directly through vehicle- vehicle communications or through an innovative technique called floating car data (FCD) or “probe data.” The FCD concept (further discussed in Chapter 11) relies upon vehicles reporting basic information relevant to traffic, road, and weather conditions to a central data center, which is aggregated and processed... excessive as the vehicle approaches the curve Prototypes of curve speed warning systems have been built and evaluated Side object monitoring systems assist drivers in changing lanes by detecting vehicles in the “blind spot” to the left rear of the vehicle (or right rear for countries such as Japan with right side driver positions and left-hand road driving) Blind spot monitoring using radar technology has... of applications for IV systems is quite broad and applies to all types of road vehicles—cars, heavy trucks, and transit buses While there is some overlap between the functions, and the underlying technology can in some cases support many functions at once, IV applications can generally be classified into four categories: convenience, safety, productivity, and traffic assist The following sections describe... Improving Road Safety, memorandum April 9, 1999, Swedish Ministry of Industry, Employment, and Communications (Regeringskansliet) [7] Tomorrow’s Roads: Safer for Everyone, U.K Department for the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR), March 2000, document reference DETR2000e [8] 2003 Early Assessment Estimates of Motor Vehicle Crashes, National Center for Statistics and Analysis, U.S National... full hands-off lane keeping to completely take care of the driving task in congested traffic Conceptually, the system would alert the driver to resume control of the vehicle when the traffic clears and speeds increase to normal Various forms of LSA are currently in the R&D stage 3.2 Safety Systems As noted in Chapter 2, traffic fatalities range into the tens of thousands in developed countries and the... account the vehicle speed to make assumptions as to the desired illumination pattern For instance, beam patterns adjust down and outward for low-speed driving, while light distribution is longer and narrower at high speeds to increase visibility at farther distances More advanced systems also incorporate steering-angle data and auxiliary headlights on motorized swivels In the case of a vehicle turning... achieve this end, innovation and flexibility are seen as more important than financial, contractual, and organizational arrangements; • Managing supply: Focuses on dynamic allocation of road space, highly automated and real-time management of highway transportation, intercity travel by magnetic levitation trains, and real-time pricing of transportation facilities; • Managing demand: Encourages the public . referring to a mature and comprehensive implementation of the technology, and “integration and coordi- nation” in which vehicle and road systems can begin. extended vehicle- infrastructure communications, and extended vehicle- vehicle communications (exchanging information such as vehicle operating characteristics and