Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - M potx

... isacollateralas-cendantwhoisreincarnated,especiallyifthereareseveralsiblings.Apersonisusuallygiventhename of theancestordeemedtohavebeenreincarnatedinhimorher.SeealsoBhuiya;Bondo;Kol;Korku;Santal;SoraBibliographyElwin,Verrier(1955).TheReligion of anIndianTribe.Bom-bay:OxfordUniversityPress.McDougal,Charles(1963).TheSocialStructure of theHillJuang.AnnArbor:UniversityMicrofilms.Orans,Martin(1965).TheSantal:ATribeinSearch of aGreatTradition.Detroit:WayneStateUniversityPress.Yamada,Ryuji(1970).CulturalFormation of theMundas.Tokyo:TokaiUniversityPress.ROBERTPARKINMuslimETHNONYMS:Mahommedan,Mohammedan,Moslem,MusulmanThreecountriesin South Asia areamongthelargestMuslimnations:Bangladeshhasabout98millionMuslims,Indiaabout95million,andPakistanabout107million.Theentiresubcontinentaltotalcanbeestimatedin1989asin-cludingabout301millionMuslims.ThefirstMuslimstoreachthisareafromArabiacamein160Magarwithaboutathird of theBanyanHillhouseholds.Gold-smithsdevotetheirskillsalmostentirelytomakingandre-pairingwomen'sjewelry-noserings,earrings,necklaces,bracelets,fingerrings,hairornaments,andthesmallgoldflowerswomenwearinonenostril.Thegoldsmith'sworkandpayiscomparabletothat of thecoppersmith.Abouthalfthehamlet'sMagarfamiliesretainaleather-workeronaregularbasis.Leatherworkersarefromfourneigh-boringleatherworkingfamilies.Inreturnforannualpayments of milletormaizeandfoodordrinkatmajorfestivaltimes,theyareexpectedtoremovedeadanimals-aservicetheyusuallyperformwhetherornottheyareretained,sincetheycansellthehidesand,inthecase of buffalo,theintestines,whichareusedastieropes.FerrymenandMessengers.Onceayearrepresentativesfrommembers of theUntouchableferrymancastelivinginahamletlocatedatamuch-usedferrypointontheKaliGan-dakiRivercometoBanyanHill.Theygofromhousetohouseaskingateachforanumber of kilograms of grain.Onlythosehouseholdswhosemembershavecrossedorexpecttocrosstheriverusingferrymanservicesgivetotheferrymen.Itissaidthattheferrymenrememberwhohasgivenand ... ac-cordancewithMuslimcustom;however,thebridemustbepresentbecauseinSriLankathegroomadornsherwithaweddingnecklaceusuallyhavingacrescentonit.Postmaritalresidenceisatthebride'shouseamongallSriLankanMus-lims,andthecouplemayremainthereforsomemonthsoryears.Divorceisrare,andpolygynyinsignificant.Alargenumber of mentakebridesfromanyMuslimcategoryexceptthebarbercaste.BibliographyArasaratnam,S.(1964).Ceylon.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:PrenticeHall.Maloney,Clarence(1984)."SriLanka."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,editedbyRichardV.Weekes,72 3-7 27.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Mauroof,Mohamed."Aspects of Religion,Economy,andSo-cietyamongtheMuslims of SriLanka."ContributionstoIn-dianSociology,n.s.6:6 6-8 3.Robinson,Francis,ed.(1989).TheCambridge Encyclopedia of India,Pakistan,Bangladesh,SriLanka,Nepal,Bhutan,andtheMaldives.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Yalman,Nur(1967).UndertheBoTree:StudiesinCaste,Kin-ship,andMarriageintheInterior of Ceylon.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:University of CaliforniaPress.JAYDiMAGGIOMundaETHNONYMS:Hor,Kol,KolarianOrientationIdentification.Mundarefersprimarilytoagroup of lan-guages,butthetribesthatspeakthoselanguageshavecollec-tivelybecomeknowntoscholarshipbythesamename.Indi-vidually,ethnicdesignationsare(withimportantalternativesinparentheses):Korku,Santal(includingtheMahalisub-group),Munda,Ho,Bhumij,Birhor,Asur,Turi,Korwa,Kora,Kharia,Juang,Sora(Saora,Savara),Gorum(Parenga),Gadaba,Remo(Bondo,Bonda),andGataq(Didayi,Dire).Some of thesenames(especiallyKharia,Sora,andGadaba)aresharedwithlocalgroups of non-Mundaspeakers.Theterm"Munda"appearstobederivedfromaSanskriticrootmeaning"substantial,wealthy,"later"head,"hence"head-man";itwasthusoriginallyatermappliedbyoutsiders,ausagethatbecameespeciallyconsolidatedundertheBritishregime.Theword"Kol"(Kolarian),althoughpejorative,isprobablyreallyacorruption of theirownhor,kor,etc.,mean-ing"man,"commoninthenorth of theirareabutreplacedbyremoinsouthernOrissa,India.Location.TheKorkuarelocatedinsouthwestMadhyaPradeshandareisolatedfromotherMunda.ThelastfivegroupsinthelistabovearefoundmainlyintheKoraputandGanjamdistricts of southernOrissa.TheremainderarefoundmainlyonandaroundtheChotaNagpurPlateau-thatis,insouthernBihar,northernOrissa,easternMadhyaPradesh,andwesternWestBengal,withanoutlier of KorwainMirzapurDistrict,UttarPradesh.TherearealsosomeSantalinsoutheastNepal(wheretheyarecalledSatar),Bhu-tan,andnorthernBangladesh.Demography.Therearejustover6millionMundaspeak-ers,two-thirds of whombelongtojustonetribe,theSantal,one of thelargesttribesonearth.Otherlargegroups of Mundaspeakers(withcensusfiguresinparentheses)aretheKorku(275,654in1971),Munda(1,181,151in1971),Ho(538,124in1971),Kharia(274,540in1971),andSora(521,187in1971).Therestnumberafewthousandeachatthemost,theBirhor4,300in1971.Togethertheyconstitutewellunder1percent of thetotalIndianpopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.Mundaisthewesternmostbranch of theAustroasiaticLanguageFamily,whichisotherwiseas-sociatedmainlywithcontinentalSoutheast Asia. Thecon-nectionisremoteandhasbeenamatter of controversybuttodayisgenerallyaccepted:itmanifestsitselfincommonlexemesratherthananysimilaritiesingrammar,wordmor-phology,orphonology.Literacyisgenerallylow,andmostlit-eratureisoralratherthanwritten.However,missionariesandtribaleducatorshavereducedmanytextstowriting,usingtheRomanscriptorone of theregionalIndianscripts.Therearealsotwodedicatedtribalscripts,oneforSantali(calledolce-mit),theotherforHo.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheviewthattheMundaoriginallyenteredIndiafromSoutheast Asia isbasedmainlyontheirlinguisticaffiliations;Mappila167languagethathasabsorbedloanwordsfromSanskrit,Arabic,andEuropeanlanguages.Arabicisgenerallyusedforreligiouspurposes.KeralaisthemostdenselypopulatedstateinIndiaandtheeducationallevelthereisquitehigh.HistoryandCulturalRelationsMappilawereevidentlyfirstconvertedtoIslamintheseventhandeighthcenturiesA-D.bytraderswhoarrivedinKerala.Thearrival of thePortuguesebegantodisruptMappilalifein1498.ThePortuguesesoughtbotheconomicandreligiousdomina-tion.Economically,theysoughtashare of thespicetradeandaseaconnectionwiththeFarEast.Theirreligiousgoalsstemmedfromthedesire of thepopetoconquerIslamicandHindusocie-ties.ThePortuguesehaddirectorderstoestablishtheirauthor-ityovertheregionsothattheCatholicreligion,business,andculturewouldflourishinaharmonioussystemthatwouldbegoodforthechurch,thekingandthepeople.ThePortugueseperiodresultedinadeclineintheindigenouseconomicsystem,estrangementfromHinduism,andincreasedbitternessandten-sionbetweentheChristiansandMuslims;finally,theMappilabecamemilitantagainstthePortuguese.Theareacameunderthepoliticalcontrol of theBritishinthe1790s,andtheyruledMalabarfrom1792to1947.MappilaleadersagreedtopaytheBritishfortheirprotection of theterritoryandtoacceptadvicefromanappointedBritishadministrator,butin1921theMappilaresistancebegan,continuinguntilIndiawonitsinde-pendencein1947.EconomyTheoverpopulation of Kerala,andespecially of theMalabararea,hascausedmanyeconomicproblems.Today,most of theunemployedareeducatedpeoplefromuniversitiesortrainingschools.Anotherproblemisthatthesepeoplecan-notfindworkinotherstatesbecauseeachstatewantstohireitsowncitizensfirst,beforeabsorbinganyoutsiders.Agricul-tureisthemainoccupation of theKerala,althoughlandsuit-ableforagricultureislimited.Cashcropsearnareasonableamountfromexport,butthishascausedashortageforlocalconsumption.Rubber,pepper,cardamom,coconut,cashewnuts,tea,andcoffeearethemajorcashcrops.Foodstaplesarerice,pulses,andsorghum.Theareaholdsgreatforeststhatyieldrawmaterialssuchasbamboo,charcoal,andgum.Industrialenterprisesproducebricksandtilesanddooilmill-ing.Thesefactoriesemployasizablepercentage of thepopu-lation.StillMalabarremainseconomicallyaprimitiveandstagnantarea,anditisnotsurprisingthatinrecentyearstens of thousands of residentshavesoughtworkinthePersianGulfcountries.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMatrilinealitywasintroducedtotheMappilafromtheNayarcommunitythatisalsolocatedinMalabar.Leadershipandpropertyownershipweretraditionallyvestedintheoldestsis-ter,apracticethatwasandisveryrareinIslamicsocieties.Amajority of theMappilanowfollowthepatrilinealsystem;onlysomewealthyfamiliescarryonthematrilinealtradition.Familiesmaintainstrongbondsandmostlyliveunderoneroof.Butmodemconditionsareforcingthispracticetochange,witheachnuclearfamilynowoftenstrivingtoownahomeandconcentrateonitsownsurvivalandprosperity.Islamplaysamajorpartinchildbirth,marriage,death,andburialceremonies.Atmarriage,themarriagecontractandblessingaresignedandreadbyaqazi,areligiousjudge.Followingdeath,theKoranischantedinthemosque,andthenthebodyisburiedfacingtowardMecca.Prayersarechantedathomeontheanniversary of adeath.Mappilalifehasbeeninfluencedbynewattitudesandtheyhavebecomegreatlyconcernedabouttheirhealthandsurroundings.HeadshavingisnotpracticedanylongerbyMappilamen.ThedowrysystemisbecominglessprominentastheMappilawomenchangetheirsocialstatustothat of citizens of Kerala.Women'spositionaspropertyisalsochanging,aswomenarenowseekinghighereducationandbecomingschoolteachers,doctors,etc.Traditionally,thewomen of lowerlaboringcastesinKeralawererelativelyfreecomparedtowomen of uppercastes,becausetheycoulddoanyavailablework,whereastheupper-classwomencouldnotdoanythinginap-propriatetotheirsocialstatus;thissituationisalsochangingforthebetter.Polygamyisnotpracticed,eventhoughIslampermitsmentomarryuptofourwives.SocialOrganizationTherearevariousdistinctionswithintheMuslimgroup.Onemajordistinctionisbetweenthose of Indianandthose of for-eignorigin.HigherclassstatusisenjoyedbythosedescendedfromtheProphet'sfamily,theSayyids.Oneinternaldistinc-tionisbetweentheUntouchablesandthehighercastesamongtheMappilas.Anotherdistinctgroupareallthose of Arabdescent.ReligionIslamwasintroducedtoKeralaintheseventhandeighthcen-turiesbySunniArabs.Islaminallprobabilityspreadtopen-insularIndiafromKerala.ArabscamethroughKeralaforthepurchase of pepperandslaves.Keralawasalsoaveryconven-ientreststopformerchantspassingeastandwestthroughtheIndianOcean.TheseMuslimmerchantsestablishedahar-moniousrelationshipandintroducedIslamtothepeople.TheMappilawerereadypsychologicallyfornewchangesbe-cause of previouspoliticalandeconomicsetbacks.MostMappilatodayenrichtheirlivesbyprayersandQuranicread-ings.Mullahs(religiousclergymen)arepaidbyfamiliestovisitandconductspecialprayersorchanttheQuran.Map-pilaattendamosqueforreligiousholidaysandsometimestolistentoapreacher.IslampreachesthatlifeisunderoneLordandhiscommandisone;butthisideahasbecomeperhapslessimportantfortheMappilaastheystrugglethroughlife.Mappilacultureischanging,withmodemeducationandcommunistconceptsplayingamajorrole.ThemullahsnowcanrelyonlyonspecialoccasionssuchasRamadanforanop-portunitytosermonizeandstrengthenthepeople'sfaith.SeealsoMalayaliBibliographyAnanthakrishnaIyer,L.K.(1912)."TheJonakanMappilas."InTheTribesandCastes of Cochin.Vol.2,45 9-4 84.Madras:Higginbotham&Co.Reprint.1981.NewDelhi:CosmoPublications.Malayali165ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligiousbeliefs of thoseMaharswhohavenotconvertednowarebasicallythose of mostHindulowcastesinMaharashtra:astrongbeliefinpossession,participa-tioninthefestival of thegodKhandoba,activeparticipationinthewarkaricultandthepilgrimagetoPandharpur,anddevotiontovariousnon-Sanskriticgods.TheMaharsweretraditionallytheservants of thevillagegoddessMariai,thegoddess of pesti-lence.Sincetheconversion,many of thepotrajclasswhoservedthegoddesshavegivenupthatworkItisclearfromthegazet-teers of theBritishinthelatenineteenthcenturythatMaharshadmanysomewhatunusualreligiouspractices,butthegreatrationalreformmovementhasmadeanyrecentstudy of specialcastepracticesimpossible.Thereweredevrishis(treatments of illnessbyashandmantras)amongtheMahars,andtherestillmaybe.Somepotrajservants of thegoddessstilloperate,butinmanyvillagesthecare of theMariaitempleisnowinthehands of theMangs.Theleadership of thecastediscouragesHindupractices,andmanythatarestillperformedaredonesowithoutmajorityapproval.ForthosewhohaveconvertedtoBuddhism,therational,nonsuperstitious,egalitarianform of BuddhismpromulgatedbyAmbedkardominates.Hediedshortlyaftertheinitialconversionceremonyin1956,andtheconvertshaveslowlybuiltviharas(monasteries)inwhichtomeetforBuddhistworship,havecreatedasangha(community) of monks,havetaughtPallandgivenmorallessonstothechildren,andhaveat-temptedtoestablishconnectionswithBuddhistsinothercoun-tries.TheTheravadaform of BuddhismisthebaseforAmbedkar'steaching.Hisgrandson,PrakashAmbedkar,isnowhead of theBuddhistSociety of India.BeliefingodorghostpossessioniscommoninIndia,andMaharsnotfirmlyfixedinBuddhistrationalitytakepartinpossessionrituals.Ceremonies.NopeculiarlyMaharceremonieshavebeenreported.Arts.FortheMahar,theneo-Buddhistmovementhasproducedaflowering of arts of allsorts.Maharstraditionallywerepart of tamasha,thevillagetheater,andsongwastradi-tionallyaMaharproperty.SincetheBuddhistconversion,lit-eraturehaspouredforth,creatinganewschool of Marathilit.eraturecalled"DalitSahitya."Poetry,plays,autobiography,andshortstoriesnowareanessentialpart of theveryimpor-tantMarathiliteraryscene.Thereisalsosomeemphasisonotherarts,andmostDalitliteraryworksareillustratedwithDalitart,butnooneartisthasyetachievedthefame of thewriterssuchasDayaPawarorNamdeoDhasal.ThelatesttrendinDalitliteratureiswritingbywomen,especiallyauto-biographies of minimallyeducatedwomen.Medicine.TheMahardidnotdevelopanyparticularlyMaharspecialtiesinthisarea.DeathandAfterlife.Buddhistconvertsdonotholdwiththetheory of rebirth.Maharsgenerallyholdthestandardbe-liefs of lower-classHindus.SeealsoMaratha;Neo-Buddhist;UntouchablesBibliographyAmbedkar,B.R.(1989).Dr.BabashahebAmbedkar:WritingsandSpeeches.6vols.Bombay:EducationDepartment,Gov-ernment of Maharashtra.Enthoven,ReginaldE.(1922)."Mahir."InTheTribesandCastes of Bombay.Vol.2.Bombay:GovernmentCentralPress.Keer,Dhananjay(1954).Dr.Ambedkar:LifeandMission.Bombay:PopularPrakashan.3rded.1971.Robertson,Alexander(1938).TheMaharFolk.Calcutta:YMCAPublishingHouse;OxfordUniversityPress.Zelliot,Eleanor(1978)."Dalit-NewCulturalContext of anOldMarathiWord."InContributionstoAsianStudies,editedbyClarenceMaloney.Vol.9,LanguageandCivilizationChangein South Asia. Leiden:E.J.Brill.ELEANORZELLIOTMalayaliETHNONYMS:Keralite,Malabari(innorthKerala),Malaya-lee,Travancorean(in south Kerala).Locatedonthefarsouthwesternedge of India,Keralaisastatewhosehistoryhasalwaysbeenmoldedbyitsgeogra-phy.Ineffectitconsists of along,narrow,butextremelyfer-tilestrip of coastlandbackedbythehighmountainranges of theWesternGhats,whicharebrokenbyveryfewpasses.Nu-merousshortandfast-flowingstreamscomedownfromthesemountainstodisgorgeintothecoastalbackwatersthatrunforgreatlengthsbehindtheoceanbeaches.Ithasthusbeennaturalthatmany of theMalayaliswhoinhabitthecoastalarealooktotheseaforfishingandtrade,andconverselythatnumerousforeignmaritimepowershavelookedtotheformerprincipalities of Keralafortrade,religiousconverts,andsometimesslavesorloot.Thustheculture of thepeoplehasbeenformedbyforeigncontactstoagreaterextentthanwastrueforanyotherpart of premodernIndia.HellenistictradersfromAlexandriaandevenRome,Arabsailors,Chineseex-plorers,thePortuguesefleet of VascodaGama,theDutch,andFrenchandBritishimperialistsrepresentedthehighpoints of afairlyconstantcommerceacrosstheIndianOcean;Keralahappenstoliealmostinthecenter of thatocean.AncientshippingthatwentfromtheRedSeatoMal-akka,fromJavatoMadagascar,fromChinatoArabia,nearlyalwaysstoppedinKeralaforwater,food,andtrading.Hencetheextremeethnicandreligiousdiversity of thestate.Itisone of thesmallestIndianstates,with38,863squarekilometersanda1981population of 25,453,680persons.Keralaproducesirrigatedrice,coconuts,pepper,cardamom,andotherspices,aswellastwovaluableplantationcrops,teaandcoffee.Itsotherimportanteconomicresourcesareitsfisheries,timber,ironore,andtourism.Malayalis,whomaysimplybedefinedasthosepeoplewhospeaktheDravidianlanguageMalayalam(theKeralastatelanguage,closelyrelatedtoTamil),includenotonlya164MaharSettlementsTheMaharquarters,calledthemaharwada,werealwaysout-sideMaharashtrianvillages,traditionallytotheeast,ordownriver.Inthenineteenthcentury,colonies of Maharsgrewinrailwaytowns,inmilltowns,nearammunitionfacto-ries,andinBritisharmycantonmentareas(whereMaharswereservants),butcityhousingnowissegregatedmorebyeconomiclevelthanbycaste.Thevillagepattern of segrega-tionisstillstrictlyobserved.TheMaharvillagehutistypical of thepoorintheMaharashtrianarea.Therearenospecialfeatures.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Traditionally,theMaharswereservantstoallthevillage,withanumber of responsibilities.Theywerethedecidingvoicesinlanddis-putes,buttheyalsobroughtwoodtotheburninggrounds,carriedoffdeadanimals,tookmessagestoothervillages,caredforthehorses of travelinggovernmentofficials,mendedthevillagewall,actedasvillagewatchmen,andservedthevil-lageheadmanastowncriers.Inthiscapacitytheywerewatan-dars(leaseholders)andsoheldsomeland,buttheywereneverprimarilyagriculturists.Maharswhennotengagedinvillagedutiesservedasagriculturallaborers.Intheeasternportion of theMarathi-speakingregion,Maharshadmoreeconomicfreedom,andtheyweresometimesweaversorcon-tractors.Maharskeptnodomesticanimals,andtheydespisedtheMangsfortheirpigkeeping.Maharswereexpectedtoeattheflesh of thecattlecarcassestheydraggedfromthevillage,andthisconsumption of carrionbeefbecameanearlytargetforMaharreformers.IndustrialArts.TheMaharpossessednoskillotherthanwallmendingtocarrythemintothemodemperiod.SomeMaharsbecamemasonsintheearlytwentiethcentury.Trade.TheMahar'suntouchabilitypreventedany"clean"trade,andtheChambharshadamonopolyonleatherwork,whichtheMahardidnottouch.Division of Labor.Bothmenandwomenworkedinthefieldsasagriculturallaborers.Onlymenservedaswatandarvillageservants.LandTenure.ThewatandarlandownedbytheMaharsfortheirvillageservicewasnotalienable.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.AlthoughtheMaharsseemtobeafairlyconsistentcastegroupacrosstheMaharashtraarea,therewerepotqatdivisionsinvariousareas.Thesepotjatswereendogamous,rankedaccordingtostatus,andtosomeextentbasedonoccupation.Fromthe1920son,Maharreformersattemptedtowipeoutpotjatdifferences,andthedivisionstodayarelargelyignored.Thecasteispatrilineal,butpovertydictatedlessstressonthejointfamilyandmoreimportanceforwomenthanamongmanyhighercastes.KinshipTerminology.MaharkintermsarethesameasthoseusedbyBuddhistsinMarathi.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Thecross-cousinmarriagesystem of south Indiaand of somecastesinMaharashtraiscommontotheMahars.Marriagetomother'sbrother'sdaughterorfather'ssister'ssonisallowed.Therehasneverbeenabartowidowre-marriage.Residenceisgenerallypatrilocal,butthisislessstrictlyobservedthaninhighercastes.DivorceisandhasbeenpracticedinformallyamongthelowercastesinIndia,in-cludingtheMahars.DomesticUnit.Thejointfamilyistheideal,butpovertyandmobilitymakethislesscommonthaninmanycastes.Socialization.AsiscommoninIndia,boysareraisedper-missively,girlsmuchmorestrictly.Inthemodernperiod,therehasbeenmuchstressoneducation,onpride,andoncleanliving,andmanyBuddhistscredittheirmotherswiththestimulustoimprovethemselves.Inheritance.Propertydescendspatrilineallytomalein-heritors,althoughinpoint of factitisrareforMaharstoownanyland.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Manyfeatures of Maharcasteorga-nizationthatexistedbeforethereformperiodhavedisap-peared.Thereseemstohavebeenacaste"guru"(aspiritualcounselornotaversetospeakingwithUntouchables)insomeareas,butthereislittledescription of thispractice.Localleadershipseemstobedeterminednowbymerit,wealth,andpoliticalskill.Thereneverwasacastecenternoranover-archingcasteorganization.PoliticalOrganization.Dr.B.RAmbedkarbeganhisfirstpoliticalparty,theLabourparty,in1935,andsincethattime,mostMaharsandneo-Buddhistshaveconsideredthemselvesmembers of hissuccessiveparties:theScheduledCastesFed-erationfrom1942andtheRepublicanpartyfrom1956.Sincethepartieshavebeenunabletoattracthigher-castemembers,theyremainunimportantpoliticallyatthenationalandstatelevels.Ambedkar'sfollowersare,however,verypoliticallyaware,andtheydofigureinlocalpoliticswheretheyhavethenumbersandtheleadership.Anorganizationcallingitselfthe"DalitPanthers,"aftertheBlackPanthers of theUnitedStates,aroseintheearly1970s,ledbyeducatedMaharsorBuddhists.Afterinitialsuccesses,theDalitPantherssplitintovariousgroups,butmilitantlocalgroupsoperateeffec-tivelyeventodayinvariousslumlocalities.Anissuesuchasthebanning of one of Ambedkar'sbooksin1988broughthalfamillionScheduledCastesintothestreets of Bombayinone of thatcity'smosteffectivepoliticalprotests.SocialControl.Thereisnomechanismforcontrol,otherthantheexampleorthechiding of localleaders.Conflict.Competitionandrivalrywithinthegrouparekeen.AmbedkarwasabletounifytheMaharthroughhisex-ceptionalqualifications,planning,andrecognitionbyoutsideforcesaswellasbyhischarisma;nootherleaderhasbecomeacceptabletoall.ThePanthergroupsandthepoliticalpartiesareallfactionalized.TheBuddhistconversionmovementhasbroughtabouteffortstounifyonthebasis of religiousmoral-ityaswellasageneraldisapproval of politicalinfighting.Mauritian173ethniclines.TheHindu-dominatedMauritiusLabourpartyruledtheislandfromitsindependenceto1982,anditsleader,SirSeewoosagurRamgoolam(190 0-1 985),wasanimportantsymbol of nationalunity.Themostimportantpo-liticalpartiestodayaretheHindu-dominated"MouvementSocialisteMauricien"(MSM)andtheostensiblynonethnic,butinpracticeCreole-Muslimalliance,"MouvementMili-tantMauricien"(MMM).Theso-calledbest-losersystem,whichsupplementstheWestminsterelectoralsystem,ensurestherepresentation of ethnicminoritiesintheparliament.AmaintaskforindependentMauritiansocietyhasbeentocre-atepoliticalconsensusandsomedegree of culturalintegra-tion.Thishasbeenachievedinpolitics.Althoughpartiesre-mainethnicincharacter,thereiswideconsensusregardingtherules of parliamentarydemocracy.SocialControl.Mauritiushasnomilitaryforce,andaspe-ciallytrainedsegment of thepoliceforceisresponsibleforcontrollingviolentconflict.Mauritianlawisanamalgam of NapoleonicandBritishjudicialprinciples.Althoughoftenaccused of corruption,thecourtsystemfunctionseffectively.Atthevillagelevel,conflictsoverproperty,adultery,orotherminorcrimesareoftensolvedinformally,sometimesinvolv-ingrespectedeldersasmediators.Ethnicconflictsareavoidedorresolvedthroughinformalpolicies of avoidanceandthroughawidespreadideology of tolerance,aswellasfor-malpolicies of compromise.Conflict.Therehavebeentwogeneralstrikes(1970and1979)sinceMauritianindependence.Strikesandotherforms of protestarewidespreadamongworkersinthemanu-facturingindustry,whofeeltheyareunderpaidandover-worked.Ethnicconflicts,whichturnedviolentthroughriotsin196 5-1 968,areusuallymediatedby,andexpressedthrough,theformaljudicialandpoliticalsystems.Inrecentyears,drugcrimeshavebecomecommon.Violentcrimesarerare.Therapidrate of economicgrowthmayhelpexplainthecomparativelack of manifestsocialconflict,especiallyethnicconflict,incontemporaryMauritius.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligions of MauritiusareHindu-ism(52percent),RomanCatholicism(31percent),Islam(16percent)andBuddhism(1percent).WithinHinduismtherearemanyvariants,whichcorrespondtovariantsfoundinIndiaitself.Low-castepractices of animalsacrificearecommoninruralareas.MarathaandTamilvariants of Hin-duismarealsodistinctiveinrelationtothedominantBiharivariety.Everyyear,theMahaShivaratriiscelebratedbyHin-dus,whomarchtoalakeinsouthernMauritius(sincetheGangesistoodistant).MostMuslimsareSunnis;afewareShiasandAhmadis.AlocalCatholiccustomisanannualpil-grimagetothetomb of Jacques-D1siriLaval,anow-beatifiednineteenth-centurypriest.Syncretistbeliefsarecommon,andtraces of heterodoxEuropeanandIndianbeliefsandtra-ditionalAfricanbeliefscanbeidentifiedamongHindusandCreolesalike,particularlyinruralareas.Beliefinwitchcraftiscommon,butitisrarelyimportantsocially.ReligiousPractitioners.TheCatholicchurchisledbytheArchbishop of theMascareignesandtheSeychelles,themostpowerfulreligiouspersoninMauritius.Catholicpriestsarehighlyrespectedandpowerfulintheirlocalcom.munities.Manyareinvolvedinsocialwork.HindupunditsandMuslimimamsarealsopowerful,althoughtheirreli-gionsdonotrequireformalleadership.Punditsandimamswieldpowerinritualandinthecontext of HinduandMus-limyouthclubs(baitkasandmadrassahs,respectively).Bud-dhismis of negligibleimportanceinMauritius;most of theBuddhistsarealsoCatholics.Thelonganis(Frenchlonganiste)isasorcererwithconsiderablepowerinmanylo-cations.Hisorhermagicalpowerconsists of theabilitytohealthesick,divinethefuture,andinfluencepeople'schar-acter.Thelonganisisusedbypeople of allethnicgroups;mostlonganisareCreolesorHindus.Ceremonies.Therearethreespectacularannualreligiousceremonies.TheTamilfestivalCavadiisarite of passagein-volvingfirewalking;itisparticipatedinbymanynon-Tamils.TheCatholicPireLavalpilgrimageisexclusivelyChristian,andtheMahaShivaratriisexclusivelyHindu.Allmajorritu-alsandfestivals of thelargestreligioustraditions,includingtheChineseNewYear,arecelebratedbytheirfollowers.Arts.Theonlyindigenousartform of Mauritiusisthesega,aform of musicsimilartotheTrinidadcalypso,havingbeenshapedintheencounterbetweenFrenchplantersandAfri-canslaves.Nowevolvedintopopanddancemusic,thesegaisverypopular.Indiantraditionalandpopularmusicarealsowidespreadandareperformedlocally,butEuropeanclassicalmusichasonlyalimitedappeal.Theliterature of Mauritiusiscomparativelyrich;authorswritemostlyinFrenchandHindi,althoughradicalnationalistshaveinrecentyearstakentowritinginKreol.WhereasMauritianliteraturetendstodealwithethnicityandthesearchforculturalidentity,thevisualartstendtoberomanticandnature-worshipingincharacter.Medicine.Asmanyassevendistinctivetraditionalmedi-calsystemshavebeenidentifiedinMauritius,inadditiontoscientificmedicine.Mauritianstendtobelievein,andusetheservices of, severaldifferentpractitioners of medicine.Heal-ingtechniquesmayrangefromIndianAyurvedicmedicinetoChineseherbalmedicineandtheincantations of thelon-ganis.Althoughthemainkillersareheartdiseaseanddiabe-tes,acommoncomplaintismoveler("badair"),whichisper-ceivedaspsychosomatic.Thegeneralsymptomsaregiddinessandtiredness.Healthservicesarefree,andallmajorvillageshaveadispensary.DeathandAfterlife.Thebeliefinanafterlifeisuniver-sallycommon,anddeathisgenerallyacceptedasaninevita-blefate.HindusandChristiansarrangewakesfortheirde-ceased.MuslimandChristiangraveyardsarevisitedaroundthetime of importantreligiousceremonies,andflowersareplantedonthegraves.TheHinduscrematetheirdeceased.BibliographyArno,Toni,andClaudeOrian(1986).L'ileMaurice,uneSoci&t9Multiraciale.Paris:L'Harmattan.Benedict,Burton(1961).IndiansinaPluralSociety.London:HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice.Bowman,LarryW.(1990).Mauritius:DemocracyandDevel-opmentintheIndianOcean.Boulder,Colo.:Westview.Mogul179He,hissecretary,andmembers of hiscouncilareelectedthroughadultfranchiseonthebasis of politicalparty.Thisdemocraticsystemreplacesthetraditionalsystembasedonprivilegeandnonprivilege.Thevillagecouncilmanagestheaffairs of thevillage:mattersconcerningagriculturalactivi-ties,allocation of agriculturalplots,collection of taxes,distri-bution of water,control of themarket,communityactivities,andwelfare of thepeople.Thereligiousactivitiesareat-tendedtobythedifferentchurch ... sacrificialblood.Adeceasedfamilymembermaybecomeabaiforanum-ber of reasons.Baiincludethosewhoperformednoreli-giouslysanctionedgooddeedduringthecourse of theirlives;thosewhosedeadbodiesweretouchedbysomepollutingani-mal,suchasadog;andthosewhowerewitchesorshamans.Inaddition,thosewhointheordinarycoursewouldnotbe-comebaimaybeinterceptedontheirwaytoHeavenbyawitchorshamanandbemadetoreturntoEarthandtroubletheirfamily.Baiaresomewhatlikemari,themaindifferencebeingthatmariatroubleawiderrange of personsthantheirowndescendants.Baiarehonoredonceeachyear,andmostfamiliesofferthesacrifice-generallyacockforamanandahenforawoman-onthefull-moondayinthemonth of Baisakh(April-May).Toeliminatethenecessityformakingthisan-nualsacrifice,alineagemembercangotoBanaras(Varanasi,inIndia)wherewithasingleofferinghecanplacatethe...

... areprominentingovernmentservice,financialserv-ices,andpolitics.IndustrialArts.AnyneedsthatBrahmansandChhetrisexperienceforcraftandindustrialproductsaremetbylower-rankedartisancastes,suchasblacksmiths,tailors,andleatherworkers.Trade.InruralareasBrahmansandChhetristypicallyrelyonothers,suchasNewarshopkeepers,fortheircommercialrequirements.Division of Labor.OnlyBrahmanmalesmayactaspriests,butmuch of thedailyhouseholdpuja(worship)isdonebywomen.Theday-to-dayagropastoralactivities of BrahmanandChhetrifamiliesaresharedbetweenmenandwomen.Bothsexesworkinthefields,butoverallwomenspendmorehoursperdayinagriculturalanddomesticlaborthanmen.Theyperformmost of thechildcare,preparationandcooking of food,andweedingandtending of crops.Mendotheplowingandmaintaintheterracewalls.Bothareactiveatharvesttime.LandTenure.BrahmansandChhetrisareoftenlandown.ers.Fieldsareoftenterracedandmostlyhavebeenfraction-atedintosmallplotsthroughinheritanceovergenerations.Large-scaleabsenteelandlordismisnotcommoninthehills of Nepal.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.BrahmansandChhetrisaremembers of twokinds of clans,thethaT(indicatedasasur-name)andthegotra;theformerisexogamousifarelationcanbetraced,butthelatterisstrictlyexogamous.Descentandinheritancefollowthemalelineexclusively.KinshipTerminology.Allfirstcousinsareaddressedbysiblingterms.Siblingsaredesignatedaseitherolderoryoungerbrothersorsisters:thereisnogenerictermforbrotherorsister.Unrelatedpersons,includingstrangers,arealsooftenaddressedbykinshipterms.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Mostmarriagesaremonogamous,butpoly-gynousunionsweretraditionallyfrequentandarestillocca-sionallyfound.Secondandsubsequentwivesareoftenmem-bers of otherethnicgroups,suchastheGurungs,Magars,Tamangs,Sherpas,andNewars,butnotlow-casteartisangroups.Withtheexception of Thakuris,theself-proclaimedaristocratsamongtheChhetriswhopracticematrilateralcross-cousinmarriage,cousinmarriageisnotpracticed.Brah-mangirlstraditionallymarriedbytheage of 11,andChhetrigirlsafewyearslater,buteducatedurbandwellersnowmarryintheirlateteensorearlytwenties.Groomsarenormallyafewyearsolderthantheirbrides.Villageexogamyisusuallyobserved,andparentsarrangetheirchildren'smarriageswiththehelp of anintermediary.Anastrologeralsoisconsultedtoensurethatthecouplemakeagoodmatch.Theboy'sfamilypriest,inconsultationwiththebride'sfamily,setsanauspi-ciousdateandtime,basedonthelunarcalendar(severalmonths of theyearareinauspiciousformarriage).Theentireweddingceremonylastsafullday,fromthetimethemembers of thegroom'spartyarriveatthebride'shometilltheyleavethenextdaywiththebride.Themostimportantpart of the34BengaliCeremonies.TheBengaliHindureligiouscalendarisre-pletewithworshipceremonies(puja)devotedtothedeities of boththeGreatandLittleTraditions.Especiallyimportantistheannualfestival(orgajan) of theLordShiva,asarethose of hiscounterpartgoddesses,KaliandDurga.ThegoddessesLakshmi (of wealthandgoodfortune)andSaraswati (of learningandculture)alsohaveannualceremonies.Impor-tantfolkdeitiespropitiatedbyHindusandMuslimsalikein-cludethe"goddesses of thecalamities"-Sitala,goddess of smallpox;Olabibi,goddess of cholera;andManasa,goddess of snakes-all of whomhavetheirannualfestivals.BengaliMuslimscelebratethemajorfestivals of Islam:theIdal-Fitr,whichmarkstheend of theMuslimmonth of fasting(Rama-dan);theIdal-Adha,or"feast of thesacrifice,"coterminouswiththeannualpilgrimage(haj)toMeccaandcommemorat-ingthestory of theprophetIbrahim'swillingnesstosacrificehissonatGod'scommand.EventhoughBengaliMuslimsareSunnis,theyalsoobservethefestival of Muharram,usu-allyassociatedmoreprominentlywiththeShiadivision of Islam,inwhichthedeath of Hussain,grandson of theProphetMohammedandmartyr of thefaith,ismourned.Bengalisalsocelebratethewell-knownHindurite of springcalledHoli;formembers of allreligiousfaiths,theannualnewyearceremonyonthefirstday of theHindu(andBen-gali)month of Baisakh,comingbetweenAprilandMayandmarkingtheonset of spring,isajoyousoccasion.Arts.UrbanBengalieliteculturehasproducedone of South Asia& apos;sfinestliterarytraditions,includingnotonlythenovel,shortstory,andpoetrybutdramaandfilmaswell.Some of India'sbestclassicalmusiciansandgreatestexpo-nents of thedancehavebeenBengalis.BengalishavealsomademajorcontributionstoIndianand world cinema.RuralBengalhasanoldandwell-developedfolkliterature,includ-ingnarrativepoetry(puthi),drawnfromhistory,myth,andlegend,aswellasaverypopularitineranttheater(calledjatra).Thereisalsoastrongtradition of religiousfolkmusic,particularlyassociatedwiththemoredevotionalandmysticalpractices of popularHinduism(e.g.,worship of thegoddessKaliandtheLordKrishna)and of popularIslam(e.g.,thede-votionalgatherings of thevariousSufiorders).Terra-cottatempleandmosquearchitecturethroughoutBengalismuchadmired,andthereisafolktradition of painting,seeninHindureligiousscrollsandintheflowery,andoftenobscure,religioussymbols(alipana)commonlydaubedinwhitericepasteonthewallsandfloors of homesteadsbyHinduvillagewomen.Finally,despiteindustrializationandthespread of commerciallymanufacturedproductsthroughouttheregion,theBengaliruraleconomystilldependsontheservices of tra-ditionalcraftspeople-weavers,potters,carpenters,black-smiths,metalworkers,andthelike-whosewaresoftenrepre-sentahighquality of bothtechniqueandaestheticdesign.Medicine.AlthoughmodemscientificmedicinehaslongbeenknownandacceptedinBengal,thehomeopathic,allo-pathic,andtheHinduAyurvedicandMuslimUnanimedicaltraditionscontinuetoexistasalternatives.Therealsore-mainsahost of folkbeliefsandcuringpracticesamongboththeurbanimmigrantpoorandthepeasantryasawhole.Folkhealers(ojhaorfakir)arecommonlycalledupontotreateverythingfromtemporaryillnessesandchronicdiseasestobonefracturesandsnakebite,aswellastocounteractethno-psychiatricafflictionsresultingfromsorceryandghostpos-session.Folkcuringpracticesstresstheuse of magicalverses(mantras),oftencombinedwithindigenousmedicinalcon-coctions.Traditionalhealersalsoprovideamuletsforprotec-tionagainstdevilryandsorcery,thewearing of whichisubiq-uitousnotonlyamongthepeasantryandtheurbanpoorbutalsoamongtheBengalimiddleclassesaswell.DeathandAfterlife.BengaliHindus, of course,acceptthedoctrine of samsara,orthetransmigration of soulsfromoneearthlylifetoanother.Funerarycremations,practicedbynearlyallHinducastes,arethoughttoreleasetheindividual'sspiritualessenceorsoulfromitstransitoryphysicalbody.Bearingtheinfluence(karma) of alltheactions of itsjustter-minatedearthlyembodiment,thesoulthenisreincarnatedintoanewworldlyformandway of lifeshapedbythosepastactions.Normallyaman'seldestsoncarriesoutthefuneraryrites,lightingthefuneralpyreafterfirstplacingaburningstickinthemouth of thedeceased.Muslimbeliefsrequirethatatdeaththepersonberituallybathed,shrouded,andburiedinacoffinwiththeheadfacingtheholycity of Mecca,afterwhichtherefollowsafuneraryprayerceremonyideallyledbyeitherarelativeorarecognizedleader of thelocalMus-limcommunity.Thedeadarethoughttoenteranindefinitetransitionalstate-duringwhichthewickedbegintoexperi-encepunishmentandthevirtuousto ... abamboowall.Thefirstroomcontainsstandsforwaterpotsandafirekeptburningforwarmth.Theinnerroomhasahearthforcooking,behindwhichisaplaceforthegods(deosthan).Accesstotheinnerroombyoutsidersispro-hibited.Theveranda of thehousecontainsthericehusker,pestle,andgrindstone.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheBaigaraisepigs(whichareheldinparticularlyhighesteem),poultry,goats,andcattle(cows,bullocks,andbuffalo).Dogsandcatsarekept.TheBaigaalsogrowseveralkinds of tobaccoforper-sonaluseandimportanalcoholicbeveragemanufacturedfromthecorolla of themahuatree(Bassialatifolia).Ganjaisusedfrequentlybutopiumuseisrare.Rice,variouskinds of grain(kodon,kutki,andsiker),sweetpotatoes,cucumbers,dal(lentils),maize,roots,leaves,herbs,andyoungbambooshootsareamongtheitemsgrownorgatheredforconsump-tion.Pej(thebrothinwhichriceorgrainhasbeenboiled)isastaple.ThefollowingfruittreesareamongthosegrownbytheBaiga:mountainblackplum,mango,forestmango,whiteteak,coromandelebony,wildfig,banyan,Indianquince,andsebastenplum.Leaves of thebuttertree,whicharegroundtoproducechutney,arealsogathered.Fishisconsumed,andallmeatsareconsideredtobeacceptableforconsumption.Thefollowinganimalsarehunted:sambardeer,blackbuck,barkingdeer,hares,mongooses,peacock,andvariouswild-fowl.TheBaigaalsohuntrats(seventeenvarieties of whichhavebeennoted)andgathereggs.Bewarispracticed.Anarea of forestisselected,itstreescut(leavingstumpsaboutafoothigh)andallowedtodry,thenburned.Seedissowedafterthefirstrain.Landcultivatedinthismannerisworkedforanaverage of threeyears.Inadditiontohunting,fishing,animaldomestication,andagriculture,theBaigaderivein-comefromthemanufacture of bambooproducts,fromthecultivationandsale of honey,andbyhiringthemselvesoutaslaborers.IndustrialArts.TheBaigadonotspinfibersorweavecloth.Clothingispurchasedinlocalmarkets.Fewimple-mentsaremanufacturedbyBaigaartisans.Ironimplementssuchastheaxe(tangia),sickle(hassia),arrowheads,diggingtools(kudariandsabar),woodplane(basula),drillingtool(bindhna),andagrass-clearingtool(raphi)arepurchasedfromtheAgaria,theLohar,orotherneighboringpeoples.Manykinds of bambooandleafbasketsaremanufacturedbytheBaigaforpersonaluse.Woodenbedsarealsoproducedlocally.Trade.TheBaigarelyontradetosecureironimplements,salt,blankets,alcoholicbeverages,andarticles of clothingfromneighboringpeoples.Tradeactivityseemslimitedtotheseitems.Otherwise,theBaigaareinlargepartself-reliant.Division of Labor.Thereexistsnocleardivision of laborbasedongender.Womenmayengageinalmostall of theac-tivitiesundertakenbymen.Menandwomensharethere-sponsibilityforcooking(thehusbandassumingfullresponsi-bilitywhenthewifeismenstruating),gatheringwater,fishing,andwoodcutting.Onlymenareallowedtohunt,andwomenarenotpermittedtomakekhumris(wickerhoodslinedwithmohlainleaves,usedwhenitrains)orthatchroof-ingforhouses.Womenmayparticipateincultivationbyclearingandlightingthefielddebris.Womenmaynot,how.ever,touchplows.Womenarealsoprohibitedfromkillingpigs,goats,andchickens.LandTenure.Thegardenlandsimmediatelysurroundingthevillageandthefieldsusedforbewarappeartobeconsid-eredastheproperty of theindividualmembers of particularhouseholds.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheBaigaarestrictlyendoga-mous,thoughBaigamenwhotakenon-Baigawivesmayhavetheirspousesadmittedtothetribebytheperformance of cer-tainrites.Thetribeisdividedintoseveralrelativelyendoga-mousjat.Each of thesejatoccupiesaseparateterritoryandthereisconsiderableintergrouprivalryovertheissue of supe-riority.ThevariousjatincludetheBinjhwar(alsoBinchwar),Mondya,Bheronnthya,MuriaBaiga,Narotia,Bharotia,Nahar,Raibhaina,Kathbhaina,Kondwan(orKundi),Gondwaina,Bhumia,KurkaBaiga,SawatBaiga,andDudh-bhaina.Thesejatarealsosubdividedintoexogamousgarhandgoti,theformerbeing of greaterimportancethanthelat-Bohra47 of India.TheirreligiousandpoliticalcenterisatSurat,wherethehighpriest of theDaudiBohra,themainsection of thecommunity,resides.AlthoughtheDaudiBohras(alsoknownastheLotias,fromtheirwordfor'waterpot,"becausetheirturbanistraditionallyshapedlikeone)representthelargestandmostwidespreadclass of Bohras,thereareseveralotherdivisions of tradingBohras:Alia,Jaafari,Nagoshi,andSulaimaniBohras.InadditiontothetradingBohrasthereisalargeandequallyprosperousgroup of villageBohraswhoseoccupationisfarming.Theorigin of thename"Bohra"isbe-lievedtobetraceabletotheclass of HinduBohraswhoarestillfoundinJodhpurDistrict,Rajasthan.Onetheorysug-geststhewordisderivedfromtheGujaratiwordmeaning"totrade,"theoccupation of thefirstHinduconvertstoIslam.ManyBariasandNagarBrahmanstothisdaybearthesur-name"Bohora."TheDaudiandmost of theotherBohrasspeakGujarati,anIndo-Europeanlanguage;manylivinginlargecitiessuchasBombayalsospeakUrduandEnglish.HistoryandCulturalRelationsAllBohrascanbetracedtoconvertsmadebyShiitemission-aries of theIsmailisectintheeleventhcentury.Some of themclaimtocomefromEgyptian-ArabandYemen-Arabances-tors.Othersmaintaintheyareentirely of Hindublood;ac-cordingtotheSunniBohrastheywereconvertedfrommanycastes.TheAliaBohrastaketheirnamefromAli,whofoundedthesectinA.D.624.TheAliasstronglyresembletheSulaimaniBohrasintheirappearanceandcustoms;theDaudiBohrasarethewealthiest,mostorganized,andmostubiquitoussect of Bohras.ThemaindifferencebetweenthemandtheotherMuslimsisthattheypayspecialvenerationtoAli,tohissons,HassanandHussain,andtotheirhighpriest,themullahsahib of Surat.TheJaafariBohrastracetheirnametoJaafarSheraziwhoconvertedthemtotheSunnifaith(theyarealsoknownasPatanisaftertheirheadquartersinthatcity).JaafariBohrasarethedescendants of thoseDaudiBohraswhochangedtotheorthodox(Sunni)faithduringthereign of MuzaffarI,governor of GujaratinA.D.1391.Nagoshisor"nonfleshites"areaverysmallschismfoundedaroundA.D.1789.Thefounderwasexcommunicatedbecauseheproposedapeculiardoctrine,themostnoteworthyfeaturebeingthattoeatanimalfleshwassin.TheNagoshishavenowalmostdisappeared.TheSulaimaniBohrasarethede-scendants of theconvertsmadeinArabiainthesixteenthcenturybyamissionarysentbyaSuratBohra.Theyreceivedtheirnameduetoa ... of lessthanhalfahect-are.NosignificantlandreformhasbeenattemptedinBangladeshinthepastfortyyears.Twodecadesago,only20percent of thelandholdingsinWestBengalaccountedforsome60percent of thetotalcultivatedarea,andalargenum-ber of cultivatingfamilieswerelandlesslaborers,tenants,andsharecroppersaswell;sincethenWestBengalhasmadeasig-nificanteffortatlandreformwithsomebeneficialresults.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.ThecommonestkingroupinruralBengalisthehomestead-basedpatrilinealextendedfamily,whosemembersjointlyownhomesteadlandandmay-butusuallydonot-alsoownagriculturallandincom-mon.Thehomesteadistypicallycomposed of aseniormalehead,hismarriedsonswiththeirfamilies,unmarriedchildrenandgrandchildren,andotherdependents.KinshipTerminology.Inconventionalclassifications,theBengalikinshipterminologyis of thebifurcatecollateraltypeinterms of firstascendinggenerationterminology,anditis of theSudanesetypefromthepoint of view of cousintermi-nology.Thus,each of Ego'sparentalsiblingsisdenotedbyaseparateterm,andsothereforeiseachparentalsibling'schild(i.e.,"cousin"inEnglishterms).Inthisrespect,Bengaliter-minologydoesnotdifferfromthatfoundacrossnorthIndiaandtheMiddleEast.AlthoughbothBengaliHinduandBen-galiMuslimterminologiessharethesamepattern,MuslimsemploysevenkinshiptermsthatarefoundinUrduandinseveralcasesareactuallyderivedfromArabicandPersian,all of whichlanguagesaredistinctivelyidentifiedwithIslamicratherthanHinducivilization.(Recentdiscussions of Ben-galikinship,however,suggestthattheconventionalanthro-pologicalclassificationsystemhaslimitedutilityforunder-standingthebasicculturalcategories of kinshipinBengaliculture.)MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Bengalimarriagesarearranged,butHinduandMuslimmaritalpracticesdifferincertainkeyrespects.AmongHindus,considerations of casterankareimportant;thatis,marriageusuallyoccursbetweenpersons of thesamecaste.Hypergamousunions-betweenmembers of closelyrankedcastes,withwomenmarryingupward-arenotforbid-den.Buthypogamousmarriages-inwhichawomanmarriesaman of alowercaste-arestronglydiscouragedandrarelyoccur.Because of theegalitarianideology of Islam,casteWrelatedrestrictionsarenotformally...

... Ef-fects of Partition.NewHavenandLondon:YaleUniversityPress.Sims,Holly(1988).PoliticalRegimes,PublicPolicy,andEco-nomicDevelopment:AgriculturalPerformanceandRuralChangeintheTwoPunjabs.NewDelhi:SagePublications.MURRAYJ.LEAFPurumETHNONYM:BurumOrientationIdentification.ThePurumareanOldKukitribeoccupy-ingtheManipurHillsarea of IndiaandMyanmar(Burma).In1931theywerelocatedinfourindependentvillages:PurumKhulen,PurumTampak,PurumChangninglong,andPurumChumbang.Thename"Purum"mightmean"hidefromtiger,"asTarakchandraDasandJohnShakespearhavesuggested.Location.Thegeographicextent of theregioninhabitedbythePurumrangesfrom24°23'to24°27'Nandfrom93°56'to94°2'E.Demography.As of 1931therewere303PurumslivinginKhulen,Tampak,Chumbang,andChangninglong.In1977thePurumpopulationnumbered300.LinguisticAffiliation.Purum(alsocalledPuram)isaTibeto-BurmanlanguagebelongingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsWithregardtotheorigin of thePurum,theirtraditionsstatethattheyemergedfromasubterraneanregionnearImphal.Theoriginalhome of thePurumandotherOldKukitribesisbelievedtohavebeenintheLushaiHills.TheywereforcedtomigratetothehillcountryborderingtheImphalValleybyNewKukitribes(whohadbeendisplacedbytheLushaisorMizos).Theinitialsettlement of theseOldKukipeopleswasshort-livedasNewKukisforcedthemtoscatterinmanydi-rections.OnceinManipur,independentcommunitiesbegantodevelop.Oncesettled,theyassimilatedmanyaspects of Meitheiculture(includingsomeHindusocialandreligioustraits).ThePurumandotherOldKukitribeswerealsoinflu-encedbycontactswithNagatribesandNewKukitribeswhosemigrationfollowedtheirown. Of all of these,contactwiththeMeitheishasbeenmostimportant.SettlementsKhulenislocatedonaridgesome1,200metersabovesealevel,east of Waikhong.Tampakisfoundontheslope of alowhillnorth of Waikhong.Changninglongissituatedatopahighhilleast of Tampak.Chumbangislocatedinavalleyonaridgeeast of KhulenatthepointwheretheMahaTurelandTimitLokriversconverge.Purumvillagesarelocatednearareadilyavailablesource of freshwater(e.g.,springorstream).AtypicalPurumhousecontainsthefollowingstructures:adwellingplaceforhumanoccupants,agranary,acowshed(optional),apigsty,apenforfowl,andcourtyards.Thede-sign of thehouseisrectangular.Inadditiontoindividualhab-itations,thetypicalPurumvillagewillalsocontainaruishang(villageassemblyhall),laman(ashrineforthegodNung-chungbaandlocus of certainmagicoreligiousceremoniesforthecommunity),andraisedplatforms(remains of thien-hong-bagenna)erectedbycommunitymembersforthepur-pose of obtainingsocialstatus.222Paharicastedistinctionsandrestrictionsrigorouslyenforced.Themarriageceremonymaytakeplaceatanearlyage(8to10)butnowadaysusuallynotuntillater,andinanycasethecou-pledoesnotbegintolivetogetheruntilpubertyhasbeenat-tained:girlsbyaboutage13 ... inlow-castedisputesortransgressions.Sinceindependence,variouskinds of coun-cilshavebeenestablishedbythenationalgovernments of thenationsinwhichPaharislive.InIndia,theseareelectedbod-ies,withanelectedheadmanandwithseatsreservedforwomenandmembers of Achutcastes.Theiractualpowers,however,tendtobelimitedtoofficialmatters,whilesocialcontrolremainswiththetraditionalhigh-castecouncils.AsistruethroughoutIndia,low-casteindividualsandcollectivitiesaresubjecttostemmeasures,includingviolentphysicalsanc-tions of themostdiresort,toenforcetheconstraintsplacedonthembythehighcastes.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Becausetheoverwhelmingpreponder-ance of PaharisareHindus,onlythatreligionisdescribedhere.TherearealsoMuslimPaharis,buttheyhavebeenlittledescribedintheliterature.PresumablytheirIslamicreligionisthat of therest of South Asia, withadistinctlyPaharicasttoit,notablyasaresult of beliefsandpractices,pervasiveinPahariculture,thatareneitheridentifiablyIslamicnorHinduinorigin.PahariHinduismsharesmost of itscontentwithpan-IndianHinduism,includingsomedegree of beliefindharma(intrinsicindividualandcollectivedutyor"rightbehavior"),karma(justdessertscontingentonfulfillment of dharma),samsara(reincarnationinaccordwithkarma),maya(theillu-sorynature of existence),nirvanaorsamadhi(ultimatees-cape,ifkarmapermits,fromthewheel of reincarnationintoonenesswiththeuniverse).Similarlythereisanawareness of thescriptures,thegreatdeities of Hinduism,theholyplaces,theholydays,theperiodicandlife-cyclerituals,thevalues,theprescriptionsandproscriptionsenjoineduponthefaith-ful,etc.ButtherearealsodistinctivePaharitraditionsre-gardedbytheirpractitionersastheconsequence of socialandenvironmentalcircumstances of theiralpineexistence.Incontrasttovillages of theplains,thereislittlesystematicdif-ferenceamongPaharicastesinreligiousbeliefandpractice.Intheeyes of outsiders,expatriates,andsophisticates,thesetraditionsareoftenseenasrusticandthereforeembarrass-inglyunorthodoxandinneed of reform.Thedominantas-pect of thisrusticityisalack of rigorinfollowingthebehav-ioralinjunctions of SanskriticHinduism:dietaryrestrictionsarevirtuallyignored,exceptforthetabooonbeef;many of thegreatdeities of Hinduismandtheritualsassociatedwiththemareoverlooked;nicetiesintheexpressionandmainte-nance of ritualpurityaretreatedcasually;mostSanskriticre-strictionsonhigh-castewomenarenotobserved;andlife-cycleritesandperiodicritualsareunderstoodandobservedinadistinctlyPaharimanner.Supernaturalare of manytypesandinnumerablemani-festations-assuggestedbythefrequentlyquoteddescription of Hinduismasa"religion of 330milliongods."Deities(orgods)arethemostpowerful of supernaturalsandmustbepla-catedtoavoidtheirdestructivewrath.Placationtakestheform of honoringthemwithworship,especiallybymaking of- feringstothem(prominentlythroughanimalsacrifice).InSirkandaanumber of householddeities(associatedwith,af-fecting,andthereforeworshipedbyhouseholdmembers)areworshipedbyeachfamilyatshrinesinthedwelling.Inaddi-tion,therearevillagedeities,worshipedbymostvillagersonritualoccasionsatashrineinornearthevillage.AmongthelatterdeitiesarethefivePandavabrothers,knowntoeveryHinduasheroicwarriors of theMahabharataepic,buttomyknowledgeworshipedasmajordeitiesonly,anduniversally,byPaharis.PolyandrousWesternPaharisocietiescitethePaniyanETHNONYMS:Pania,Paniya,PanyaTheword"Paniyan"means'laborer."Theyareamonganunfortunategroup of peoplewhotraditionallywerebondedla-borers."Bondedlabor"resultsfromasocialagreementbe-tweenadebtorandcreditorthatstipulatesthatthedebtorhasalifelongobligationtoworkforthecreditor.ThesepeoplearescatteredinKozhikodeDistrict,parts of MalappuramDistrictontheoutskirts of theGhats,andalsoinsomeareas of NilgiriDistrict,inTamilNadu.Theytotaled51,655in1971.ThePaniyans'originsareunknown.TosomeEuropeanstheyseemtobe of Africanancestrybecause of theirdarkskin,curlyhair,largeearplugs,andbroadnoses.Thepeoplethemselveshavenonotion of theirancestryorhomeland.Theirhousingconsists of rows of hutsmadefrombam-boowiththatchedroofs.They.areeithersingle-ordouble-storied.Duringthemonths of monsoonthePaniyanmovenearstreamsandcoolplaces,andaftertherainisfinishedtheyreturntotheirmainhuts.ThePaniyanspeakaMa-layalamdialect.PeopleemployedonestatesalsospeakKannada.ThemainPaniyanoccupationisworkingascultivatorsforlandowners.Traditionally,theywereusuallyboughtbytheownersforsmallamounts of rupees,afterwhichtheycouldnotleaveatwill;ifsuchabondedlaborerleft,thelandownermadesurethathewouldnotbehiredbyanyoneelse.Bondedlaborisnowillegal,andafewPaniyansowntheirownlandandcultivatericeandragi.Womenandchildrenusuallypar-ticipateindiggingjunglerootsorpotherbsforfood.ThePaniyanspreviouslywereoftenknownascoffeethieves,be-causetheyweresometimeshiredbywealthylandlordstogooutduringthenight,stripbushes,anddeliverthecoffeebeanstothelandlord.Todaytheyarefrequentlyemployedasfarmandplantationlaborers.Marriagetakesplacewiththehelp of parents.Agirlischosenbyaman'sfamily.Theceremonyisverysimpleandisconductedbyachernmi(priest).Sixteencoinsandnewclothesaregiventothechemmi,whopresentsthemtothebride'spar-ents.Monogamyisusual,butthereisnooppositiontoamantakingmorethanonewifeifhecanaffordthem.Paniyanreligionincludesplacatingdemons of varioustypeswithoccasionalofferingsandworshipingdeitiesinani-malform,Kulibeingthemainone.TheyespeciallyhonortheHindudivinityKadBhagavadi;thisdeityhasnoimage,onlyawoodenbox.Shrinesdedicatedtoherarebuiltinmostinhab-itedplaces,withofferings.BibliographyGopalanNair,C.(1911).'Paniyans."InWynad:ItsPeoplesandTraditions,10 0-1 05.Madras:Higginbotham.Thurston,Edgar,andKadamkiRangachari(1909)."Pani-yan."InCastesandTribes of SouthernIndia,editedbyEdgarThurstonandKadamkiRangachari.Vol.6,5 7-7 1.Madras:GovernmentPress.SAIDEHMOAYED-SANANDAJIETHNONYMS:Parsee,ZoroastrianOrientationIdentification.TheParsisareanimmigrantcommunity,possiblycomingfromFars,Persia,andnowlocatedinBombay,westernIndia.Theyaredistinguishedbytheirad-herencetotheZoroastrianfaith.Location.ParsisarefoundinthegreatestnumbersintheoldBombayPresidency,between140and280Nand670and77°E.TheyhavealsosettledinrecenttimesinallmajorcitiesandtownsthroughoutIndia.LargeimmigrantcommunitiesarenowfoundintheUnitedStates,Canada,Britain,andPa-kistan.AsimilarlysizedZoroastriancommunityremainsinIran,butitsmembersarenotconsideredParsis.Demography.In1901therewere93,952Parsisthrough-outIndia.Therewasaveryslightpopulationincreaseuptothemidcentury;sincethenthepopulationhasdecreaseddra-maticallybyalmost10percenteachdecade.Thebirthrateislowerthanthedeathrate,andemigrationhaslongtakenplace,sothatin1976thepopulationwasestimatedat82,000intheIndianrepublic,plus5,000inPakistan.Additionalfac-torsthathavebeencitedforthisdeclinearelowfertility,lateageatfirstmarriage,andmarryingoutsidetheParsicommunity.LinguisticAffiliation.VirtuallyallParsistodayspeakaGujaratipatoisandEnglish.TheliturgicallanguageisAvestan,andsome of thereligiousliteratureisinPahlavi.HistoryandCulturalRelationsZoroastrianismhadbeeninexistenceinPersiaforwelloverathousandyears,usuallyasastatecult.WhenMuslimArabsintentonspreadingtheirnewfaithinvadedandoverthrewthelastZoroastrianking,Yazdagird III, inA.D.651,numerousrefugeesfled,somefollowingtheGreatSilkRouteintoChinawheretheyestablishedtradingcommunitiesandbuiltfiretemplesinvariouscities.Alltraces of theseChineseParsishaddisappearedbythetenthcenturyA.D.Otherswhohadsoughtrefugeinthemountainousregion of Kohistanwerefi-nallydriventotheport of Ormuz(Hormuz),fromwhencetheysailedtoIndia.Theexactdate of arrivaliscontroversial,butitistraditionallyputatA.D.716.RecentresearchputsitaslateasA.D.936.Thestory of theirflightandtheirlandingonthewestcoast of IndiaatDiuhassincebeenromanticized.Inreality,theyekedoutasubsistenceonmarginallandprovidedbytheirHinduhosts.Withthecoming of theEuropeans,Parsismovedintoanintermediarynichebetweentheforeign-ersandthenativesinthecities.TodaytheParsisarethemosturbanizedandWesternizedcommunityinIndia,havingbeenthefirsttoavailthemselves of theopportunitiesthatcamefromWestern-styleeducationandthegrowth of industry,commerce,andgovernmentundertheBritish.Thus,thefirstIndianstobecomesurgeons,barristers,pilots,andmembers of theBritishParliamentwereallParsis.DespitetheirlongresidenceinthecountryParsishavenotbeenabsorbedintotheIndiancastesystem.LiketheEuropeans,theyhavebeenviewedasforeigners.ThenativeHinduandMuslimstatesac-Parsi227ParsiPurum243EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Animaldomes-tication(i.e.,pigs,cows,buffalo,fowl,pigeons,ducks,dogs,andcats)andagriculturearepart of therepertoire of Purumsubsistenceactivities,thoughthelatterisbyfarthemostim-portant.ItisbelievedthatthePurumeconomywasatonetimelargelyself-sufficientandvillage-based(i.e.,beforethepressuretoincreasefoodsupply).Theavailability of landsuitableforjhum(slash-and-bum)agriculturewasprobablyone of themotivatingfactorsintheselection of Khulenasavillagesite.VillagesconstructedafterKhulenwerefoundedinordertosecureadditionallandsforcultivationwiththeplow.WhileatypicalPurumvillagewillcontrolthelandsontheslopesimmediatelybelowit,additionallandinthevalleysandatthebase of thehillsintheregionbelongstotheMeitheis,whooccupytheseareas.Purumagriculturalistsleasesome of thesetractsforthegrowing of rice,selltheirsur-plusproducetotheMeitheis,andpurchaseadditionalagri-culturallandfromthem.Wetanddryagricultureareprac-ticedbythePurum.ThelatterwasapracticeprobablyadoptedfromtheMeitheis.AmongtheproductsgrownbythePurumareplantains,sweetpotatoes,rice,cotton,taro,gourds,cucumbers,saukri(alocalvegetablewithbitterleaves),maize,onions,andsesame.Huntingandfishing(bymeans of trapsinadditiontotherodandline)areengagedintoalimitedextent,butneitherisanimportantpart of thePurumcycle of subsistence.IndustrialArts.WiththeirrawmaterialsobtainedfromthemarketsatImphal,Purumsmithsfashionessentialtoolsandweapons(e.g.smallhoes,spindles,vesselstands,spearandarrowheads,chisels,andhammers).Some of theseitems(e.g.,plowshares,daosladzesl,etc.)arepurchasedfromtheMeitheis.Purumwomenweaveclothfromyamspunfromlo-callygrowncotton.Spinningandweavingareactivitiesen-gagedinchieflybywomen.Trade.TheMeitheisandthemarketsatImphalarethesourcesfromwhichthePurumobtainessentialandluxuryitems.IronandsteelareobtainedinthemarketsatImphal.High-qualityfabric,metalornaments,andotherluxuryitemsarepurchasedfromtheMeitheis.TheMeitheisaremajorconsumers of agriculturalproductsgrownbythePurum.Division of Labor.Amongthoseactivitiesassociatedspe-cificallywitheithergender,menmanufacturebasketswhilewomenareresponsibleforthespinningandweaving of cloth,preparemeals,andgatherfirewood.Therearenotaboosrein-forcingthistaskspecialization.Womenarealsoprimarilyre-sponsibleforthesocialization of children.Menandwomenshareagriculturalduties.LandTenure.Inhabitants of aPurumvillageselectpar-celsfromthejhumlandbelongingtothevillage.Individualsareentitledtotheuse of thislandbutarenotconsideredinanywaytobeitsowners.Usufructuaryrightsmaybeinher-itedortransferredtoanothervillagemember.Valleyfields,whichareownedindividually,maybedisposed of inanyman-nerdeemedappropriatebytheirowners.Areasthathavenotalreadybeenmarkedorclearedbyothersmaybeselected.Thereisnoattemptatregulatingthesizeorlocation of theseplotsbyvillageofficials.Onceasitehasbeenselected,apor-tion of itisclearedbytheownerandamarkismadeonalargetree(byremovingpart of thebarkandattachingacrosspiece of woodinthebody of thetree)bytheclaimantsoastopre-ventanotherfromstakingclaimtoit.Jhumlandisfarmedforfouryearsandthenallowedtoliefallowfortenyears.Landdisputesaremediatedbyvillageelders.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Threesocialgroupingsare of primaryimportanceinPurumsociety:thefamily;thesubsib(socialunitcomposed of severalfamilies);andthesib(com-posed of severalsubsibs).Thesibandthefamilyaretheold-est of thesethreeconstituentgroups.ThePurumaredividedintofiveexogamoussibs-Marrim,Makan,Kheyang,Thao,andParpa.Each of these(withtheexception of Parpa)isdi-videdintosubsibs.Eachsibisheadedbyapipa(leaderorhead)whofunctionsinasimilarcapacityforone of thesub-sibs.FourteensubsibswerenotedbyDasin1945.Eachoneisheadedbyitsownpipa.Thesibhasonemajorresponsibil-ity-theregulation of marriage.Themembers of asubsibconsiderthemselvestobebloodrelatives:therelationship of itsmemberstooneanotherismoreintimatethanthatbe-tweenmembers of thesib.Ithaslimitedpolitical,economic,andreligiousfunctions.Atthetime of Das'sresearch,theseunitswerenolongerstrictlyexogamous;therule of exogamywasstrictlyobservedonlyatthelevel of thesubsib.Exogamyatthesubsiblevelisbasedonthatatthesiblevel.Purumsibsaresociallygraded,butthisgradationdoesnothaveanim-pactontheselection of maritalpartners(e.g.,thereisnoevi-dence of hypergamy).Patrilinealdescentobtainswithinthesibandsubsib.KinshipTerminology.Sudanese-typekinshipterminol-ogyisemployedforfirstcousins.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Maritalnegotiationsareinstitutedbyeithertheparents of themalesuitororbythemalesuitorhimself.Con-sent of thepartiestobewedandtheconsent of theirparentsisrequiredbeforetheunionmaytakeplace.Onceanagree-menthasbeenmadebetweenthefamilies,themalemustworkforaperiod of threeyearsinthehousehold of hisfather-in-law.Thisperiod of serviceiscalledyaun-gimba.Monoga-mousunionsarethenorm,thoughpolygynyisnotprohib-ited.Whenpolygynousarrangementshavebeennoted,theusualnumber of femalespousesistwo.Postmaritalresidenceispatrilocaloncethehusbandhascompletedhisperiod of yaun-gimbaservicetohiswife'sfather.Atthistime,themar-riedsonmaychoosetoestablishaseparatehouseholdforhimselfandhiswife.Ifhehasnoyoungerbrother,thenheandhisspousemustremaininthehome of hisparentsuntiltheparentsaredeceased.Thispracticeensuresthattheson'sparentswillbecaredforintheiroldage.Divorcemaybeob-tainedbyeitherthehusbandorwife,thoughallcasesmustbedecidedbythevillagecouncilandthekhullakpa(headman).DomesticUnit.Theprincipaldomesticunitisthenuclearfamilymadeup of twoparentsandtheirunmarriedoffspring.Extendedfamiliesconsisting of parentsandoneormoremar-riedmalechildren(togetherwiththeirfamilies)areun-common.Inheritance.Uponthedeath of afather,hispropertyisin-heritedbyhissons.Usuallytheyoungestsonreceivesthelargestshareashehasbeenresponsibleforcaringforboth224PahariRaha,ManisKumar,ed.(1987).TheHimalayanHeritage.Delhi:GianPublishingHouse.Raha,ManisKumar,andSatyaNarayanMahato(1985).TheKinnaurese of theHimalayas.Memoirs of theAnthropologicalSurvey of India,no.63.Calcutta.GERALDD.BERREMANPandit of KashmirETHNONYMS:Batta,Bhatta,Brahman,SaraswatOrientationIdentification.ThePanditsarenatives of theKashmirValleyinnorthIndia.Theybelongtothehighest-rankedBrahmancastes of Hindusociety.AmongBrahmanstheyareidentifiedasSaraswats.Thetwomostcommonlyofferedin-terpretations of thisappellationare:Brahmanswholivewest of thesubterraneanriverSaraswati;orBrahmanswhoaredevotees of Saraswati,theHindugoddess of learning.TheSanskritwordpanditameansalearnedman.Althoughgener-allyknownasKashmiriPandits,theyrefertothemselvesasBhattaorBatta,whichisthePrakritwordfor"greatschol-ars."Therearenohistoricalrecords of PanditshavingcometoKashmirfromelsewhere,thoughmanylayobservershavespeculatedaboutpossibleJewish,Greek,orPersianorigins.Location.TheKashmirValleyislocatedapproximatelybetween33°30'and34°30'Nand73°30'and75°30'E.Itisfamousforitsscenicbeauty.Surroundedbymountains of thePirPanjalrange,whichriseupto5,150meters,thevalleyis134kilometerslongand40kilometerswideandissituatedatanaverageelevation of about1,500meters.Manyrivers,streams,andlakesprovidearichsource of water.Kashmirismarkedbyatemperateclimatewithfourdistinctseasons:spring,summer,autumn,andwinter.Much of theannualprecipitation of about66centimetersissnowandthemeantemperatureforJanuaryisabout0°C.Summertemperaturesrarelyriseabove35°C.Demography.WhenallHindusarecountedtogether(therearesomenon-PanditHindusalsointhevalley),theyaddupto117,431persons(1981census)constitutingabout4.5percent of thetotalpopulation;therestareMuslims.Ac-cordingtounofficialestimatesthereareabout100,000Pan-ditsinKashmir.Menoutnumberwomen. Of thetotalnum-ber of Pandits,nearly65percentliveinurbanareas.WhiletherearenumerousvillagesinhabitedbyMuslimsalone,thereisnovillagewhereonlyHindusliveorwheretheyout-numberMuslims.LinguisticAffiliation.PanditsspeakKoshur(Kashmiri),anIndo-AryanlanguagewithpronouncedCentralAsian(Dardic)affinities.TheKoshurthatPanditsspeakcontainsalargernumber of words of Sanskrit-PrakritderivationthanthePersianized/ArabicizedKoshur of theMuslims.Theorigi-nalscript of thelanguage,Sharada,isakintotheDevanagariscript (of Sanskrit)buthasfallenintodisuse.Itisnowusedonlybypriestsforwritinghoroscopesorcopyingtraditionaltextsrelatingtodomesticrituals.ThescriptinuseinschoolsandelsewhereisPersian.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThefirstrecognizablehistoricalnarrative of India,theRajatar-ingini(River of Kings),composedinthemiddle of thetwelfthcenturybyaKashmiriBrahman,Kalhana,speaksofthemythicorigins of thevalleyinasacredlake.Marinefossilsfoundbymodemresearcherslendcredencetothelegends.AccordingtotheRajataringini,earlycaste-basedHindusocietywasoverlainbyBuddhistelementsbutnevercompletelydisplaced.HindudynastiescontinuedtoruleuntiltheearlyfourteenthcenturywhenIslamwasbroughttoKashmirbykingsandSufimission-ariesfromcentral Asia, Afghanistan,andPersia.Traditionhasitthatonlyahandful of families of Brahmanssurvivedthetwinprocesses of conversionandelimination.Thesewerethean-cestors of thePandits of today.KashmirwasincorporatedintotheMughalEmpireinthelatesixteenthcentury.Theliberalreligiouspolicy of theMughalsledtoagradualreassertion of theplace of KashmiriBrahmansintheirnativeland.Many,however,migratedout of Kashmir.Itwasinresponsetothere-questfromsome of theseBrahmansthattheuse of theappella-tion'Pandit"asanhonorifictitlewasapprovedbytheMughalemperorintheeighteenthcentury.Therearetodaylocalizedcommunities of KashmiriPanditsinmanyIndiancities.Ac-cordingtoestimates,thereisoneKashmiriPanditoutsideKashmirforeverythreelivingthere.TheNehrufamilywerePandits.SettlementsInbothurbanandruralareas,Panditslivealongside of Mus-lims,receivegoodsandservicesfromtheminanasymmetri-calrelationship,butmaintainsocialdistancefromthem.Thetwocommunitiesdonotintermarryorinterdinewitheachother.Thelargestpopulation of Panditsinanyvillageisbe-tween500and1,000.Thereare,however,manypredomi-nantlyPanditneighborhoods,particularlyintheurbanareas.EverywhereinthevalleyPanditsliveinstronglybuiltbrickandtimberhouseswithgabledroofs.Eachhousenormallyhasthreestoriesandaboutadozenrooms.Ayard,akitchengarden,agranary,andacattleshedmaybeattachedtoit.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Traditionally,ruralPanditswereprimarilydependentuponagriculture,thelandbeingcultivatedbytheownersthemselvesorbytheirPanditorMuslimtenants.Paddy,wheat,andmaizearethemaincrops.Fruitsandvegetablesalsoaregrown.Small-scaletrade,shopkeeping,andcivilordomesticserviceareaddi-tionalsources of income.Thetraditionalprofessionsarepriesthood,teaching,andthepractice of traditionalUnani(Greco-Arab)medicine.Panditshaveneverlookedfavorablyuponworkingwiththeirhands.Allthevillageartisans(e.g.,potters,blacksmiths,weavers)havebeenandareMuslims.Similarly,allmenialservicesareprovidedbyMuslimoccupa-tionalgroups(e.g.,barbers,washers,scavengers).Likeupper-casteHinduselsewhere,Panditsconsidercowsandbullssa-Pathan231claimSemiticlinks.Theregions of Afghanistan,easternIran,andwesternIndiahavebeensome of themostheavilyin-vadedinhistoryandsothePathan of todayareprobablyaheterogeneousgroup.AmongtheinvaderswhohaveenteredandestablishedempiresintheareahavebeenIranians,Greeks,Hindus,Turks,Mongols,Uzbeks,Sikhs,British,andRussians.ThefirsthistoricalreferencetothePathan(XD.982)referstoAfghanslivingintheSulaimanMountains.Thefirstsignificantimpacttheyhadoutside of thatareawasastroopsinthearmies of Mahmud of Ghazni,aMuslimTurk,wholedanumber of invasionsagainsttheHindukingsinnorthIndiaaroundtheyear1000.Nearly300yearslaterAfghankingsthemselvestookpowerinDelhi.ThePathanKhaljisandlaterLodhisruled ... A.D.1957.London:Macmillan;NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Dupree,Louis(1980).Afghanistan.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.AKBARS.AHMEDWITHPAULTITUSPeripateticsETHNONYMS:Gypsies,nonpastoralnomadsOrientationIdentification.Theterm'peripatetic"referstospatiallymobilegroupswhoarelargelynonprimaryproducersorex-tractorsandwhoseprincipaleconomicresourceisotherpeo-ple.Theydifferfrompastoralnomadswhomainlydependonbiophysioticresources.Peripateticsarereferredtoasnonpas-toralnomads,othernomads,servicenomads,commercialnomads,non-food-producingnomads,symbioticnomads,wanderers,andtravelers.Peripateticgroupshaveseveralcom-moncharacteristics,themostimportantbeingflexibleskillsandknowledge of theresidualresourcesandsensitivitytothesocial,cultural,linguistic,economic,andpoliticalenviron-ments of thelargersocialsystemfromwhichtheyderivetheirsubsistence.Allcomplexsocietieshavegapsintheirservice-242PunjabiArts.Punjabhasgenerateddistinctiveforms of virtuallyallthearts,fromdancetoarchitecture,bawdyfolkepicstosub-limetheologicalpoetry.Thebest-knownfolkdanceislivelyandcomplexbhangra,namedforbhang(marijuana).Inarchi-tecture,themostdistinctivemajorformisthat of theSikhGurdwaras,whichblendMogulandRajputelements.Inliter-ature,themostfamousandprominentformsareromanticepicpoems.ThemainonesareHeerRanjha,SassiPunun,andMirzaShahiban,allbyMuslimauthors.Olderthanthesearethirteenth-centurytheologicalsufipoems of ShaikFarid.IntheSikhtradition,closelyalliedinsentimentandstyletothesufi,themostnotablegroups of poemsarebyGuruNanak(146 9-1 539)andGuruArjunDev(156 3-1 606).Therearealsonumerousmodempoetsandwritersonbothsecularandreligioustopicsandanactivefilmindustrythatreliesheavilyonmelodrama,folksong,anddance.Medicine.Punjabissupportalltheforms of medicalprac-ticeavailableinIndia,andwhentheycanaffordit,generallyprefertheWestern.DeathandAfterlife.Themainformalizedbeliefscon-cerningdeathandtheafterlifearethose of thethreemajorre-ligioustraditions,butthePunjabiversions of thesetraditionsaregenerallyaustere,individualistic,andpragmatic.Religionisviewedasasource of strengthandinspirationtomeettheobligations of this world morethanasagatewaytoanother.Funeralpracticesvaryaccordingtoreligion.SeealsoSikh;ZamindarBibliographyBrass,Paul(1974).ReligionandPoliticsinNorthIndia.Cam-bridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Darling,MalcolmLyall(1925).ThePunjabPeasantinPros-perityandDebt.4thed.1947.Bombay:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1978.Columbia,Mo.: South Asia Books;NewDelhi:ManoharBookService.Eglar,Zekiye(1960).APunjabiVillageinPakistan.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.Kessinger,TomG.(1974).Vilayatpur,184 8-1 968:SocialandEconomicChangeinaNorthIndianVillage.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:University of CaliforniaPress.Leaf,MurrayJ.(1984).Song of Hope:TheGreenRevolutioninaPanjabVillage.NewBrunswick,N.J.:RutgersUniversityPress.Michel,AloysA.(1967).TheIndusRivers:AStudy of the...

... ContentsProjectStaffviContributorsviiPrefacexiiiIntroductionxixMaps1. South Asia xxviii2.CulturalRegions of South Asia xxix3.MajorLanguages of South Asia xxx4.DominantReligiousGroups of South Asia xxxi5.CulturalGroups of South Asia xxxii Cultures of South Asia 1Appendix:AdditionalCastes,CasteClusters,andTribes309Bibliography342EthnonymIndextoAppendix349Glossary363Filmography367Index372Bibliography373Directory of Distributors373EthnonymIndex375Introductionxxipopulationin1990 ... features of ordinarylifeinthesubcontinent.Withoutclaiminganyfa-vorites,wewillsimplypointtothework of AhmadAli,MulkRajAnand,BankimChandraChatterjee,NiradC.Chaud-huri,AnitaDesai,RuthPrawerJhabvala,HanifKureishi,ManoharMalgonkar,KamalaMarkandaya,VedMehta,W.D.Merchant,RohintonMistry,RK.Narayan,RajaRao,SalmanRushdie,KushwantSingh,andRabindranathTagore(theirmanybooksarenotlistedinthefollowingbibliogra-phy). Of BritishliteraturedealingwiththeoldIndiathereisamassiveamount:mostoutstandingsurelyareRudyardKipling'sshortstories,E. M. Forster'sAPassagetoIndia(1924),andLeonardWoolf'sVillageintheJungle(1913).AfineintroductiontoIndianreligionsandphilosophywaseditedbydeBary(1958),anewedition of whichwasre-centlyprepared.Verysimilarinitscoverage of HinduismandBuddhism,andlikethepreceding volume featuringmanytranslationsfromtheclassics,isRadhakrishnanandMoore(1957).AnothersuccinctintroductiontoIndianphilosophyisBishop(1975).Aconcisedictionary of HinduismisStutleyandStutley(1977);Garrett(187 1-1 873),thoughold,mayalsoberecommended.Thenaturalhistory of thesubcontinenthasbeenstudiedinincredibledetail,andsothereare,forexample,excellenthandbooksontheflora of eachregion(most of themnowquiteold,however).Asuperbnewencyclopedicsurveythatcoversflora,fauna,geography,geology,andclimatologyinasingle volume iseditedbyHawkins(1986).Alsoveryusefulforitsbotanical,zoological,andhistoricalinformation(al-thoughnotforitsout -of- dateeconomicdata)isWatt(1908),whichisaone -volume abridgment of ADictionary of theEconomicProducts of Indiathathewrotein188 5-1 893.Amodem encyclopedia that coversmuchthesamesubjectmat-terisTheWealth of India(194 8-) .Twoexcellentguidebookstothehistoricalmonuments of South Asia, equallyusefultothetouristandthescholar,havebeeneditedbyWilliams(1975)andMichellandDavies(1989).Numerousbibliographies of South Asiantopicsareavailable.Ausefulbibliography of bibliographiesforthere-gionisbyDrewsandHockings(1981).Patterson(1981)hasprovidedthemostdetailedbibliographyforthewholesub-continent.ForSriLanka,however,onemayconsultGoone-tileke(1970).AcknowledgmentsTheeditorthanksthemanydozens ... Encyclopedias.I.Levinson,David,194 7- GN307.E531991306'.039 0-4 9123ISBN 0-8 161 1-8 0 8-6 (alk.paper)ISBN 0-8 168 8-8 40-X(set:alk.paper)ISBN 0-8 161 1-8 1 2-4 (v.3:alk.paper)Thepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirements of AmericanNationalStandardforInformationSciences-Permanence of PaperforPrintedLibraryMaterials.ANSIZ39.4 8-1 984.aTmMANUFACTUREDINTHEUNITEDSTATES OF AMERICAWhenYouKnowMufltplyByToFindLENGTHInches2.54centimetersfeet30centimetersyards0.9metersmiles1.6kilometersmillimeters0.04inchescentimeters0.4Inchesmeters3.3feetmeters1.1yardskilometers0.6milesAREAsquarefeet0.09squaremeterssquareyards0.8squaremeterssquaremiles2.6squarekibmetersacres0.4hectareshectares2.5acressquaremeters1.2squareyardssquarekilometers0.4squaremilesTEMPERATUREOC - (F - 32)x.555F-("Cx1.8)+32xxclimatictype,whichischaracterizedbytheaveragetempera-ture of thecoldestmonthfallingsomewherebetween180and -3 °C(64.40and26.6°F),whilethat of thewarmestmonthisover100C(500F).Thedryseasonisstillinthewinterandsummersarebothhotandwet,thewarmestmonthhavinganaveragetemperature of about22°C(71.6°F)andthewettestmonthbeingatleasttentimesasrainyasthedriestoneinwinter.PoliticalHistoryTheyears194 7-1 948sawanimmensepoliticalupheavalinthesubcontinentthatlaidtheessentialframeworkforthemodempoliticalscene.Uptothatdatesometwo-fifths of theareahadbeenruledbynearly600kingsandprinces,thelarg-est of whoseterritories,NepalandHyderabad,wereequalinextenttoseveralEuropeannations.Atthesametimethere-mainingthree-fifthswasruledbyoneking,namelyGeorgeVI,aconstitutionalmonarchwhowasbothking of Englandandemperor of India.Hisruleembracednotonly"non-princely"IndiabutalsoBurmaandCeylon(nowknownasMyanmarandSriLankarespectively),aswellasMauritius.Bytheterms of theindependenceagreements of thatperiod,Indiaabsorbedall of theprincelystatesexceptNepalandBhutanintoitspolity,butitwassplitintothreenewunits:theIndianrepublic,WestPakistan,andEastPakistan.SriLankaandMyanmar(thencalledCeylonandBurma)alsobecameindependentrepublicsin1948.Thetwoparts of Pa-kistan,1,400kilometersapartfromeachother,formedasin-glerepublic,butfromitsearlyyearsPakistan'snationalinteg-ritywasinperil,andin1971itsplitupaltogether,EastPakistanbecomingtheindependentnation of Bangladesh.Todaytherefore South Asia containstwokingdoms(NepalandBhutan),threesecularrepublics(Bangladesh,India,andSriLanka),andtwoIslamicrepublics(PakistanandtheMaldives).Threeoutlyingarchipelagoes-theAndaman,Nicobar,andLakshadweepislands-areallad-ministeredbyIndia.Inadditionthis volume dealswiththeRepublic of Mauritius,whichis3,500kilometerssouthwest of Colombobuthasasizable South Asianpopulation.Itbe-cameindependentin1968.Itisnoteasytosummarizethepoliticalsystems of thesestates,fortheyhavevariedgreatly,butitiscertainthatthestatesthemselvesareviableentities.Withtheexception of BangladeshbreakingawayfromPakistan,thepoliticalunitstodayarepreciselythosesetupatindependence.SincethattimeIndiaandSriLankahaverunparliamentarydemocra-cies;Pakistan,Bangladesh,andtheMaldiveshavebeenIs-lamicdemocraciesalternatingwithmilitarydictatorships of aformcommonintheMiddleEast.Nepal'skingshiphasbeenmuchconstrainedbyparliamentarygovernment,whichhascreatedadefactoconstitutionalmonarchy.SocialistrhetoricandIslamicorthodoxyhavebeenprominentguidelinesformany of thesegovernmentsthroughtheyears.Regrettably,though,anotherprocedureforpoliti-calchangehasbeenaddedtothe"Westministersystem":as-sassination.Ifoneincludessuspiciousaircrashesinthesce-nario,thenIndiahas...

... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,inalandwhereeach of theuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomain of theuyuwhowasthecause of death.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury,J.N.(1971).AComparativeStudy of AdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.Memoirs of theRoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPractices of theMinyongAbors of Assam,India."Anthropos49:58 8-6 04. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III SOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirareacaste of cowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwelloveramilliontoday:theynumbered750,000in ... landorwater.Thefourdivisions of landrepre-sentthefourOngeeclans.Eachsection of theislandisfurthersubdividedintosections of landassociatedwithalineage.Theselanddivisions,knownasmegeyabarrotas,areidentifiedwithaperson'smatrilineageand,dependingonwhethertheterritoryisintheforestoronthecoast,witheithertheturtlehunters(eahambelakwe)orthepighunters(ehansakwe).Ongeesprefertohuntandgatherintheirownmegeyabarrotabuttherearenorestrictionsonhuntinginsomeoneelse'smegeyabarrota.Ifonedoeshuntinanother'smegeyabarrotaoneisobligedtoofferandsharefirstwiththeownersanyre-sourcetaken.Aperson'sidentitywithamegeyabarrotaplaysacrucialroleinOngeeritualsandceremonies;forexample,consummation of amarriagemustoccurinthewife'smegeya-barrota,andadeadperson'sbonesmustbekeptintheberate(circularhut) of adescendant'smegeyabarrota.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thepresentsmallsize of thepopulationandthelimitedinformationavailableontheNorthernandMiddleAndamansmakesitdifficulttocreateacomprehensivepicture of Andamanesekinship.Earliereth-nographicaccountspresentthebasictribaldivisionasthe"sept,"butRadcliffe-Brown'sobservationsleadustobelievethatgroupscametogethertoensurefriendlyrelations.Onthebasis of Ongeeethnographicmaterialandearlydescrip-tions of theAndamanese,itisbeyondadoubtthattheAnda-manesehavebilateraldescentgroups.KinshipTerminology.Thekinshipsystemiscognaticandterminology,onthewhole,specifiesclassificatoryrela-tions.Prefixesareaffixedtoclassificatoryterms of referencethatalsoemphasizeseniorandjunioragedifferentials.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriageisarrangedbytheelderswithintheprescribedgroup,thatis,betweenturtlehuntersandpighunters.Aman'spatrilinealrelativestakegiftsanddemandadaughterfromaman'smatrilinealgroup.AmongtheOngees,populationdeclineoftenmakesitimpossibleforayoungmantomarryhisclassificatorycrosscousin,andconsequentlyhesometimesmustmarryamucholderwomanwhoishismoth-er'sclassificatorycrosscousin.Monogamyisastrictrule.Anoldermanorwomanwhohaslostaspousereceivespriorityformarriage.Leviratemarriageisacceptable.Marriageisahighlyvaluedstatus.BothManandRadcliffe-Brownimplythatresidenceisambilocal,butsome of Radcliffe-Brown'sremarksindicateatendencytowardsvirilocalresidence.AmongtheOngeesanewlymarriedcouplestayswiththewife'smatrilinealrelativesatleastuntilachildisbom.Afterachildisbornthecouplemaymovetolivewiththehusband'ssiblingsandtheirfamilies.Divorceisrareandisconsideredimmoralafterthebirth of achild.DomesticUnit.Thenuclearfamilyisthemajorgrouparoundwhichallactivitiesrevolve.Thenuclearfamilyin-cludesamarriedcouple'sownchildrenaswellasanyadoptedchildren.Inheritance.Menandwomeninheritrightsandobliga-tionsprimarilyfromtheirmatrilineallineage.Toolsandca-noesmaybeinheritedfromthefather'sside.Socialization.Customarilychildrenaregiveninadoption.Theresponsibility of earlysocialization of thechildrestswiththechild'smatrilinealrelatives.Onceayoungboyisreadyforinitiationhistrainingandeducationbecometheresponsibil-ity of hisfatherandhispaternalrelatives.Afteragirl'sfirstmenstruationsheisevenmorecloselyalignedwithhermatri-linealrelatives.Children of bothsexesaretaughtabouttheforestwhiletheyaccompanytheireldersonvarioushuntingandgatheringactivities.Throughplayandthemaking of toycanoes,bowsandarrows,shelters,andsmallnets,childrenareintroducedtothebasicrequisiteskills.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialandPoliticalOrganization.Traditionallyspeakers of adialectresidedasanindependentandautonomousgroupinaspecificpart of theislands.Eachlocalgroupwasfurtherdividedup,especiallyintheNorthernandtheMiddleAnda-mans,intotwentytofiftypeoplewho,dependingonthesea-son,livedeitheratthecoastorintheforest.Marriagealli-ancesandadoptionsbetweencoastalandforestdwellerscontrolledconflict;thosesocialcontrolsweresupplementedbythedictates of theelders.SocialControl.TheAndamanesevaluesystemisthebasicmeansformaintainingsocialcontrol.Directconfrontationisavoided,and"goingaway"-thatis,leavingthesourceandscene of conflictforashorttime-isencouraged.Usuallyapersonexpressesresentmentbybreakingordestroyingsomepiece of propertyatthecampsiteandthenstayinginthefor-estforafewdays.Whiletheoffendedpersonisgone,othercampmatesfixupthedestroyedpropertyandwaitforthatperson,whoistakenbackwithoutrecriminations.Conflict.Occasionallyneighboringgroupswouldhaveaconflict of interests;however,hostilityneverescalatedbe-yondthelevel of avoidance.Whenproblemsbetweengroupswouldarise,women,throughinformalchannels of negotia-tion,wereinstrumentalintheresolution of tension.Resolu-tionwasusuallymarkedbyafeastinwhichthegroupsincon-flictwouldparticipate.Betweenneighboringgroupswithdifferentidentitiesthatweremarkedbydifferentspokendia-lects,thepeacemakingceremonyconsisted of asequence of 4AborMajorcropsincluderice,fivevarieties of Job'stears,fourtypes of fingermillet,foxtailmillet,maize,andnamdung(Perillaocimoides,theseed of whichiseatenwholeorground).Greenvegetablesgrownincludemustard,countrybean,pumpkins,whitegourds,smallonions,soybeans,flatbeans,eggplants,bittergourds,frenchbeans,smallmustardplants,potatoes,tomatoes,andenge(Colocasiaantiquorum).Fruitsgrownincludejackfruit,oranges,papayas,bananas,andpineapples.Condimentcropsarelimitedtochilies,gin-ger,andsugarcane.Cottonisthemostimportant of thesev-eralfibercropsgrown.Finally,tobaccoisalsoraised.Gayals,dogs,pigs,goats,andchickensarethemostimportant of theanimalsdomesticatedbytheAbor.TheAbordonothaveacurrency of theirownwithanyitem of value(i.e.,havingapracticalordecorativeuse)beingusedasmoney.MetalitemsarevaluedbytheAbor,andthemetalcauldron(danki)im-portedfromTibetisparticularlytreasured.IndustrialArts.Bamboo,wood,cane,clay,stone,glass,metal,cotton,andwoolareusedasrawmaterials.Manufac-tureditemsincludeyarn,wovencloth,personalattire(e.g.,fordaily,ceremonial,andmilitaryuse),ornaments(e.g.,forear,neck,waist,andwrist),householdfurniture,baskets,utensilsforthepreparationandstorage of food(e.g.,bamboocontainers,woodengourds,andmetalpots),andimplements of war(e.g.,bows,arrows,swords,shields,helmets,spikedwristlets,andbamboospikesorpanjis).Trade.SurplusgoodsarebarteredbytheAborinex-changeforvariousnecessitiesandluxuryitems.Marketrela-tionshipsexistamongtheAborthemselvesandtraderouteslinkthemwithmarketsinNayiLube(Tibet),Along,Pangin,andPasighat(thelatterthreebeinginSiangFrontierDivi-sion).Forexample,rawhidesandchiliesaretradedbytheBorisinTibetforrocksalt,woolencloth,rawwool,Tibetanswordsandvessels,earornaments,andbrassbangles.Theyexchangesalt,iron,andsomeutensilsforotheritemswithneighboringgroups.Withtheestablishment of Along,Pasi-ghat,andPanginasadministrativecenters,Abortradersfromthroughouttheregioncometothesetownstobartertheirgoods.Inadditiontobarter,currencyisalsousedasame-dium of exchange.Division of Labor.Whilesometaskssuchaschildcareandcookingaresharedinsomecasesbymenandwomen,gender-baseddemarcation of responsibilitiesisfollowedinothers.Forexample,weavingistheprovince of women,whilethecuttingandburning of treesandbrushforjhumisamaletask.Generallyspeaking,womenassumeprimaryresponsibil-ityforcooking,maintenance of domesticanimals,andtheseeding,weeding,andharvesting of jhumfields.LandTenure.Eachvillagehasitsownterritorialbound-aries.Withinthese,thelandbelongstothefamiliesinhabit-ingthevillage.Royhassuggestedthatclanownership of landobtainsinsomeoldervillages,thoughthisisnotthegeneralnorm.LalandGuptasuggestedthatinMinyongvillages,thedominantclan(s)is(are)themajoritylandholder(s).Theo-reticallyalllandbelongstothevillage.However,thefamiliesthatconstituteavillagehavetherighttocultivatethelandthattheyclaimastheirown.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyKinGroupsandDescent.Descentispatrilineal.Each of theconstituentAborgroupstracesitsdescentfromasinglemythicalancestorandiscomposed of anumber of clans.Theseclansaredividedintovarioussubclans(groups of fami-liesthatarethebasicAborsocialunit).Clanexogamy,strictlyadheredtoatonetime,hasbecomelessthenormfortheAborduetopopulationincreaseanddispersion.Sub-clans,however,haveremainedstrictlyexogamous.Largerdi-visionsmayexistbetweentheclanandgrouplevels(e.g.,amongtheMinyong,whoaredividedintotwomoieties).Marriage.Monogamousunionsarethenorm,thoughpolygynyisalsopracticed.Divorceisfrequentandeasilyob-tainable.Premaritalsexualexplorationisencouraged.Free-dom of choiceinmateselectionisthenorm,butparentallyarrangedmarriagesalsooccur.Postmaritalresidencedoesnotfallneatlyintoanycategory,butitseemstobebilocal(thenewlymarriedcouplesettlingwiththeparents of eitherthebrideorthegroom)inthebeginning of theunionandneo-localafterthebirth of thefirstchild.Insomecases,theyoungestson of afamilymayremaininthehome of hisfatheralongwithhiswifeandchildren.DomesticUnit.Thetypicalunitismadeup of ahusbandandwife,togetherwiththeirchildren.However,anumber of variationsinbasicMinyongfamilycompositionhavebeennoted.Absoluteauthorityresideswiththemalehead of thehousehold.Jointfamiliesarerarebecausetheallegiance of maleandfemaleoffspringistransferred,firsttothemaleandfemaledormitories,thentotheirownfamilies,asthelifecycleprogresses.WhilemonogamousunionsaretheAbornorm,polygynousarrangementsareknown.Consequently,householdswithcowivesarenotrare.Inheritance.Theinheritance of allpropertydescendsthroughthemaleline.Sonsshareequallyintherealproperty(land) of theirfather'sestate.Thesameistrue of thefamilyhouse,thoughtheyoungestsoninheritshisfather'shouseifhehaschosennottoestablishhisownresidenceaftermar-riage.Thecare of thefather'swidowistheresponsibility of theyoungestson.Allotherpropertyownedbythefather-suchasbeadsinheritedfromhisfather,implementsusedinhuntingandwarfare,andclothingwovenforhimbyhiswife-isdividedequallyamonghissons.Some of hispersonaleffects(thoughnone of realvalue)areusedtodecoratehisgrave.Ornamentsthatawomanbringswithherintoamar-riageandthosegiventoherbyherhusbandremainhersandareinheritedbyherdaughtersanddaughters-in-law.Socialization.Thechiefagents of socializationareachild'sparents,themoshup(men'sdormitory),andtherasheng(women'sdormitory).Inthehome,gender-specificrolesandresponsibilitiesareintroducedbytheparents,andchildrenspendtheirdaysengagedinhouseholdandsubsis-tenceactivities.Afterachildisabletocrawl,itisplacedunderthecare of itseldersiblings.Oncethechildhasreachedadolescence,responsibilityforsocializationshiftstothemoshupandrasheng,wherechildrenspendeveningsaftertheirround of dailydomesticchoresisover.Thedormitoriesserveasthetraininggroundformenandwomenuntiltheyaremarriedandareabletoestablishtheirownhouseholds.Andamanese9havebeenimplemented.Todaytheremainingfourtribalgroupsareundershegovernment-controlledinstitutioncalledAndamanAsimJanJatiVikasSamiti.Governmentplanners,administrators,andsocialworkersfaceadilemmaindeterminingwhatkinds of changesinthetraditionalworldview of theremainingtribalgroups,especiallytheOngees,shouldbeeffected.TheJarwasandtheSentinelesehaveremainedlargelyoutsidetheframework of structuredandprolongedwelfareactivities.TheGreatAndamanese,who of thefourgroupshavehadthelongestperiod of contactwithoutsiders,arethemostdependentonoutsidersandtheirgoods;theyalsoarethesmallestgroup,withpracticallynomemory of theirownlanguageandtraditions.SettlementsAndamanesesettlementpatternsarebasedonseasonalchanges.Duringtherelativelydryseason(fromOctobertoFebruary)simplethatchedlean-tohutsaresetupinacircularformationclosetothecoastalareabyfourfamiliesormore.Allhutsfacethecentralcampgroundcreatedbythesur-roundinghuts.Usuallytheseparatehutsfortheunmarriedmenandnewlymarriedcouplesdonotformapart of thehutssurroundingthecampground.Duringthemonths of MaytoSeptember,theAndamanesemovefromthecoasttothefor-estwherepigsarehuntedandhoney,fruit,andtubersarecol-lected.Violentrainstorms,whichoccurfromMaytoSeptem-ber,makeitimpossiblefortheAndamanesetohuntturtles,dugongs,orfishfromtheircanoes.Themovefromthecoasttotheforestismarkedbyachangeinsettlementpattern:thoughcampsaresetupintheforestastheyareatthecoast,onlyfour ... Tomeanethnologistwhospeaks of theAryanrace,Aryanblood,Aryaneyesandhair,isasgreatasinnerasalinguistwhospeaks of adolichocephalicdictionary,orabrachyce-phalicgrammar."FormanycenturiesaftertheirarrivalintheIndo-GangeticPlain,theAryanslivedashorsemenandcattleherders,clearingpatchesintheforestsandinhabitingsmallvillages,ratherthanlivingintheancienttownsthattheiran-cestorshadprobablyhelpedbringtoruin.Onlywiththestart of theIndianIronAge(about700B.C.)didAryantownsbegintoemerge;thisdevelopmentpresumesabackground of settledfarmingintheplainsbythatera.Therehasbeenmuchspeculationaboutthesubsequentdevelopment of northernIndiansocietyandtheAryans'fur-thercolonization of thesubcontinent;aboutrelationsbe-tweenthemandtheconquered"Dasas"or"Dasyu"(namesmeaning"slaves"andprobablyreferringtoremnants of theearlierIndusValleypopulation);andabouttherise of thecastesystem.DuringtheVedicperiod(about1500to800B.C.)theAryansdevelopedtheenormouslyelaboraterituals of Brahmanism,theforerunner of Hinduism;andtheyformedastratifiedsocietyinwhichtherudiments of thecastesystemwerealreadyapparent.Thustherewasapriestlycaste(Brahmana),arulingnoblecaste(Rajanya),awarriorcaste(Kshatriya),andthemenialcaste(Sudra).PriortotheMauryanEmpire(321to185B.C.)therewasnoorganizedAr-yangovernmentwithaclass of bureaucratstoadministerthelandthroughoutIndia.Instead,therewerenumerousrulingchieftains(rajan)whocommandedtheirarmiesandwereas-sistedbypurohitas,menwhocounseledandprotectedtherul-erswiththeirmagicalskills.Aslargerkingdomsemergedthepurohitabecamelikeacombinedarchbishopandprimemin-ister,consecratingtheking,givinghimpoliticalcounsel,andperformingmajorsacrificesforhim.Theintroduction of irontechnologyledtourbanization,andby500B.C.many of thesekingdomshadanimportantmerchantclassinthetownswhowerealreadyusingcopperandsilvercoins.SiddharthaGautama,theBuddha,camefromtherulingfamily of onesuchkingdom(Kosala,nowinBiharState).SeealsoCastes,HinduBibliographyBurrow,Thomas(1975)."TheEarlyAryans."InACulturalHistory of India,editedbyA.L.Basham,2 0-2 9.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Childe,VereGordon(1926).TheAryans:AStudy of Indo-EuropeanOrigins.London:KeganPaul,Trench,Triibner&Co.,Ltd.Reprint.1987.NewYork:DorsetPress.Thapar,Romila(1980)."IndiabeforeandaftertheMauryanEmpire."InTheCambridge Encyclopedia of Archaeology,ed-itedbyAndrewSherratt,25 7-2 61.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.PAULHOCKINGSAssameseETHNONYMS:noneTheterm"Assamese"isoftenusedtorefertothosewhoarecitizens of Assam:Mymensinghysettlers(fromBangladesh)andtea-gardenlaborersarethusincludedinitscoverage.Thetermcanalsobeusedtodescribetheindigenousorlong-settledinhabitants of thisnortheastIndianstate.TheBrahmaputraValleypopulationreached12.5mil-lionin1971;atthetime of the1961censustherewere16,307inhabitedvillagesinAssamwithanaveragepopulation of alittlemorethan500.About12millionpeoplespokeAssa-mesein1981.Thepeople of Assamhavebeendescribedassmallinstaturewithdarkyellowcomplexion,anindication of theirMongoloidorigin.Theirlanguagewasinpremoderntimestheeasternmostmember of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.TheAssameseforcenturieshaveoccupiedaperipheralposition,bothgeographicallyandpolitically,inrelationtotherest of India.ThecountrywasoriginallyruledbytheAhoms,aShanpeoplewhomigratedfromupperMyanmar(Burma),atthebeginning of thethirteenthcentury.Thesepeoplevariouslyappliedtheterms"Assam,""Asam,"or"Aham"totheircountry.TheAhomsmaintainedchronicles of themainevents of theirreign.Assamoriginallyconsisted of sixdistricts of thelowerBrahmaputraorAssamValley.Butwhenin1822achiefcommissionership of AssamwascreatedbytheBritishitwasextendedtoincludetwodistrictsintheSurmaValley,sixhillareas,andtwofrontiertracts.Villagersassociateonthebasis of membership of alocalcenter of de-votionalworshipcalleda"namehouse"(namghar),whosemembersdescribethemselvesas"onepeople"(raij).Thereareusuallyseveralnamehousesinavillage.Assamesehouse-holdscanbegradedintofiveeconomiccategories,chieflyonthebasis of income.Villagesarealsomadeup of familiesfromanumber of distinctcastes.RiceisthestapleinAssam.Ifaharvestisgoodthepeo-plemayrelaxandenjoytheirabundanceforthemonths8AnavilBrahmanstrivetomarrytheirdaughterstoDesaimenbutatthecost of largedowries.Hypergamyisalsopracticed.Thissystemper-mitsawomantomarryaman of ahigherbutnotalowerso-cialstatusthanherown.AnavilBrahmanshaveapreferenceforpatrilocality,patrilinealsystems of inheritance,andresi-denceinjointfamilygroups.Brahmanicidealsleadtoapreferencefordowrymarriage.Thelaws of Manudistinguisheightdifferentforms of marriage, of whichfourareactuallyvariations of thedowrymarriage;anditisthesefourthataretheoreticallyrecommendedtoBrahmans.BibliographyMarriot,McKim(1968).'CasteRankingandFoodTransac-tions:AMatrixAnalysis."InStructureandChangeinIndianSociety,editedbyMiltonSingerandBernardS.Cohn,13 3- 171.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.VanderVeen,KlaasW.(1972).1GiveTheeMyDaughter.Assen:VanGorcum&Comp.N.V.LeSHONKIMBLEAndamaneseETHNONYM:MincopieOrientationIdentification.TheAndamanesearetheindigenoustribes of Negritohuntersandgatherers of theAndamanIslands.In1908,theterm"Andamanese"referredtothirteendistincttribalgroups,eachdistinguishedbyadifferentdialectandgeographicallocation.Todayonlyfourtribesremainandarereferredtocollectivelyas"Andamanese."ThefourextanttribesaretheOngees of LittleAndamanIsland,theSentine-lese of NorthSentinelIsland,theJarwas of theMiddleAndamans,andtheGreatAndamanese of StraitIsland.Location.TheAndamanIslands,whichcompriseanar-chipelago of 348islands,arelocatedintheBay of Bengalbe-tween10°30'and13°30'Nand92°20'and93°0'E.Thetotallandareais8,293squarekilometers, of whichabout7,464squarekilometersarecoveredwithtropicalrainforests.Thenorthernandcentralislandsarehilly,whilethesouthernislandsaresurroundedbyoffshorecoralreefsandarecriss-crossedwithtidalcreeks.Thesouthwesternandnorthwesternmonsoonscreatearainyseasonthatlastsapproximatelyninetotenmonthseachyear;annualprecipitationis275to455centimeters.TheonlydryseasonontheislandsbeginsinFebruaryandendsinMarch.Demography.In1800,thetotaltribalpopulationontheislandswasestimatedatapproximately3,575.In1901,theestimatedroppedto1,895,andin1983,thetotaltribalpopu-lationwas269. Of the1983estimateonlythecount of 9GreatAndamaneseand98Ongeeswasaccurate.TheJarwasandtheSentineleseareisolatedbytopographyandbyeachtribe'shostilitytowardoutsiders.Since1789,thepopulation of nontribalpeoplesontheislandshassteadilyincreased.Thetotalnumber of outsidersontheislandswas157,552in1983comparedtothe269tribals.Theintrusion of outsidersanddiseasesintroducedbythem,suchasmeasles,ophthal-mia,andvenerealdisease,hascontributeddirectlytotheoveralldeclineintribalpopulationanditsdisproportionatemale/femaleratio.Theislands'expandingtimberindustryandthesettlement of increasingnumbers of nontribals,pri-marilyfrommainlandIndia,alsohavereducedthetotalareaavailableforusebythetribal.LinguisticAffiliation.Areallinguisticconnection of An-damanesewith South andSoutheastAsianlanguageareashasnotbeensystematicallyestablished.Andamaneseasalanguagefamilyiscomposed of twomaingroups:Proto-LittleAndamanese,whichincludesOngee,Jarwa,andSentinelese;andProto-GreatAndamanese.Proto-GreatAndamaneseisfurthersubdividedintothreegroups:BeaandBaie of South Andamans;Puchikwar,Kede,Juwoi,Koi,andJko of MiddleAndamans;andBo,Chari,Jeru,andKora of NorthAnda-mans.Earlyethnographicaccountssuggestthateach of thetribalgroupsontheislandsspokemutuallyunintelligiblelan-guages.Yetlinguisticrecords,compiledbytheisland'sad-ministratorsandmorerecentresearch,suggestagreatdegree of overlapintermsusedbyeachgroup.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAndamanesearebelievedtoshareaculturalaffinitywithsome of theOrangAslis of insularSoutheast Asia. IthasbeenarguedthattheAndamanesearrivedfromtheMalayandBurmesecoastsbylandinlatequaternarytimesor,atalatertime,bysea.ThereisalsospeculationthattheAnda-manesecamefromSumatraviatheNicobarIslands.How-ever,thepreciseorigins of theAndamaneseremainscholarlyspeculationsthathavenotbeenthoroughlyinvestigatedandresearched.Theearlyrecordedhistory of theislandsbeganinearnestwiththeBritishin1788.Rapidchangesintradewindsinthearea,monsoons,andcoralreefssurroundingtheislandscausedmanyshipwrecks;thosefewwhosurvivedship-wreckswerekilledbytheAndamanese.Inaneffortto...

... ChristianGod of themissionarieswasratherreadilyassimilated.TheChinbelievetheuniversetobepopulatedaswellbyallsorts of spirits;some of thembeinggreatanddeitylike;some of themresidinginother"worlds,"suchastheafterworld;some of themhav-ingdominionoverdomainslargeorsmall,locallyorelse-where;andsome of themappearingaswanderingghosts,de-mons,andlesspersonifiablebeings.Some of themostfearsome of thelastgrouparetheghosts of thosewhodiebyaccidentorviolence,fortheyareangryandvengeful(e.g.,theghosts of womenwhohavediedinchildbirthandcannotbemadetoleavefortheLand of theDead).Thecosmosisbasi-callydividedintotwoparts,thesky world (includingtheLand of theDead)andtheearth,butsincetherelationsbe-tweenthetwoareanasymmetricaldependency,therearetworoutesbetweenthem:oneupwardandonethroughthe"un-derworld"-thelatterambivalentlyassociatedwithdeathandalsowithprosperity,owingtothefactthatcropsgrowout of theground.Because of thisambiguity,Chinorigintalesoftensaythatthefirstpeoplecameatoneandthesametimeout of someholeorcaveandfromthesky world. ReligiousPractitioners.Mediums,generallywomen,whogointotrancesandfindoutwhichspiritsaredemandingwhatfromwhom,andforwhatoffense,andwhomayalsofindoutwherethesoul of anillorderangedpersonhaswandered,havebeenmentionedearlier.Thevillagepriestsandreciterswhoserveatprivatefeastsandcommunalsacrificeshavealsobeenmentioned.Theytendtobechieflyappointees,thoughonekindhastobefromacommonerlineage.Ceremonies.Feastsandcelebrationsoccurirregularly,wheneversomeonefindsitpossibleornecessarytogiveone:forinstance,whenonehaskilledamajorgameanimalorwhenonewishestomakeamoreelaboratehouse.Somevil-lageritestakeplaceonceineveryyearoronceeveryfewyears,dependinguponthearrangementwiththespiritinquestion.Othersuchritesareheldwhensomeplagueorcalamityseemstodemanditandamediumor ... kinds of goods)insurroundingvillages.Thereweresmithswhomadethetraditionalsilver-amalgam(lateralumi-num)jewelry-suchasthebracelets,belts,earrings,rings,andnecklaceshungwithimportedbeadsandsilverrupeecoins-aswellasbrasshairpinsandotheritems,butthosear-tisanswereevenfewerinnumberthantheonesmentionedabove.indeed,thetradeinthelatteritemswasakintothelong-distancetradeinheirloomgoods,suchasthegreatgongsfromMyanmar(Burma),brassvesselsfromIndia,andothersorts of itemsthatsignifiedatleastanominalclaimuponthegoods of thevaaiplainscountry.Trade.All of thesemoreexpensiveitemsconstitutedthebasis of theprestigeeconomy of thesehillsandpassednotonlybysalebutbycirculation of myriadceremonialpaymentsandfines(especiallymarriage-prices,blood-moneypayments,andcompensationpaymentsfordefamation of status).Pres-tigegoodsandgayals-especiallyimportantfortheiruseinsacrificesassociatedwiththe"meritfeasts"bywhichsocialrankwasattainedorvalidated-werethetraditionalwealth of thesepeople.Furthermore,thedisplayorannouncement of theentirearray of whatonecurrentlyownedorhadownedinlife-symbolicallyindicatedoncarvedmemorialpostserectedforprestigiousdead-wasthedefinitivesign of one'ssocialandceremonialrank.Morespecifically,thepossession of asupposedlyuniqueobjectfromtheoutside world, likelytopossessaunique"personal"name of itsown,wasespeciallyimportant.Theideabehindtheprestigeeconomyisthatprosperityinthis world dependsuponthesacrificialexchange of goodswithinhabitants of theLand of theDead,andonlyifonehadconductedfeasts of meritwouldoneandone'sdescendantshavewealthandwell-being.Thus,too,thecon-tinuity of lineagebetweenthedeadandtbelivingwasimpor-tant;itwasespeciallyimportantforanyonetobememorial-izedafterhisorherdeath.Memorialservicewasdonenotonlybythedisplay of wealthandbyitsfigurationonmemor-ialpostsandstonesbutalsointhecomposition of songs(vahia)commemoratingaman'sgreatnessontheoccasion of one of hisfeasts.Sogreatlywerewealthandpossessionstiedupwithaperson'ssocialpositionthatamongthemosthei-noustraditionaloffencesinthissocietyweretheft,bastardy,andthesupposedpossession of "evileye"(hnam,theuncon-sciousandheritableabilitytocauseharmbylookingenvi-ouslyuponanother'sprosperity,orevensomeone'sconsump-tion of agoodmeal).Allthesesituationsmeantthatpropertyhadfailedtopassbymeans of expectedformalexchanges:ithadpassedinsteadbyarbitraryexpropriation,orthroughachildbornout of wedlockwithoutbenefit of marriage-price,orbymisfortunecausedbymurderousenvy of possessionstowhichonehadnolegitimateclaim.Division of Labor.Thefewclasses of part-timecraftspe-cialistarementionedabove.Womendomore of thedomestictasksandallthetraditionalweaving.Theyarealsoalmostex-clusivelythespiritmediumsbecausemalespiritfamiliarschoosethem.Menalonecutdowntheforestsandworkassmiths.Thereappeartobenofemalehuntersorwarriorsex-ceptinlegends,probablybecausenowomancanholdinherownnameafeast of celebrationforthekilling of amajorani-mal,orafeast of celebration of ahumantrophyheadorthat of atiger.(Inall of thesecasesthepointistotametheangryspirit of thedeceasedanimalorpersonandsendittoserveoneandone'sforebearsintheLand of theDead.)Awomancan,however,holdadomesticfeast of meritinthename of herdeceasedhusband,inwhichdomesticanimalsaresimi-larlysacrificedonbehalf of theLand of theDead.Neverthe-less,onlymencanbevillagepriests,whoaremostlyap-pointedbychiefsandheadmenbecausetheyhavememorizedtherequiredchantsandformulasandknowtheritualse-quences.Priestsserveasmasters of ceremonyatthefeasts of meritandcelebrationandatthevariouskinds of rite of placation-bothcyclicalandsporadic-addressedtothevar-iousspiritowners of theface of theland,greatandsmall.Al-mostallothertasksandactivitiescanbeundertakenbyeithersex;therehaveevenbeenhistoricalinstances of importantfemalechiefs,whoattainedofficethroughbeingwidowed.Therearefewifanyexploitablenaturalresourcesinthesehillsandvirtuallynomodernindustry,atleastnothingmadeforexport.Asidefromthesalaries of teachersandgovern-mentservants of allsortsandtheincomes of merchantsandshopkeepers,themainsource of moneyisthewages of Chinwhoworkontheoutside-preeminentlyinMyanmar,inthearmedforces.LandTenure.Thisaspect of Chincultureishighlyvaria-ble.Avillagehascompleteownership of itstract,andeventherighttohuntinitmustberequestedfromthevillage;however,itispossibletorentlandsinanothervillage'stractonanindividualoracommunalbasis.Villagetractbound-ariesarepreciselyindicatedbylandmarks.Frequentlyagivenhillsidetract,oreventhewholevillagetract,willbeownedbyachieforotherhereditaryaristocrat.Theright of achieftotheduesandservices of hisvillagersinfactderivesfromhisownership of theland,whiletheultimateownershipbyavil-lage of itslandasawholederivesfromtheheritablepactmadebytheancestralfounders of thevillagewiththespiritowners of theland.Theparamountrightisownership,sinceCoorg73tegratedintoKeralasociety,theywereinfluencedbymanyHindupracticesandbeliefs(e.g.,theemphasisuponpurity of descent,theweddingcustomsandcanopy,andthe"asceti-cism"associatedwithPassoverpreparations).Reportedly,theCochinJewshaveneversufferedfromanti-Semitismatthehands of theirHinduneighbors.ReligiousPractitioners.TheCochinJewsneverhadanyrabbis,butseveralmenservedasshochetim(ritualslaugh-terers)andhazanim(cantors)bothfortheirowncommuni-tiesandforanothercommunity of IndianJews,theBeneIs-raelinBombay.Ceremonies.Boththe'White"andthe"Black"Jewsper-formtheirceremoniesseparatelyintheirownsynagoguesandhomes.However,theceremoniesaresimilaranddistinctlyCochini,reflectingbothlocalHinduandChristianinflu-ences.Bothgroupsbuildamanara,oraperion,forthewed-ding,usuallyatthegroom'shouse.Afteraritualbaththebridereceivesatali,anIndianpendant,inimitation of localNayarpractice.Thegroomandbridedressintraditionalwed-dingdress.Thegroomentersthesynagogueonawhitecarpet-acustomapparentlyobservedby'Black"andnot'White"Jews-andsitsnearthepodiumuntilthebride'spro-cessionarrives.Thegroomhimself-andnotarabbi,asinotherJewishcommunities-actuallyannounceshisbetrothalandmarriagetohisbride.Arts.Dailyprayerswerechantedaccordingtotheshinglicustom,auniqueversion of thestandardJewishprayers.Inaddition,theCochinJewshavealargenumber of folksongsthattheysingregularly.Somearesungatweddings,somearelullabies,andsomespecificallyrecallthereturntoZion.In1984theCochinJewsinIsraelstagedahugepageantrelatinginsonganddancethestory of theiremigrationfromIndiaandtheirintegrationintoIsraelisociety.DeathandAfterlife.TheCochinJewsbelieveinanafter-life,influencedbothbyJewishandHindubeliefs.TheirdeadareburiedinJewishcemeteries.SeealsoBeneIsraelBibliographyKatz,Nathan,andEllenGoldberg(1989).'AsceticismandCasteinthePassoverObservances of theCochinJews."Jour-nal of theAmericanAcademy of Religion62:5 3-8 2.Mandelbaum,DavidG.(1975).'SocialStratificationamongtheJews of CochininIndiaandinIsrael."JewishJournal of Sociology17:16 5-2 10.Velayudhan,P.A.,etal.(1971).Commemorative Volume: CochinSynagogue,QuatercentenaryCelebration.Cochin:KeralaHistoricalAssociation.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1982).'SymmetrybetweenChristianandJewsinIndia:theCnaniteChristianandtheCochinJews of Kerala."ContributionstoIndianSociology16:17 5-1 96.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1984).FromCochintoEretzIsrael(inHe-brew).Jerusalem:KumuBerina.SHALVAJ.WEILCoorgETHNONYMS:Coorgi,KodaraCoorgisatiny,isolated,mountainousdistrictin south- westIndia,boundedontheeastbythehighMysorePlateau,averaginganelevation of 1,000meters,andonthewestbyamountainousfrontier3 0-5 0kilometersfromthewesterncoast.Itsgreatestlength,northto south, isabout100kilome-ters,anditsgreatestbreadth,easttowest,is65kilometers.TheWesternGhatmountainrangerunsfromnorthto south anditsmanyspursstrikeoutinalldirectionsthroughthesmallprovince,nowadistrict of KarnatakaState.Themainrivers,theKveriandLaksmanatirtha,areshallowandunnavigable.TheCoorgyearisdividedintothreeseasons-cold,hot,andrainy-withamarkedvariationinrainfallinthevariousregions.Theaverageyearlytemperaturerangesfrom10'to27'C.Coorgisprimarilyanagriculturalcountrywithcoffeeandricebeingthemainproducts.Coorgcontainsdensefor-ests of bamboo,sandalwood,andcardamom.Faunaincludeselephants,tigers,panthers,boars,anddeer.Theearlyhistory of CoorgcanbetracedbacktotheninthcenturyA.D.andconsists of asuccession of feudalrulersleadinguptothedynasty of theLingayatrajasbeginninginthe1600s.Thelastsurvivors of thedynastywerethebrothers,Doddavirarajendra(died1809)andLingarajendra(died1820).Theheirtothethrone,adaughter,Devammaji,was10atthetime of herfather'sdeathandthethronewasthere-foreusurpedbyanuncle.Theuncle,Lingarajendra,wassuc-ceededbyhissonChikkavirarajendra(ViraRajaII)whowaspoorlyacceptedbyhissubjects.Thisledtotheeventualan-nexation of CoorgbytheBritishin1834.Theannexationledtoanumber of economic,political,andsocialreforms,one of themostprominentbeingtheabolition of slavery.Therearethreelevels of territorialgroup;thevillageisthesmallestandthemostimportant.Villages,whicharemul-ticaste,containanumber of ancestralestates,eachcomprised of amainhouse of stoneandwoodandnearbyservants'huts of mudandbamboo.Thenad,consisting of severalvillages,isthenextlargergroup.Inthe1931census94percent of thepopulation of Coorglivedinsuchvillages.TraditionallyCoorgwasdividedintothirty-fivenadsandtwelvekombus,whichservejudicialpurposes.Everyvillagehasacouncil of eldersthatispresidedoverbyaheadmanwhosepositionishereditary.TherearetwotownsinCoorg:Mercara,(orMadikeri)withapopulation of 7,112;andVirarajpet,with4,106per-sons(as of 1931).Mercaraliesinthenorth-centralportion of theregion.Virarajpetisthemostimportantcommercialcentertoday. Of thetotal1931population of 163,327,89percentwereHindus,8percentMuslims,and2percentChristians.Thenumber of Kodaguspeakerswaslistedas72,085inthe1971census.TheprimarylanguagesspokeninCoorgareKodagu,Kannada(Dravidianlanguage),Hindi,andEnglish.CoorgsconsiderthemselvestobeKshatriyas,whocon-stitutethecaste of rulersandsoldiersinthetraditionalhier-archyandrankbelowonlyBrahmans.TodayCoorgsaresome of theprominentmilitaryleadersinIndia.Therearemore60Chakmadren.TheyaretaughtBuddhistideologyatanearlyage.Re-spectfor ... P.(1988)."TheShiftingFortunes of ChitpavanBrahmans:Focuson1948."InCity,Countryside,andSocietyinMaharashtra,editedbyD.W.Attwoodetal.Toronto: South AsianStudies,University of Toronto.Tilak,LakshmibaiGokhale(1950).1FollowAfter:AnAuto-biography.TranslatedbyE.JosephineInkster.Madras:Ox-fordUniversityPress.ELEANORZELLIOTCochinJewETHNONYMS:Cochinis,Malabar("Black")Jews,Paradesi("Foreign"or"White")JewsOrientationIdentification.TheCochinJewsareone of thesmallestJewishcommunitiesinthe world. TheyhailfromtheMalabarCoastinIndiaandtraditionallyweredividedintotwocaste-likesubgroups:"White"and"Black"Jews.TodayonlythirtyCochinJewsremaininCochin.ThecommunityhasmostlybeentransplantedtoIsrael,wheretheycontinuetoretainuniquereligiouscustomsderivedfromtheiroriginsinCochinwhilehavingintegratedsuccessfullyintoIsraelisociety.Location.InIndiatheCochinJewslivedinseveraltownsalongtheMalabarCoastinKerala:Attencammonal,Chen-otta,Ernakulam,Mallah,Parur,Chenemangalam,andCochin.TodaysomeCochinindividualsremaininParurandChenemangalam,andasmallcommunity of thirtypeoplelivein"JewsTown"inCochin.InIsraeltheCochinJewslivepri-marilyinagriculturalsettlementssuchasNevatimandMesillatZion.AminorityalsoliveinthetownswithsmallconcentrationsinRamatEliahu,Ashdod,andJerusalem.Demography.WhenthetravelerBenjamin of Tudelavis-itedIndiainabout1170,hereportedtherewereabout1,000Jewsinthe south. In1686MosesPereiradePaivalisted465MalabarJews.In1781theDutchgovernorA.Moensre-corded422familiesorabout2,000persons.In1948,2,500JewswerelivingontheMalabarcoast.In1953,2,400emi-gratedtoIsrael,leavingbehindonlyabout100"White"JewsontheMalabarCoast.Today,thereareonlyabout250"White"Jewsinexistenceandasaresult of exogamytheyarebecomingextinct;conversely,the"Black"JewsinIsraelareincreasinginnumbers.LinguisticAffiliation.TheCochinJews,liketheirneigh-bors,speakMalayalam,aDravidianlanguage.InIsraeltheyalsospeakmodernHebrew.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThesettlement of JewsontheMalabarCoastisancient.Onetheoryholdsthattheancestors of today'sCochinJewsar-rivedin south IndiaamongKingSolomon'smerchantswhobroughtbackivory,monkeys,andparrotsforhistemple;Sanskrit-andTamil-derivedwordsappearin1Kings.An-othertheorysuggeststhatCochinJewsaredescendants of captivestakentoAssyriaintheeighthcenturyB.C.Themostpopularandlikelysupposition,however,isthatJewscameto south IndiasometimeinthefirstcenturyC.E.,afterthede-struction of Solomon'ssecondtemple.Thistheoryiscon-firmedbylocal South IndianChristianlegends.Documentaryevidence of JewishsettlementonthesouthernIndiancoastcanbefoundinthefamousCochinJewishcopperplatesintheancientTamilscript(vattezuthu).Thesecopperplatesarethesource of numerousarguments,bothamongscholarsastotheirdateandmeaningandamongtheCochinJewsthemselvesastowhichparticularcastelikesubgroup of CochinJewsaretheirtrueowners.Untilre-cently,theJewishcopperplatesweredated345A.D.,butcon-temporaryscholarsagreeuponthedate1000A.D.Inthatyear,duringthereign of BhaskaraRaviVarman(96 2-1 020c.E.),theJewsweregrantedseventy-twoprivileges.Amongthesewere:therighttouseadaylamp;therighttouseadecorativeclothtowalkon;therighttoerectapalanquin;therighttoblowatrumpet;andtherighttobeexemptfromandtocol-lectparticulartaxes.TheprivilegeswerebestowedupontheCochinJewishleaderJosephRabban,"proprietor of the'Anjuvannam,'hismaleandfemaleissues,nephewsandsons-in-law."Themeaning of theword"Anjuvannam"isalsothesub-ject of controversy.Thetheorythatthewordreferstoaking-domoraplacehasbeensupersededbynewertheoriesthatitwasanartisanclass,atradecenter,oraspecificallyJewishguild.Fromtheeighteenthcenturyon,emissariesfromtheHolyLandbegantovisittheirCochinJewishbrethren.Indi-rectly,theyhelpedCochinJewrytoalignwith world Jewryandfinally,aspart of the"ingathering of theexiles,"torequestareturntoZion.In1949,thefirstCochinJews-seventeenfamiliesinall-soldtheirproperty.Urgedonbyreligiousfervorandde-terioratingeconomicconditionsinpostindependenceIndia,communityelderswrotetoDavidBen-Gurion,primeminis-ter of thenewlyestablishedState of Israel,requestingthatthewholecommunityemigratetoIsrael.In195 3-1 954,2,400CochinJews,thevastmajority of whomwere"Black"orMalabarJews,wenttoIsrael.AsmallnumberstayedbehindontheMalabarCoast;andtodayonlyahandfulremain.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.InIndiatheCochinJewsmainlyengagedinpettytradinginthetownsinwhichtheylivedontheMalabarCoast.Ingeneral,the"White"Jewsenjoyedahigherstandard of livingandin-66Chinscoldchildreneventoage of about10or12,butthepower of thefather,atleastoversons,ishispowertowithholdsupportandsettlement.Youngboysareencouragedtothrowtan-trumssothattheymaygrowupabitwildandwillful.Chil-drenareweanedwhenthedemands of thenextinfantaretoogreat,orby18months of age.Whilethereisatendencyfortensionsbetweenfathersandsonstoariseassonscome of ageandneedfinancialindependence,theemotionalbondsbetweenparentsandchildreningeneralareoftendeepandlasting,andthosebetweendaughtersandtheirmothersareespeciallypoignant:ifawomanbecomesdrunksheoftenweeps,andit...

... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E .M. O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E .M. O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E .M. O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryendof...

... thehamlet.Eachhomesteadhousesafamily,oftenajointfamilyconsisting of thefamilies of themarriedsonslivingwiththeirparents.IntheplainswheretheGondsaremoreSanskritized,orinfluencedbyhighHinduculture,somehaveadoptedHinduwaysandbeguntoliveinclosedvillages,yetapartfromtheothercastesandtribes.EconomyAllGondsareinsomewayorotherengagedinagricultureorworkintheforest.Theywouldnotdream of acceptinganyotheroccupation.Originallytheymusthavebeennomadichuntersandfoodgatherersandthenswitchedtoshiftingcul-tivation,retaining,however,theircloseconnectionwiththeforest.Shiftingcultivationisnotmerelyonetype of agricul-turebutacomplexculturalform,away of life.Itrequiresnodraftanimalsandallowsthecultivatorsmoreleisuretimeforworkintheforest,hunting,fishing,andthecollection of jun-gleproduce.However,mostGondshavebeenforcedtoaban-donshiftingcultivationbythegovernmentbecauseitisharmfultotheforest,andsomeGondsectionshadalreadyvoluntarilychangedovertoplowcultivationandeventoter-racecultivation.Theyprosperedeconomicallyandacquiredahighsocialstanding.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGondshaveapronouncedpatrilinealandpatriarchalclansystem.Theycallitgotraorkur.AGondclancomprisesagroup of personswhobelievethattheyaredescendantsinthemalelinefromacommonancestor.Whileamalecanneverchangehisclan,awomanonmarriageistakenintotheclan of herhusband.TheGondspracticeclanexogamy,consideringintermarriagewithinaclantobeincest.Theybelievethegodswouldpunishsuchasinwithaskindisease,wormsinawound,orleprosy.Offend-ersagainstthelaw of exogamyareexcludedfromthetribalcommunityandcanonlybereadmittedafterseparation.Many of theGondclansbearanimalorplantnames,whichsuggestsatotemicorigin of theclans,andsomeGondclansstillobservetotemictaboos.Butgenerally,exceptfortheob-servance of exogamy,theclansystemhasnoimportantfunc-tion.IntheMandlaDistrictatleast,eighteenclanshavebeencombinedintoaphratry.Thecombination of theclansvarieslocally,butthenumber-eighteen-isalwaysretained.Thephratrytooobservesexogamy,butwiththepayment of afinethemarriageprohibitioncanbewaived.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.AnormalmarriageamongtheGondsisthemo-nogamousunion of amanandawomanbasedonmutualchoice,sanctionedbytheceremonialexchange of vows,withtheapproval of thetribalcouncil,witnessedbytherelatives of thepartnersandthevillagecommunity,andconcludedwithafestiveweddingdinner.AlthoughtheGondshaveliberalviewsonpremaritalsex,theyarestrictintheobservance of marriedfidelity.Theybelievethatadulteryispunishedbytheancestralspiritsthatcancausecropfailureoranepidemicamonghumansandcattle.AGondweddingissolemnizedwithmanysignificantceremonies.Theessentialweddingriteconsists of thegroomwalkingwithhisbrideseventimesaroundaweddingposterectedinthecenter of theweddingbooth.Marriageisobligatory.OriginallyGondboysandgirlsmarriedonreachingphysicalmaturity.NowadaystheGondsincreasinglyfollowtheexample of theruralHindupopula-tionandparentsarrangethemarriagewhenchildrenarestillyoung.Thefather of thegroomhastopayabride-price,theamount of whichdependsonthepositionandwealth of thetwofamilies.Cross-cousinmarriagesaremuchpreferred,somuchsothatayouthhastopayafineifherefusestomarryanavailablecrosscousin.AGondcanhavemorethanonewife,polygynybeingrestrictedonlybythecapability of themantosupportanumber of wives.TheGondspracticethesororateandthelevirate.WidowmarriageisforbiddenonlyamongtheSanskritizedGonds.Gondswhoaretoopoortopaythebride-priceandtheweddingexpensescontractaserv-icemarriage.Familieswithnosonsprefersuchamarriagear-rangement.Othermoreirregularforms of marriageamongtheGondsaretheelopement of anunmarriedgirlwithaboyorthecapture of agirlandherforcedmarriagetohercaptor.Marriagebycapturewasinthepastapopularform of mar-riageamongtheGonds.Themarriagemustlaterbelegalizedbytherelativesandvillagecouncils of thepartners.TheGondspermitdivorceandeasilyresorttoitforvariousrea-sons.Forinstance,amanmayobtainadivorceifhiswifeisbarren,quarrelsome,ornegligentindoingherassignedwork.Likewise,awomanmayelopewithanothermanifherhus.bandisabadprovider,adrunkard,orawifebeater,orifheishabituallyunfaithful.Adivorcerequiresthelegalsanction of thetribalcouncil of thevillage.DomesticUnit.Gondmarriagesareasarulehappyandlastingifthehusbandisabletoprovideafrugallivelihoodforwifeandchildrenandifthewifeiscompetentinherhouse-holdtasksandfieldwork.Gondmenandwomenareaffec-tionatetowardchildrenandenjoyhavinglargefamilies.86GondInheritance.Property,primarilyland,descendspatrilin-eallytothesonsequally(unlessonesonshouldmoveelse-where,inwhichcaseheforfeitshisrights).Daughtersinheritnexttonothingfromtheirfathers.Awidowusuallyremainsinthehouse,whichisinheritedbyheryoungestson(ultimo-geniture).Ifnottooold,thewidowmayberemarriedtoacloserelative of ... Dimension of theFamilyinIndia:AFieldStudyinaGujaratVillageandaRe-view of OtherStudies.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress;NewDelhi:OrientLongman.Shah,Ghanshyam(1989)."CasteSentimentsandDomi-nanceinGujarat."InDominanceandStatePowerinModernIndia,editedbyFrancineFrankeland M. S.A.Rao.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress.GHANSHYAMSHAHGurkhaETHNONYM:Gurkhali"Gurkha"isnotthename of anethnicgroupbutratherthenamegiventhoseNepalesenationalswhoserveintheBritisharmy.Gurkhasaredrawnfromanumber of NepaleseethnicgroupsincludingtheGurung(whocontributethe84Garodispute,themattercangobeforethecivilcourt of thedistrictcouncil.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TherearetwofaithsprevalentamongtheGaros:nativeandChristian.Peoplewhofollowthetradi-tionalfaithareknownasSongsarek.Differenceinreligionhasnotbroughtanysplitinthepopulation.Thetraditional world of theGarosincludesanumber of spiritswhobehavelikehumanbeingsbuthavenoshape.TheyareSaljong,thespirit of thesunandfertility;Gaera,thespirit of strengthandthethunderbolt;Susume,thespirit of wealth.Propitiationforeachisfollowedbythesacrifice of ananimalandanoffering of beer.AChristianGaroissupposedtoavoidsuchpractices.Ogresandbitingspirits(mite)alsooccur.ReligiousPractitioners.AGaroreligiouspractitionerisknownaskamal.Thewordisusedtomean'specialist";thusamidwifemaybeakamal.Akamalderivesneitherspecialpriv.ilegenorprestigefromhisorherservicetothesociety.Ceremonies.Alltraditionalannualfestivalswerecon-nectedwiththedifferentstages of shiftingcultivation:Agal-maka,Maimua,Rongchugala,Ahaia,Wangala,etc.WangalaisconsideredtobethenationalfestivalamongtheGaros,takingplaceOctober-December.Whenamember of afamilybecomesChristian,herefusestoparticipateinSongsarekfestivals.Arts.TheGarosusedtomakethefollowingitems:carvedwoodenshields(spee);baskets of differenttypes;differentva.rieties of drums-gambil,kram,andnakik;pipes(adil)made of buffalohorn;flutes of bamboo;gonogina(Sew'sharp)made of bamboo.Medicine.Theyuseavariety of herbalmedicinesforallsorts of ailments,andtheyclaimtohaveherbalmedicineforbirthcontrolalso.DeathandAfterlife.Theybelievethatafterdeathhumanbeingsandanimalsturnintospiritsknownasmemang("ghosts").Thesememangareconsideredcounterparts of humanbeings.BibliographyBurling,Robbins(1956)."GaroKinshipTerminology."ManinIndia36:20 3-2 18.Burling,Robbins(1963).Rengsanggri:FamilyandKinshipinaGaroVillage.Philadelphia:University of PennsylvaniaPress.Dalton,EdwardTuite(1872).DescriptiveEthnology of Ben-gal.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Re-print.1960.Calcutta:IndianStudiesPast&Present.Das,K.N.(1982).SocialDimension of GaroLanguage.Ph.D.dissertation,GauhatiUniversity.Grierson,GeorgeA.,ed.(1903).TheLinguisticSurvey of India.Vol.3,pt.2.Calcutta:Government of India.Reprint.1967.Delhi:Motilal-Banarsidass.Majumdar,D.N.(1980).AStudy of CultureChangeinTwoGaroVillages of Meghalaya.Gauhati:GauhatiUniversityPress.Playfair,Alan.(1909).TheGaros.London:Nutt.Roy,SankarKumar(1977).AStudy of CeramicsfromtheNe-olithictotheMedievalPeriodofAssam:AnEthnoarchaeologicalApproach.Ph.D.dissertation,GauhatiUniversity.Roy,SankarKumar(1981)."Aspects of NeolithicAgricul-tureandShiftingCultivation,GaroHills,Meghalaya."AsianPerspectives24:19 3-2 21.Tayang,J.(1981).Census of India,1981.Series14,Meghalaya,paperno.1.Shillong:Directorate of CensusOp-erations,Meghalaya.SANKARKUMARROYGondETHNONYM:KoiOrientationIdentification.TheGondsareanimportantandnumer-oustribe,residingatthepresenttimemainlyinGondavana,"theLand of theGonds,"theeasternmostdistricts of MadhyaPradesh,formerlytheCentralProvinces of India.Theywerefirstcalled"Gonds"(hillmen)bytheMogulrul-ers.TheycallthemselvesKoiorKoitir;themeaning of thelatternameisunclear.Location.WhiletheGondlivemainlyinMadhyaPradesh,importantclusterslivealsointheadjoiningdistrictstothenorth,west,and south of Gondavana.Many of thesesubsec-tionshaveassumeddifferenttribalnamesso ... thattheiriden-titywiththeGondtribeisnotalwaysclear.Demography.ThelatestavailableCensusfiguresarefrom1971,whentherewere4,728,796Gonds-one of thelargesttribalgroupsonearth.Infact,thenumber of Gondsisreallymuchhigher,sincemanyGondcommunitieshavebeenfullyacceptedintotheHinducastesystem,haveadoptedanothername,andhavecompletelyabandonedtheiroriginaltribalways of life.WhilesomeGondsubsectionsthushavebeenlosttothetribe,somecommunities of differentoriginmayhavebeenincorporatedintotheGondtribe.TheBisonhornMarias of Bastarmaybesuchatribe.LinguisticAffiliation.IftheGondseverhadalanguage of theirown,theyhavelostitcompletely.Half of theGondsspeakaDravidianlanguagecalledGondiatpresent,whichismoreakintoTelugathantoKarmada.Inthesouthernparts of GondavanatheGondsspeakalanguagecalledParsiorParji(Persian),also of theDravidianfamily.InthenorthernregionstheGondsoftenspeakthelocallanguage,adialect of HindiorMarathi.Gujarati916percent of cultivatorshold10hectaresormore of land,whichaltogetherconstitutesnearly25percent of thetotalholdings.ThePatidarsandtheBrahmansarerichpeasants.TheKolis,theScheduledCastes(or'SC,"viewedas"Un-touchables"),thetribals,andtheMuslimsarepoorpeasantsandagriculturallaborers.Kinship,MarriageandFamilyKinGroupsandDescent.Descentisagnaticandpatrilineal.Marriage.AmongtheHinduGujaratis,marriageisasac-rament.Itisarrangedbyparents.Certaincastes(jatis)followtheprinciple of endogamyinwhichamanmustmarrynotonlywithinhisjatibutalsowithinhissubjati,whichisdi-videdintoekdasandgols(i.e.,circles).However,amongcer-taincastesexogamyrestrictsthecirclewithinwhichmarriagecanbearranged.Itforbidsthemembers of aparticulargroupinacaste,usuallybelievedtobedescendedfromacommonancestororassociatedwithaparticularlocality,tomarryany-onewhoisamember of thesamegroup.AnothercustomamongtheRajputs,Patidars,andBrahmansishypergamy,whichforbidsawoman of aparticulargrouptomarryaman of agrouplowerthanherowninsocialstandingandcompelshertomarryintoagroup of equalorsuperiorrank.DomesticUnit.Thefamilyisgenerallyconsideredtobetheparents,marriedaswellasunmarriedsons,andwidowedsisters.Thejointfamilyisanormparticularlyamongthetrad-ingandlandedcastesandalsoamongtheMuslimsinruralareas.Inthetraditionaljointfamily,threegenerationsliveto-gether.Allthefamilymemberseatfromonekitchenandcul-tivatelandjointly.Evenifthekitchensbecomeseparate,co-operativefarmingcontinuesinmanycases.Ajointfamilymayhavemorethanthirtymembers,althoughsuchcasesareexceptional.Atypicaljointfamilyhasfromeighttotwelvemembersinruralareasandsixtoeightmembersinurbanareas.Jointfamiliesarebecominglesscommon.Thehead of thefamily-thefatherorgrandfather-exercisesauthorityoverallfamilymembers.Womenandevenmarriedsonshavenoindependenceandcandolittlewithoutfirstobtainingconsentorapprovalfromthehead.Thissituationisnowchanging.Inheritance.AmongtheHindus,consanguinityistheguidingprinciplefordeterminingtheright of inheritance.Thefollowingareheirsinorder of precedence:sons,sons'sons,sons'grandsons,thewidow of thedeceased,daughters,daughters'sons,mother,father,brothers,brothers'sons.Alhoughinheritanceisbasedonpatrilinealprinciples,twowomen-thewidowandthedaughter-areveryhighonthescale of priority.Socialization.Infantsandchildrenareraisedbythemotherandgrandparents,thoughtherole of thefatherinbringingupthechildrenhasrecentlyincreased.Agirlisnotcloselylookedafterandsheisinvolvedinhouseholdchoresfromaveryyoungage,whereasaboyisprotectedandindulged.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Gujaratisaredividedintoanumber of socialgroups.TheHinduswhoconstitutethelargestgrouparedividedintoanumber of jatis,whichhaveahierarchicalorderbasedontheprinciples of purityandpollution.TheBrahmansareinthehighestposition,whiletheScheduledCastesoccupythelowestpositioninthehierarchy.TheSCsconstitute7percentof...

... foursuchfamilies,eachfamilyconstitutingaunit.Thereisaper-vasiveemphasisonsexualegalitarianismandwomensome-timesformindependentcommensalunits,thoughtheseal-waysarepart of awidercampaggregate.Manyencampmentsconsistonly of asinglefamily,andsuchfamiliesmayresideasseparateandisolatedunitsforlongperiods.KinshipTerminology.Thekinshipterminology of theHillPandaramis of theDravidiantypecommonthroughout south India,thoughthereismuchvaguenessandvariabilityHillTribes101KrishnaIyer,L.A.(1937)."Malapantiram."InTheTravan-coreTribesandCastes.Vol.1,9 6-1 16.Trivandrum:Govern-mentPress.Morris,Brian(1981)."HillGodsandEcstaticCults:NotesontheReligion of aHuntingandGatheringPeople."ManinIndia61:20 3-2 36.Morris,Brian(1986).ForestTraders:ASocio-EconomicStudy of theHillPandaram.L.S.E.MonographsinSocialAnthro-pology,no.55.London:AthlonePress.Mukherjee,B.(1954).TheMalapandaram of Travancore:TheirSocio-EconomicLife.Bulletin of theDepartment of An-thropology,no.3.Calcutta.BRIANMORRISHillTribesETHNONYM:ScheduledTribesThisinexacttermwaslongappliedbyBritishandAmericantravelersandcolonialauthoritiestotheindige-nousinhabitants of uplandareasin South andSoutheast Asia (andsometimesinotherparts of the world) .Althoughitwouldseemclearenoughwhata'hilltribe"is,thetermfindslittlefavoramongmodemanthropologists.First of all,itseemstohavetones of racialinferiority;thusthetermhasneverbeenapplied,forexample,totheHighlandclans of Scotland,eventhoughtheydofittheusualmold of hilltribes.Second,Westernwritershavebeeninconsistentintheiridentification of hilltribes,usuallydefiningthemassomehowinoppositiontoothersocialcategories.IntheIn-diansubcontinenttribesorhilltribeshavelongbeende-pictedasdistinctfromcastes;inSoutheast Asia theyhaveoftenbeenpresentedasdistinctfromrice-cultivatingpeas-antsintheplainsandalluvialvalleys.TheNilgiriHills of south India,totakeaspecificexample,arehometoseveralsmall,moreorlessindigenousgroups,mostnotablytheTodas,Kotas,Kurumbas,andBadagas(alldealtwithelse-whereinthis volume) .BritishwritersandadministratorsthereduringthenineteenthcenturyalwaysidentifiedtheTodas,Kotas,andKurumbasashilltribesoraboriginaltribes;whereastheBadagas,whohadcomeuptotheNilgiriHillsfromtheMysorePlainsafewcenturiesbefore,wereusuallywrittenabout,eveninlegislation,asbeingsome-thingotherthanhilltribes.Yettheyhadlivedwithinafewmiles of theKotasandTodasforcenturies,andtheywereataverysimilarlevel of economicdevelopmenttotheKotas.TheNilgiricaseleadstotheconclusionthathilltribesaresimplytheindigenouscommunitiesthatliveaboveaneleva-tion of 1,000meters.Intraditionalsocietieslikethose of IndiaandThailandonecanstillfinddiscreteculturalunitsconventionallycalledtribes.Thesetendtobeendogamoussocialunits,occupyingadistinguishableruralterritory,bearingatribalnameandadis-tinctmaterialculture,andoftenspeakingtheirownlanguage.Butthesamefeaturescharacterizemanydominantcastesin South Asia aswell(e.g.,theRajputs).Inthisregiontheoldcategorieswillnotsimplydisappearasanthropologistsdevelopmoreusefulways of categorizinghumansocieties.ThisisbecausethelegalformulationinIndiasoonafterindependence of twobroadsocialcategories,ScheduledTribesandScheduledCastes,hasbynowtouchedhundreds of millions of peoplewhotherebyhavebecomeeli-gibleforspecialtreatmentbyvariousbranches of thegovern.ment,inanefforttoamelioratethesocioeconomicbackward-ness of thesegroupings.SovaluedhavethesegovernmentbenefitsbecomethattheIndianauthoritiestodayfindthem-selvesunabletoabandonthegranting of specialbenefits,twogenerationsaftertheywerefirstinstituted.ThereareevengroupsliketheBadagas,whowerenevercalledhilltribesnortreatedasScheduledTribes,whononethelesstodayareclam-oringforclassificationasScheduledTribesforthemostobvi-ous of reasons.TheBadagasactuallybecameaScheduledTribein1991.Althoughmany of theearlieraccountsdepictedhilltribesas'animists,"orbelieversinspiritentitieswhodidnotfollowone of thegreat South Asianreligions(e.g.,theHillPandaram),subsequentresearchhasdescribedhilltribesthatareHindu,Buddhist,Muslim,andevenChristian(theMizos,Garos).Alongwiththesedifferencesinbelief,thehilltribesshowagreatvariety of economicadaptations:whileagricultureispreeminentamongmost,therearesomewhoarepastoralists(suchastheTodas),somewhoareartisans(Kotas),andsomewhoareitinerantpeddlers,magicians,andentertainers.Morethan500namedtribescanstillberecognizedinthecountries of South Asia. Detailsabouttribaldemographyareelusive.Mostnationalcensuseshave ... foundashouseholdservantsandcooks,andinsomecitiesinIndiatheyrunpublicbathhouses.HijrascomplainthatincontemporaryIndiatheiropportunitytoearnalivingbytherespectablemeans of performingatmarriagesandbirthshasdeclined,duetosmallerfamilies,lesselaboratelife-cycleceremonies,andageneraldeclineintherespectfortraditionalritualspecialists.Hijrashaveeffectivelymaintainedeconomicpredominance,ifnottotalmonopoly,overtheirritualrole.Definedbythelargersocietyasemasculatedmen,theyhaveclearlyseenthatitisintheirinteresttopreservethisdefinition of theirrole.Theydothisbymakingloudandpublicgesturestodenouncethe"frauds"and"fakes"whoimitatethem.Theythusreinforceinthepublicmindtheirownsolerighttotheirtraditionaloccu-pations.Whenhijrasfindotherfemaleimpersonatorsattempt-ingtoperformwhereitistheirrighttodoso,theychasethemaway,usingphysicalforceifnecessary.Hijraclaimstoexclusiveentitlementtoperformatlife-cyclerituals,tocollectalmsincertainterritories,andeventoownlandcommunallyreceivehistoricalsupportintheedicts of someIndianstatesthatoffi-ciallygrantedthemtheserights.Hijrashavealsobeensuccessfulincontrollingtheiraudi-encesintheirowneconomicinterest.Hijrasidentifywithre-nouncers(sannyasis)and,likethem,hijrashaveabandonedtheirfamilyandcasteidentitiesinordertojointheirreligiouscommunity.Likesannyasis,then,hijrastranscendnetworks of socialobligation.Theyoccupythelowestend of theIndiansocialhierarchyand,havingnoordinarysocialpositiontomaintainwithinthathierarchy,hijrasarefreedfromthere-straints of ordinarybehavior.Theyknowthattheirshame-lessnessmakesordinarypeoplereluctanttoprovokethemortoresisttheirdemandsformoneyandhencetheytradeonthefearandanxietypeoplehaveaboutthemtocoercecom-96HijraHijra100HillPandaraminusage.Apartfromconjugaltiesandclose"affinal"relation-ships(whichincontrasttothe"kin"linkshavewarmthandintimacy),kinshiptiesarenot"load"-bearinginthesense of implyingstructuredroleobligations.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Bothpolyandrousandpolygynousmarriageshavebeenrecorded,butmostmarriagesaremonogamous.Cross-cousinmarriageisthenormandmarriagesemergeal-mostspontaneouslyfrompreexistingkinshippatterns,ascampaggregatescenteronaffinallyrelatedmen.Thereislit-tleornomarriageceremonyandthereisnoformalarrange-ment of marriagepartners,althoughyoungmentendtoes-tablishpriortieswithprospectiveparents-in-law.MarriagesarebrittleandmostolderHillPandaramhaveexperiencedaseries of conjugalpartnershipsduringtheirlifetime.Acohab.itingcoupleformsanindependenthouseholdonmarriage,butthecouplemaycontinueasaunitinthecampaggregate of eitherset of parents.DomesticUnit.Theconjugalfamilyisthebasiceconomicunit.Members of afamilymayliveinseparateleafshelters(thoughspousessharethesameleafshelter)andmayformforagingpartieswithothermembers of acampaggregate,butallfoodgatheredbyanindividualbelongstohisorherownimmediatefamily,whoshareasimplehearth.Onlymeat,to-bacco,andtheproceeds of honey-gatheringexpeditionsaresharedbetweenthefamiliesconstitutingacampaggregate.Inheritance.AstheHillPandarampossessnolandandhavefewmaterialpossessions,littleemphasisisplacedoninheritance.Socialization.TheHillPandaramputanormativestressonindividualautonomyandself-sufficiency,andfromtheirearliestyearschildrenareexpectedtoassertindependence.Childrencollectforestproducefortradeandwilloftenspendlongperiodsawayfromtheirparents.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Organizedasaforagingcommunity,livinginsmallcampaggregates of twotothreefamiliesscat-teredoverawidearea,theHillPandaramexhibitnowiderstructures of sociopoliticalorganization.Therearenoritualcongregations,microcastes,noranyothercommunalassocia-tionsorcorporategroupingsabovethelevel of theconjugalfamily.Alack of widerformalorganizationiscoupledwithapervasivestressonegalitarianism,self-sufficiency,andtheautonomy of theindividual.Someindividualsinthesettle-mentsarerecognizedasmuttukani(headmen)buttheirroleisnotinstitutionalized,fortheyareessentiallyapart of thesystem of controlintroducedbyadministrativeagencies of theForestryandWelfareDepartmentstofacilitateefficientcommunicationwiththecommunity.SocialControl.TheHillPandaramhavenoformalinsti-tutionsforthesettlement of disputes,thoughindividualmenandwomenoftenactasinformalmediatorsorconciliators.Socialcontrolismaintainedtoanimportantdegreebyavaluesystemthatputsapremiumontheavoidance of aggres-sionandconflict;likeotherforagers,theHillPandaramtendtoavoidconflictbyseparationandbyflight.ReligionandExpressiveCultureAlthoughnominallyHindu,HillPandaramreligionisdis-tinctfromthat of theneighboringagriculturalistsinbeingun-iconic(i.e.,veneratingnotimages of deities,butthecrests of mountains)andfocusedonthecontact,throughpossessionrites, of localizedmaladevi(hillspirits).HillPan-darammayoccasionallymakeritualofferingsatvillagetem-ples,particularlythoseassociatedwiththegodsAiyappanandMuruganatthetime of theOnamfestival(December)oratlocalshrinesestablishedinforestareasbyTamillaborers;butotherwisetheyhavelittlecontactwiththeformalrituals of Hinduism.ReligiousBeliefs.ThespiritualagenciesrecognizedbytheHillPandaramfallintotwocategories:theancestralghostsorshades(chavu)andthehillspirits(maladevi).Thehillspiritsaresupernaturalsassociatedwithparticularhillorrockpreci-pices,andinthecommunityasawholethesespiritsarelegion,withahilldeityforaboutevery8squarekilometers of forest.Althoughlocalizedspirits,thehillspiritsarenot'familyspir-its"fortheymayhavedevoteeslivingsomedistancefromtheparticularlocality.Theancestralshades,ontheotherhand,arelinkedtoparticularfamilies,butlikethehillspiritstheirin-fluenceismainlybeneficent,givingprotectionagainstmisfor-tuneandprofferingadviceintimes of need.Oneclass of spir-its,however,isessentiallymalevolent.Thesearethearukula,thespirits of personswhohavediedaccidentallythroughfall-ingfromatreeorbeingkilledbyawildanimal.ReligiousPractitioners.Certainmenandwomenhavetheabilitytoinduceatrancelikestateandinthiswaytocontactthespirits.Theyareknownastullukara(possessiondancers,fromtullu,"tojump"),andattimes of misfortunetheyarecalleduponbyrelativesorfriendstogivehelpandsupport.Ceremonies.TheHillPandaramhavenotemplesorshrinesandthusmakenoformalritualofferingstothespirits,leadinglocalvillagerstosuggestthattheyhavenoreligion.Nordotheyritualizethelife-cycleevents of birth,puberty,anddeathtoanygreatdegree.Theimportantreligiouscere-monyisthepossessionseance,inwhichthetullukaragoesintoatrancestateinducedbyrhythmicdrummingandsing-ingandincarnatesoneormore of thehillspiritsoranances-tralshade.Duringtheseancethecause of themisfortuneisascertained(usuallythebreaking of atabooassociatedwiththemenstrualperiod)andthehelp of thesupernaturalissoughttoalleviatethesicknessormisfortune.Arts.IncontrastwithotherIndiancommunitiestheHillPandaramhavefewartforms.Nevertheless,theirsingingishighlydeveloped,andtheirsongsarevariedandelaborateandincludehistoricalthemes.Medicine.Allminorailmentsaredealtwiththroughher-balremedies,sincetheHillPandaramhaveadeepthoughunstructuredknowledge of medicinalplants.Moreseriouscomplaintsarehandledthroughthepossessionrites.BibliographyFirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1970)."NotesontheMalapantaram of Travancore."Bulletin of theInternationalCommitteeforUrgentAnthropologicalandEthnologicalRe-search3:4 4-5 1.HillPandaram99withtheirneighborsandcameunderthepoliticaljurisdiction of theearlyTamilkingdomsorlocalpettychieftains,whotaxedforestproductssuchascardamom,bamboo,ivory,honey,andwax.Theimportance of thistradeatthebegin-ning of thenineteenthcenturyishighlightedinthewritings of theAbbeDuboisandintheeconomicsurvey of theformerTravancoreStatemadeatthattimebytwoBritishofficials,WardandConner.ForesttradestillservestolinktheHillPandaramtothewiderHindusociety.SettlementsTheHillPandaramhavetwotypes of residentialgrouping-settlementsandforestcamps-althoughabout25percent of HillPandaramfamiliesliveacompletelynomadicexistenceandarenotassociatedwithanysettlement.Atypicalsettle-mentconsists of abouttenhuts,widelyseparatedfromeachother,eachhousingafamilywholivethereonasemiper-manentbasis.Thehutsaresimple,rectangularconstructionswithsplit-bambooscreensandgrass-thatchedroofs;manyarelittlemorethanroofedshelters.Aroundthehutsitesfruit-bearingtreessuchasmangoandtamarind,cassavaandsmallcultivationsmaybefound.Thesettlementsareoftensomedistancefromvillagecommunities(withtheirmulticastepopulations)andhavenocommunalfocuslikereligiousshrines.Settlementsareinhabitedonlyonanintermittentbasis.Thesecondtype of residentialgroupingistheforestcamp,consisting of twotosixtemporaryleafshelters,eachmadefromaframework of bamboothatissupportedonasin-gleuprightpoleandcoveredbypalmleaves.Theseleafshel-tershaveaconicalappearanceandareformedoverafireplaceconsisting of threestonesthatwerefoundonthesite.Rec-tangularlean-tosmayalsobeconstructedusingtwouprightpoles.Settlementsarescatteredthroughouttheforestrangesexceptintheinteriorforest,whichislargelyuninhabitedapartfromnomadiccamps of theHillPandaram.Themajor-ity of theHillPandaramarenomadicandtheusuallength of stayataparticularcampingsite(orarockshelter,whichisfrequentlyused)isfromtwotosixteendays,withsevenoreightdaysbeingtheaverage,althoughspecificfamiliesmayresideinaparticularlocalityforaboutsixtoeightweeks.No-madicmovements,inthesense of shiftingcamp,usuallyvaryoverdistancesfromahalf-kilometerto6kilometers,thoughindailyforagingactivitiestheHillPandarammayrangeoverseveralkilometers.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.AlthoughtheHillPandaramoccasionallyengageinpaidlaborforthefor-estdepartment,andasmallminority of familiesaresettledagriculturalistsontheforestperimeter,themajorityareno-madichunter-gatherers,whocombinefoodgatheringwiththecollection of minorforestproduce.Themainstaplecon-sists of variouskinds of yamcollectedbymeans of diggingsticks,togetherwiththenuts of aforestcycad,kalinga(Cycascincinalis).Suchstaplesaresupplementedwithpalmflour,andcassavaandriceareobtainedthroughtrade.Thehunting of smallanimals,particularlymonkeys,squirrels,andmonitorlizards,isimportant.Theseanimalsareob-tainedeitherduringforagingactivitiesorinahuntingpartyconsisting of twomenoramanandayoungboy,usingoldmuzzle-loadingguns.Dogs,anaidtohunting,aretheonlydomesticanimals.Trade.Thecollection of minorforestproduceisanimpor-tantaspect of economiclifeandtheprincipalitemstradedarehoney,wax,dammar(aresin),turmeric,ginger,cardamom,inchabark(Acaciaintsia,onevariety of whichisasoapsub-stitute,theotherafishpoison),variousmedicinalplants,oil-bearingseeds,andbarkmaterialsusedfortanningpurposes.Thetrade of theseproductsisorganizedthroughacontrac-tualmercantilesystem,aparticularforestrangebeingleasedbytheForestDepartmenttoacontractor,whoisnormallyawealthymerchantlivingintheplainsarea,oftenaMuslimorahigh-casteHindu.ThroughthecontractortheHillPan-daramobtaintheirbasicsubsistencerequirements:salt,con-diments,cloth,cookingpots,andtinsforcollectinghoney.Allthematerialpossessions of thecommunityareobtainedthroughsuchtrade-eventhetwoitemsthatarecrucialtotheircollectingeconomy,billhooksandaxes.Asthecontrac-tualsystemexploitedtheHillPandaram,whorarelygotthefullmarketvaluefortheforestcommoditiestheycollected,moveshavebeenmadeinrecentyearstoreplaceitbyaforestcooperativesystemadministeredbyforestryofficialsundertheauspices of thegovernment'sTribalWelfareDepartment.Division of Labor.Althoughwomenaretheprincipalgatherers of yams,whilethehunting of thelargermammalsandthecollection of honeyaretheprerogatives of men,thedivision of laborisnotarigidone.Menmaycookandcareforchildren,whilewomenfrequentlygohuntingforsmallerani-mals,anactivitythattendstobeacollectiveenterprisein-volvingafamilyaidedbyadog.Collection of forestproducetendstobedonebybothsexes.LandTenure.EachHillPandaramfamily(orindividual)isassociatedwithaparticularforesttract,butthereislittleornoassertion of territorialrightsorrightsoverparticularforestproductseitherbyindividualsorfamilies.Theforestisheldtobethecommonproperty of thewholecommunity.Nocom-plaintisexpressedattheincreasingencroachmentonthefor-estbylow-countrymenwhogatherdammarorotherforestproducts,oratincreasingincidences of poachingbythem.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Unlikethecastecommunities of Kerala,theHillPandaramhavenounilinealdescentsys-temorideologyandtherearenorecognizedcorporategroup-ingsabovethelevel of thefamily.Thesettlementsare ... foundashouseholdservantsandcooks,andinsomecitiesinIndiatheyrunpublicbathhouses.HijrascomplainthatincontemporaryIndiatheiropportunitytoearnalivingbytherespectablemeans of performingatmarriagesandbirthshasdeclined,duetosmallerfamilies,lesselaboratelife-cycleceremonies,andageneraldeclineintherespectfortraditionalritualspecialists.Hijrashaveeffectivelymaintainedeconomicpredominance,ifnottotalmonopoly,overtheirritualrole.Definedbythelargersocietyasemasculatedmen,theyhaveclearlyseenthatitisintheirinteresttopreservethisdefinition of theirrole.Theydothisbymakingloudandpublicgesturestodenouncethe"frauds"and"fakes"whoimitatethem.Theythusreinforceinthepublicmindtheirownsolerighttotheirtraditionaloccu-pations.Whenhijrasfindotherfemaleimpersonatorsattempt-ingtoperformwhereitistheirrighttodoso,theychasethemaway,usingphysicalforceifnecessary.Hijraclaimstoexclusiveentitlementtoperformatlife-cyclerituals,tocollectalmsincertainterritories,andeventoownlandcommunallyreceivehistoricalsupportintheedicts of someIndianstatesthatoffi-ciallygrantedthemtheserights.Hijrashavealsobeensuccessfulincontrollingtheiraudi-encesintheirowneconomicinterest.Hijrasidentifywithre-nouncers(sannyasis)and,likethem,hijrashaveabandonedtheirfamilyandcasteidentitiesinordertojointheirreligiouscommunity.Likesannyasis,then,hijrastranscendnetworks of socialobligation.Theyoccupythelowestend of theIndiansocialhierarchyand,havingnoordinarysocialpositiontomaintainwithinthathierarchy,hijrasarefreedfromthere-straints of ordinarybehavior.Theyknowthattheirshame-lessnessmakesordinarypeoplereluctanttoprovokethemortoresisttheirdemandsformoneyandhencetheytradeonthefearandanxietypeoplehaveaboutthemtocoercecom-96HijraHijra100HillPandaraminusage.Apartfromconjugaltiesandclose"affinal"relation-ships(whichincontrasttothe"kin"linkshavewarmthandintimacy),kinshiptiesarenot"load"-bearinginthesense of implyingstructuredroleobligations.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Bothpolyandrousandpolygynousmarriageshavebeenrecorded,butmostmarriagesaremonogamous.Cross-cousinmarriageisthenormandmarriagesemergeal-mostspontaneouslyfrompreexistingkinshippatterns,ascampaggregatescenteronaffinallyrelatedmen.Thereislit-tleornomarriageceremonyandthereisnoformalarrange-ment of marriagepartners,althoughyoungmentendtoes-tablishpriortieswithprospectiveparents-in-law.MarriagesarebrittleandmostolderHillPandaramhaveexperiencedaseries of conjugalpartnershipsduringtheirlifetime.Acohab.itingcoupleformsanindependenthouseholdonmarriage,butthecouplemaycontinueasaunitinthecampaggregate of eitherset of parents.DomesticUnit.Theconjugalfamilyisthebasiceconomicunit.Members of afamilymayliveinseparateleafshelters(thoughspousessharethesameleafshelter)andmayformforagingpartieswithothermembers of acampaggregate,butallfoodgatheredbyanindividualbelongstohisorherownimmediatefamily,whoshareasimplehearth.Onlymeat,to-bacco,andtheproceeds of honey-gatheringexpeditionsaresharedbetweenthefamiliesconstitutingacampaggregate.Inheritance.AstheHillPandarampossessnolandandhavefewmaterialpossessions,littleemphasisisplacedoninheritance.Socialization.TheHillPandaramputanormativestressonindividualautonomyandself-sufficiency,andfromtheirearliestyearschildrenareexpectedtoassertindependence.Childrencollectforestproducefortradeandwilloftenspendlongperiodsawayfromtheirparents.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Organizedasaforagingcommunity,livinginsmallcampaggregates of twotothreefamiliesscat-teredoverawidearea,theHillPandaramexhibitnowiderstructures of sociopoliticalorganization.Therearenoritualcongregations,microcastes,noranyothercommunalassocia-tionsorcorporategroupingsabovethelevel of theconjugalfamily.Alack of widerformalorganizationiscoupledwithapervasivestressonegalitarianism,self-sufficiency,andtheautonomy of theindividual.Someindividualsinthesettle-mentsarerecognizedasmuttukani(headmen)buttheirroleisnotinstitutionalized,fortheyareessentiallyapart of thesystem of controlintroducedbyadministrativeagencies of theForestryandWelfareDepartmentstofacilitateefficientcommunicationwiththecommunity.SocialControl.TheHillPandaramhavenoformalinsti-tutionsforthesettlement of disputes,thoughindividualmenandwomenoftenactasinformalmediatorsorconciliators.Socialcontrolismaintainedtoanimportantdegreebyavaluesystemthatputsapremiumontheavoidance of aggres-sionandconflict;likeotherforagers,theHillPandaramtendtoavoidconflictbyseparationandbyflight.ReligionandExpressiveCultureAlthoughnominallyHindu,HillPandaramreligionisdis-tinctfromthat of theneighboringagriculturalistsinbeingun-iconic(i.e.,veneratingnotimages of deities,butthecrests of mountains)andfocusedonthecontact,throughpossessionrites, of localizedmaladevi(hillspirits).HillPan-darammayoccasionallymakeritualofferingsatvillagetem-ples,particularlythoseassociatedwiththegodsAiyappanandMuruganatthetime of theOnamfestival(December)oratlocalshrinesestablishedinforestareasbyTamillaborers;butotherwisetheyhavelittlecontactwiththeformalrituals of Hinduism.ReligiousBeliefs.ThespiritualagenciesrecognizedbytheHillPandaramfallintotwocategories:theancestralghostsorshades(chavu)andthehillspirits(maladevi).Thehillspiritsaresupernaturalsassociatedwithparticularhillorrockpreci-pices,andinthecommunityasawholethesespiritsarelegion,withahilldeityforaboutevery8squarekilometers of forest.Althoughlocalizedspirits,thehillspiritsarenot'familyspir-its"fortheymayhavedevoteeslivingsomedistancefromtheparticularlocality.Theancestralshades,ontheotherhand,arelinkedtoparticularfamilies,butlikethehillspiritstheirin-fluenceismainlybeneficent,givingprotectionagainstmisfor-tuneandprofferingadviceintimes of need.Oneclass of spir-its,however,isessentiallymalevolent.Thesearethearukula,thespirits of personswhohavediedaccidentallythroughfall-ingfromatreeorbeingkilledbyawildanimal.ReligiousPractitioners.Certainmenandwomenhavetheabilitytoinduceatrancelikestateandinthiswaytocontactthespirits.Theyareknownastullukara(possessiondancers,fromtullu,"tojump"),andattimes of misfortunetheyarecalleduponbyrelativesorfriendstogivehelpandsupport.Ceremonies.TheHillPandaramhavenotemplesorshrinesandthusmakenoformalritualofferingstothespirits,leadinglocalvillagerstosuggestthattheyhavenoreligion.Nordotheyritualizethelife-cycleevents of birth,puberty,anddeathtoanygreatdegree.Theimportantreligiouscere-monyisthepossessionseance,inwhichthetullukaragoesintoatrancestateinducedbyrhythmicdrummingandsing-ingandincarnatesoneormore of thehillspiritsoranances-tralshade.Duringtheseancethecause of themisfortuneisascertained(usuallythebreaking of atabooassociatedwiththemenstrualperiod)andthehelp of thesupernaturalissoughttoalleviatethesicknessormisfortune.Arts.IncontrastwithotherIndiancommunitiestheHillPandaramhavefewartforms.Nevertheless,theirsingingishighlydeveloped,andtheirsongsarevariedandelaborateandincludehistoricalthemes.Medicine.Allminorailmentsaredealtwiththroughher-balremedies,sincetheHillPandaramhaveadeepthoughunstructuredknowledge of medicinalplants.Moreseriouscomplaintsarehandledthroughthepossessionrites.BibliographyFirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1970)."NotesontheMalapantaram of Travancore."Bulletin of theInternationalCommitteeforUrgentAnthropologicalandEthnologicalRe-search3:4 4-5 1.HillPandaram99withtheirneighborsandcameunderthepoliticaljurisdiction of theearlyTamilkingdomsorlocalpettychieftains,whotaxedforestproductssuchascardamom,bamboo,ivory,honey,andwax.Theimportance of thistradeatthebegin-ning of thenineteenthcenturyishighlightedinthewritings of theAbbeDuboisandintheeconomicsurvey of theformerTravancoreStatemadeatthattimebytwoBritishofficials,WardandConner.ForesttradestillservestolinktheHillPandaramtothewiderHindusociety.SettlementsTheHillPandaramhavetwotypes of residentialgrouping-settlementsandforestcamps-althoughabout25percent of HillPandaramfamiliesliveacompletelynomadicexistenceandarenotassociatedwithanysettlement.Atypicalsettle-mentconsists of abouttenhuts,widelyseparatedfromeachother,eachhousingafamilywholivethereonasemiper-manentbasis.Thehutsaresimple,rectangularconstructionswithsplit-bambooscreensandgrass-thatchedroofs;manyarelittlemorethanroofedshelters.Aroundthehutsitesfruit-bearingtreessuchasmangoandtamarind,cassavaandsmallcultivationsmaybefound.Thesettlementsareoftensomedistancefromvillagecommunities(withtheirmulticastepopulations)andhavenocommunalfocuslikereligiousshrines.Settlementsareinhabitedonlyonanintermittentbasis.Thesecondtype of residentialgroupingistheforestcamp,consisting of twotosixtemporaryleafshelters,eachmadefromaframework of bamboothatissupportedonasin-gleuprightpoleandcoveredbypalmleaves.Theseleafshel-tershaveaconicalappearanceandareformedoverafireplaceconsisting of threestonesthatwerefoundonthesite.Rec-tangularlean-tosmayalsobeconstructedusingtwouprightpoles.Settlementsarescatteredthroughouttheforestrangesexceptintheinteriorforest,whichislargelyuninhabitedapartfromnomadiccamps of theHillPandaram.Themajor-ity of theHillPandaramarenomadicandtheusuallength of stayataparticularcampingsite(orarockshelter,whichisfrequentlyused)isfromtwotosixteendays,withsevenoreightdaysbeingtheaverage,althoughspecificfamiliesmayresideinaparticularlocalityforaboutsixtoeightweeks.No-madicmovements,inthesense of shiftingcamp,usuallyvaryoverdistancesfromahalf-kilometerto6kilometers,thoughindailyforagingactivitiestheHillPandarammayrangeoverseveralkilometers.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.AlthoughtheHillPandaramoccasionallyengageinpaidlaborforthefor-estdepartment,andasmallminority of familiesaresettledagriculturalistsontheforestperimeter,themajorityareno-madichunter-gatherers,whocombinefoodgatheringwiththecollection of minorforestproduce.Themainstaplecon-sists of variouskinds of yamcollectedbymeans of diggingsticks,togetherwiththenuts of aforestcycad,kalinga(Cycascincinalis).Suchstaplesaresupplementedwithpalmflour,andcassavaandriceareobtainedthroughtrade.Thehunting of smallanimals,particularlymonkeys,squirrels,andmonitorlizards,isimportant.Theseanimalsareob-tainedeitherduringforagingactivitiesorinahuntingpartyconsisting of twomenoramanandayoungboy,usingoldmuzzle-loadingguns.Dogs,anaidtohunting,aretheonlydomesticanimals.Trade.Thecollection of minorforestproduceisanimpor-tantaspect of economiclifeandtheprincipalitemstradedarehoney,wax,dammar(aresin),turmeric,ginger,cardamom,inchabark(Acaciaintsia,onevariety of whichisasoapsub-stitute,theotherafishpoison),variousmedicinalplants,oil-bearingseeds,andbarkmaterialsusedfortanningpurposes.Thetrade of theseproductsisorganizedthroughacontrac-tualmercantilesystem,aparticularforestrangebeingleasedbytheForestDepartmenttoacontractor,whoisnormallyawealthymerchantlivingintheplainsarea,oftenaMuslimorahigh-casteHindu.ThroughthecontractortheHillPan-daramobtaintheirbasicsubsistencerequirements:salt,con-diments,cloth,cookingpots,andtinsforcollectinghoney.Allthematerialpossessions of thecommunityareobtainedthroughsuchtrade-eventhetwoitemsthatarecrucialtotheircollectingeconomy,billhooksandaxes.Asthecontrac-tualsystemexploitedtheHillPandaram,whorarelygotthefullmarketvaluefortheforestcommoditiestheycollected,moveshavebeenmadeinrecentyearstoreplaceitbyaforestcooperativesystemadministeredbyforestryofficialsundertheauspices of thegovernment'sTribalWelfareDepartment.Division of Labor.Althoughwomenaretheprincipalgatherers of yams,whilethehunting of thelargermammalsandthecollection of honeyaretheprerogatives of men,thedivision of laborisnotarigidone.Menmaycookandcareforchildren,whilewomenfrequentlygohuntingforsmallerani-mals,anactivitythattendstobeacollectiveenterprisein-volvingafamilyaidedbyadog.Collection of forestproducetendstobedonebybothsexes.LandTenure.EachHillPandaramfamily(orindividual)isassociatedwithaparticularforesttract,butthereislittleornoassertion of territorialrightsorrightsoverparticularforestproductseitherbyindividualsorfamilies.Theforestisheldtobethecommonproperty of thewholecommunity.Nocom-plaintisexpressedattheincreasingencroachmentonthefor-estbylow-countrymenwhogatherdammarorotherforestproducts,oratincreasingincidences of poachingbythem.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Unlikethecastecommunities of Kerala,theHillPandaramhavenounilinealdescentsys-temorideologyandtherearenorecognizedcorporategroup-ingsabovethelevel of thefamily.Thesettlementsare...

... thecentralandstategovernments.Conflict.TheIrula,besetbycircumstancesforcingchangeuponthemfromtheoutside world, areliabletocomeintoconflictwiththeirneighbors.Ourbestretrospectiveexample of thisisofferedbythehamlet of Koppayur,onaneasternslope of theNilgiris.TheBritishmanagersonthenearbyKil-kotagiriteaestateenabledtheIrulatocontinuelivingatKop-payurandtocultivatetheadjacentland.Irulaworkedontheestateandwereconsideredtobedependablelaborerswhoperiodicallyneededtimeofffortheirownagriculturalpur-suits.Evenafterindependence,thecontinuedBritishman-agementenabledtheIrulaatKoppayurtoliveinthesamewayuntilatleast1963.By1978theBritishhadleft.BecausetheIrulaandtheirfieldsatKoppayurthenoccupiedlandinforestreserve,theybegantobeevicted.(Bycontrast,intheearly1800s,theIrulahadusufructuse of allthesurroundingland.)Theyweresupposedtooccupyasteepslopenotfaraway.UnderIndianmanagementattheKilkotagiriteaestate,coffeehadalreadybeenplantedrightuptotheIrulahamletandoverlandonceusedbytheIrulaforthecultivation of mil-let.Originally,thedismalprospect of themovewasalleviatedbysomepossibility of governmentaidenabling20.5hectares of landtobeopenedtocoffeeandteagardeningnearthenewhamlet,butby1988thisbrighterprospectfortheIrulahadlongsincebeenextinguished.TherewerethenfifteenIrulafamilieslivinginthelimitedspace(about¼4hectare)covered108Irulabythenewhamlet.Theoriginalhamlet,however,stillhadsevenoccupiedhouses.TheonlylandownersareheadmenBalan(1.6hectares)andMasanan(3.6hectares).Gardenjackfruitandbananasarethemainproduce.Thenearbyan-cestraltemple,thekoppamanaiafterwhichKoppayurisnamed,nolongerhasaroof,andtheburialgroundischokedbyweeds.Inthattheestatemanagementnowrestrictstheac-cess of theIrulatotheirhamlet,thereisevenmorecauseforillwill.ThemanagementconsiderstheIrulatobeamenace,becausetheystandaccused of stealingcoffeeandsellingit.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheIrulaarepantheistswhomakepro-visionforthepresence of spiritsinhumansandobjects.Inaddition,arecurrentthemeintheirreligiousbeliefisthesig-nificance of themaleandfemaleprinciplesassymbols of theongoingcreativeprocess.ItisrareforanIndiantribalpeopletobeVaishnavites,buttheIrula,liketheBeda of Karnataka,areostensiblyworshipers of Vishnu.TheyhavethusgainedfamefortheirtemplededicatedtoRanga(alsoknownasVishnu)onthetop of RangaswamiBetta.ThisisapeakthatcrownstheeasternNilgirislopesandthatcanbeseenfrommanyIrulahamletsandvillages.Inaddition,theIrulaseemtohaveapropensityfortheworship of thegodMuneshwarandthegoddessMari,both of whomareconsideredtobeHindudeities.Curiously,however,theIrula of Kallampa-layamstoretheirgiltimage of Mariandtheaccompanyingrit-ualparaphernaliainarocksheltercloseby.Theydothisbe-causetheybelievethattheobjectsaretoosacredtostoreinanystructuremadebyhumans.ThispracticeperhapsmaybepromptedbyaneedtomakeMariapart of theuniversalspiritthatiseverywhere.Bydint of theaccompanyingbloodysacri-fice,Mariisalsorelatedtoearthandthefertility of plantsspringingfromit.AsMariisthecommongoddess of small-poxinTamilNadu,theIrulahavealsoworshipedherinthatcapacity.LiketheirHinduneighbors,theIrulanowwatchnighttimeperformances of excerptsfromtheMahabharataortheRarnayanaactedintotheearlyhours of themorning.Therearebenignandprotectiveancestralpatricianspiritsandfamilyancestralspiritsthatmaybepetitionedforassist-ance;suchapetitioniscalledatoga.Therearealsoroamingevilspirits(pe),anditispossibleforonetopossessahuman.Avirginfemaledemon(kannipe)mustbetreatedwithgreatcarebyanypriest,andnearGarkiyurthereisatempleintowhichanIrulapriestenticesakannipeforamonth'sstay(OctobertoNovember)eachyear.Sheisenticedtocomewithawelcomesongononeday,vegetarianfoodofferingonanother,andthesacrificialoffering of meatfromasambar(anAsiandeer)thatmustbehunteddownonthethirdday.BecausetheIrulavisitthetemples of theirHinduneighbors,goonpilgrimagestoSabarimalainKerala,andworshipdei-tiesinthesamemannerastheHindus,thereisclearevidencethattheIrulaparticipateinpolytheisticHinduism.ReligiousPractitioners.TheKalkatti(stone-offering)pa-triclantraditionallysuppliespriests,andthepriestswhoserveonRangaswamiBettacomefromafamilythatresidesinKal-lampalayam.ThefactthatatribalIrulaservesaspriesttoRanga,whichisaseemingdeparturefromorthodoxy,islegiti-mizedbyafolktaleinwhichanofficiatingIyengarBrahmanpriestisconvincedthatanIrulashouldserveinstead.ThedeityimagesandtheritualparaphernaliausedintherecentlyconstructedtempleonRangaswamiBettarevealamixture of ShaiviteandVaishnaviteimageryandsymbolism.ItthusseemsprobablethattheofficiatingIrulapriestissimultane-ouslyanddualisticallycateringtoRangaandKrishnaworshipforHindusandmaleprincipleworshipforIrulas.Thelow-landRangatempleatKaramadaioffersinterestingcompari-sons.InafolktalesomewhatsimilartoonetoldaboutastoneassociatedwithRangaatRangaswamiBetta,acowdropshermilkonastoneinananthill.Whenthecowherddiscoverswhatishappening,heinaragestrikesthestonewithaknife.Heisamazedwhenbloodcomesfromthestone.Inadreamshortlythereafter,thegodRangaappearsandaskstobewor-shipedwiththestoneasanimageatthesameplace.Thestone,alinga,becamethecenterpiece of worshipinthetem-plethatwaseventuallybuiltonthesite.Butone of themostfascinatingaspects of thistempleisabeliefthatofficiatingIrulaprieststherewereeventuallyreplaced,ironically,byIyengarBrahmanpriests.Ceremonies.InJanuarytheMattuPongalfestival(one of themainHindufestivalsheldinTamilNadu),payingspecialhomagetocows,isgenerallyobservedbytheIrula.TheyalsoattendtheannualfestivalatKaramadai,nearCoimbatore,whichtakesplaceintheTamilmonth of Masi(March-April).Theannualone-weekfestivalhonoringMariatKal-lampalaiyam,withchicken,goat,andsheepsacrifices,cli-maxesonthefullmoonday of theTamilmonth of Adi,onorcloseto15August.AnIrulapriest,wearingthe"thread of thetwice-born"(aloop of sacredthreadhungovertherightshoulder),officiatesonthetop of RangaswamiBettaoneverySaturdayfortwomonthsstartinginmid-August.Shortlybe-forethestart of thisperiod,theimage of Rangaiscarriedbe-tweentheIrulasettlementsandisthefocus of worshipateachnighttimehaltingplace.Arts.Irulawomenaretattooedandenjoywearingjewelry,includingearrings,noseringsandtoerings.AlthoughtheIruladosomedoodlingsonthewalls of theirhouses,forex-ample,thereisalack of anyformaldecorativeartamongthem.Theydohoweverhaveadistinctivedanceformcalledarakkoleatam.Medicine.Irulahamletshaveafewmemberswithanintri-cateknowledge of themedicinalvalues of plantspecies,solowlandersinparticularseekthecounsel of Irulaherbalists.IrulalivingneartheMarudamalaitemple,nearCoimbatore,sellherbalcurestovisitingHindupilgrims.AhospitalfoundedbythelateDr.S.Narasimhan(whoalsofoundedtheAdivasiWelfareAssociation)atKarikkiyur,thenearbydis-pensaryatKunjappanai,andafieldhospitalatArayurontheNilgirimassifhaveplayedasignificantroleinmeetingthemedicalneeds of theIrula.TheIrulaarealsoincreasinglytak-ingadvantage of thewidespreadmedicalfacilitiesprovidedbythegovernment,includingamobilemedicalunit(firstassoci-atedwiththefamousTodanurseEvamPiljain).ThereisadispensarywithamidwifeatThengumarahada.DeathandAfterlife.Whenadeathoccurs,therelativesareinformedbyaKurumba.Uponarrivingattheplace of thedeceased,theheads of malesareshavedbythejatti.Bothmalesandfemalesdancetomusicandaboutthecotuponwhichthedeceasedrests.Afterallthosewhoshouldattendhavearrived,thecorpseiscarriedtotheburialground.Mem-bers of thedeceased'sbrother-in-law'spatricianbearthe ... alsoinvolvedinwetricecultivation.There,apartfromirrigationwaterfromsurfaceflow(Coo-noorRiveristhemostimportant),subsurfacewaterisnowbeingobtainedwithelectricpumps.ThemainricecropisgrownfromJuneintoJanuaryorFebruary,andthegrowing of short-maturationriceenablestheproduction of asecondcropfromFebruarytoMay.Aslowlandpopulationincreases,themajority of thelowlandIrula(whoownnoland)arein-creasinglybesetbytheproblem of obtainingworkwhereverpossible.SomeareemployedintheirrigatedarecagrovesnearMettupalaiyam,reputedtoformthelargesthuman-madeIrula107member of theSambanpatricianwilltrytokeepitintact,oramember of theKoduvanpatricianwillhelpifamember of theSambanclanisinvolved.Ifthreeattemptsatreconciliationdonotwork,adivorceisgranted.Thevillageheadmanandagroup of malesformingacouncil(panchayat)simplyissuetheirconsentfordivorce.Thebride-priceandanygiftjewelrymustbereturnedtothehusband'sfamily.Thenthehus-band'smotherorhusband'sbrother'swifesmearssomecas-toroilbackwardfromtheforehead of thewifealongthepart of herhair.Afterthetaliisremovedfromherandreturnedtothehusband,theyaredivorced.Thechildrenfromthemar-riagewillremainwiththefather.DomesticUnit.Thetypicalfamilywhosemembersareservedfoodfromthesamehearthaveragesfourtofivepeople,butitmayreachasize of seventoninepeople.Becausethein-stitution of theextendedfamilystillremainsvital,thoserela-tivesbeyondthenuclearfamilymayassumeresidence,espe-ciallyiftheyareleftdestituteininfancyoroldage.Ifthewifedies,itistheresponsibility of thehusbandtocareforthechil-dren.Hemayremarry.Whiletheconstitution of Indianowenablesawomantoremarryifherhusbanddies,anIrulawidowseldomwill.Thebrothers of adeceasedhusbandareexpectedto ... Indianpriests,andalsobroughtinlargenumbers of EuropeanJesuitsinasu-pervisorycapacity.Theyear1947markedalandmarkinProtestantchurchhistory,notjustbecausethiswastheyear of independenceforbothIndiaandPakistanbutalsobecauseitwastheyearwhentheChurch of South Indiacameintobeing-thefirstunifiedProtestantchurchanywhere.It of courseabsorbedtheformerAnglican,Methodist,andseveralothersectarianinstitutions.In1970therefollowedaunifiedProtestantChurch of NorthIndiaandaProtestantChurch of Pakistan.Thesechurches,bothProtestantandCatholic,arenowentirelyinthehands of South Asianbishopsandarchbish-ops,withveryfew of theformerEuropeanmissionariesre-maining.InSriLankaand south India,thegreatestgrowthshaverecentlybeenseenamongtheRomanCatholics,notprimarilybecause of newconversionsbutratherbecause of acalculatedavoidance of familyplanning.InNepalChristianandMuslimmissionaryactivityisprohibitedbylaw.Thehistory of Christianityin South Asia hasindeedbeenacheckeredone,butithasbeenanimportantinstru-ment of Westernization.ThefirstprintingpressesandthefirstmodemcollegeswereintroducedbyEuropeanmissionar-ies.Bythemiddle of thenineteenthcenturythesepeopleweremakingimportantcontributionstothegeneralsocialuplift of thecountry(andnotonlyforChristianconverts)bytheirpromotion of ruralandurbanschooling,adultliteracy,femaleeducation,colleges,hospitalsandclinics,andmodemurbancareers.AsaresulttheChristianpopulationhaswieldedadisproportionateinfluenceinmodemIndianandSriLankanlife.Littleconversionisstilltakingplace.IndianChristianstodaytendtobeurban,arealwaysmo-nogamous,andformnuclearfamiliesuponmarriage(whichtakesplaceinachurch).TheyusuallyfollowWesternizedprofessions,becomingteachers,nurses,bankclerks,andcivilservants.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; SyrianChristian of KeralaBibliographyCoutinho,Fortunato(1958).Leregimeparoissialdesdiocesesderitelatindel'Indedesorigines(XVIesiecleanosjours).Paris:EditionsBiatrice-Nauwelaerts.Gibbs,MildredE.(1972).TheAnglicanChurchinIndia,160 0-1 970.Delhi:IndianSocietyforPromotingChristianKnowledge.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930)."IndianChristian."InTheMysoreTribesandCastes,editedbyH.V.NanjundayyaandL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer.Vol.3, 1-7 6.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Neill,Stephen(1984).AHistory of ChristianityinIndia.2vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Thomas,AbrahamV.(1974).ChristiansinSecularIndia.Rutherford:FairleighDickinsonUniversity.PAULHOCKINGSIrula105gosa)andtamarindareoftenpresentwithinlowlandsettle-ments.ThelowlandIrulawhoherdcattleforothers,typicallyindrierareaswiththornforest,areassociatedwithadistinc-tivesettlementpatterninwhichalargecattleenclosureissur-roundedbyathornywall of piledbranches.TheIrulaalsohaveburialgroundswithancestraltemples,calledkoppamanais,inwhichstonesassociatedwiththedepartedspirits of thedeadarehoused.Eachpatricianhasaburialplaceandakoppamanai,butthetwoarenotnecessarilytogether(forexample,whileSambanpeopleareonlyburiedatKallampa-layam,thereareSambankoppamanaisatHallimoyarandKunjappanai).Althoughaburialgroundisusuallyclosetoasettlement,itcanbefartheraway.Asinmanyotherparts of Asia andintothePacificBasin,thesacredness of aburialgroundisoftenassociatedwiththepagodatree(thePolyne-sianfrangipani).Largelybecausemany of theIrulaarelandlesslaborers,most of themliveinone-roomedhouses.Nevertheless,IrulaplantationlaborersinhabitingtheNilgirislopesstilloccupybipartitehouseswiththesacredcookingareaformallyseparated(typicallynotwithawallbutwithashallowearthenplatform)fromthelivingandsleepingareas.TheKasabatothenorth of theNilgirimassif,whoherdcattleforothers(Badagasincluded),occupytripartitestructureswithlivingquartersforhumanstooneside of aroomwithanopenfront,andacalfroomtotheotherside.Theopenfront of thecenterroomfacilitatesthewatching of theenclosedcattleatnight,anditismostusefulwhenpredatorsorwildel-ephantscomenear.WhiletraditionalIrulahousesaremade of wattleanddaub,withthatchedroofs(orinsomeinstancesbananasheathsforwallingandroofing),moreIrulaarelivinginhouseswithwalls of stoneorbrickandroofswithtiles,es-peciallyifthegovernmenthasprovidedfinancialassistance.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theearliestre-portsindicatethatthehoe-usingIrula of theeasternNilgirislopesobtainedonecrop of milletinayearfromshiftedplots,involvingagrowingperiodthatcoincidedwiththewesterlymonsoon.Theythendependedupongardenproduce,gath-erededibles,andhuntingforsurvivaloncetheharvestedgrainhadbeenconsumed.ThattheseIrulawereprobablynamedafterayamspeciesisindicative of howimportantyamsweretothemwhentheyturnedtogathering.Severalwildyamspecieswereavailable.Irulaarestillwellknownforthegatheringandsupply of honeytotheirneighbors.Despitesculpturedrepresentations of bowsandarrowsinsomeNilgiridolmensathigherelevation,itisnoteworthythattheIrulaseemalwaystohaveusednetsandspearswhentheyhunted.Ourrecord of atleasteightyspecies of plantsgrowinginIrulagardenstestifiestothepastandcontinuingsignificance of gardenstoalltheIrula.Thatatleasttwenty-five of theidenti-fiedplantshadaNew World originalsoprovesthewilling-ness of theIrulatoincorporateintroducedspeciesintotheireconomy.Thecontinuedcultivation of fingermillet(Eleusinecorocana),Italianmillet(Setariaitalica),andlittlemillet(Panicumsumatrense)andnodryricebytheIrulaonthehigherslopesmayinitselfrepresentaNeolithicsurvival,be-causethecultivation of dryricehasinSoutheast Asia widelyreplacedtheearliercultivation of theItalianandlittlemilletsfromChina.TheIrulastillcommonlygrowthesetwospecies of millettogetherandthenharvesttheItalianmilletwhenthelittlemilletisfarfrommaturation.Verysmallsicklesareusedforharvestingindividualgrainheads.Whenfingermillet(grownapartfromtheothertwo)istobeharvested,theplantsarevisitedperiodicallytopermittheremoval of grainasitripens.Anothereconomicpursuitthatmayhavecontin-uedfromNeolithictimes,duringwhichcattlerearingwaswidespreadinsouthernIndia,isthemannerbywhichlow-landIrulainforestedareaskeepcattlefortheirneighbors(Kuruvasincluded).ThefewIrulawhostillmanagetoprac-ticeshiftingagriculturesetfireinAprilorMaytothevegeta-tiontheyhavecut,sothecultivation of milletwillthentakeplaceduringthewesterlymonsoon.Thebarnyardmillet(Echinochloa),bullrushmillet(Pennisetum),commonmillet(Panicummiliaceum)andsorghummillet(Sorghum),all of thelowland,renownedfortheirdroughtresistance,andthustypicallygrownondryfields,arecultivatedwiththeaid of plowsandmainlyintheseason of thewesterlymonsoon.Nowwiththecooperation of theForestDepartment,theIrulagatherforestproduce(includingmedicinalplants)forsale.SincemostIrula of theNilgirislopescurrentlyworkasplantationlaborers,plantationmanagementsstartingwiththoseinthetime of theBritishRajhadtoprovideperiodicre-leasetimeforthoseIrulawhoneededtoperformtheirownagriculturalchores.TheGandhianquesttoimprovethelives of members of theScheduledTribesisdemonstratedbythemannerinwhichthegovernmenthasenabledIrula of theeasternNilgirislopestoestablishcoffeeandteagardens of theirown,andatKunjappanaitheSilkBoard of thegovern-ment of TamilNaduisnowprovidingfinancialassistancetoenablesilkwormfarmingamongtheIrula.From1974thegovernmentgavesmallplotstoIrulaontheeasternslopes,andtheCooperativeLandDevelopmentBank(anagency of theTamilNadugovernment)atthenearesttown(Kotagiri)wasby1979helpingtofinancethegrowing of coffeeandteainnurseries,sothattheIrulacouldhavetheirowncommer-cializedgardens.WhileafewIrulawhowiselymanagedtheirgrantedlandsandloansprospered,manydidnotmanagetheirendeavorswellandthereturnpaymentonloansatalowratewaseventuallyendedinmanyinstancesbyaspecialbillpassedinMadrasbytheTamilNadugovernment.Itispri-marilythecooperation of thegovernment,withtheForestDepartment of TamilNaduplayinganimportantrole,thathasenabledmorelowlandIrulatobecomeinvolvedinthean-nualcultivation of irrigatedrice.Hallimoyar,Kallampalayam,andThengumarahada(withitsCooperativeSociety),inwhichtheIrulaliveclosetothemembers of severalcastes,haveirrigationnetworks.OnericecropstartedinMarchisharvestedinJune,andthesecondcropstartedinJulyisreadyinDecember.In1978anewlyconstructedricemillbecameoperationalatThengumarahada.Irulalivingtothe south of theNilgirimassifare...