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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - J docx

Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - J docx

Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - J docx

... asmanywaysaspossible.Thelaitysupportthewanderingascetics,providingthemwithfoodandshelter,theasceticsinturnprovidereligiousandmoralguidance.LayJainsincludesome of India'sleadingindustrialists,jewelers,andbankers,concentratedparticularlyinthecities of Bombay,Ahme-dabad,andDelhi.Becausesomanyarebusinesspeople,theJainsareone of thefewreligiousgroups(alongwiththeParsisandJews)whoaremorenumerousincitiesthaninruralareas.ThroughoutwesternIndiaJainsaretobefoundineveryurbancenter,howeversmall,workingasmerchants,traders,wholesalers,andmoneylenders.Assooftenhappensinreligioussects,theJainsarenostrangerstoschism.Themostbasicandwidelyknownsplitwithintheircommunity of believers,datingbacktothefourthcenturyB.C.,separatesthe'sky-clad"(Digambaras)fromthe"white-clad"(Svetambaras);thenamesrefertothefactthatthehighestorder of Digambaramonksgonakedtoannouncetheircompleteindifferencetotheirbodies,whileSvetambaramonksandnunsalwayswearsimplewhiteclothing.Thesetwosectsdifferintheirattitudestowardscripture,theirviews of theuniverse,andtheirattitudestowardwomen(theDig-ambarasbelievethatnowomanhaseverachievedliberation).Anothermajorsectariandivision,foundparticularlyamongtheSvetambarasanddatingbacktofifteenth-centuryGu-jarat,rejectsallforms of idolatry.Whilemurti-pujaka(idol-worshiping)layandasceticSvetambarasbuildandvisittem-plesinwhichidols of thetirthankarasareinstalled,theSvetambaraSthanakavasisect-likecertainProtestantChristiansects-holdsthatsuchforms of worshipmaymis-leadthebelieverintothinkingthatidols,famoustemples,andthelikearesources of somemysteriouspower.InsteadlayandasceticSthanakavasisprefertomeditateinbarehalls.Today,layJains-mostly of Gujaratiorigin-aretobefoundineastAfrica,GreatBritain,andNorthAmerica,wheretheyhavemigratedoverthelastcenturyinsearch of businessandtradingopportunities.Templeshavebeenestab-lishedinseveral of thesecountriesandtheJains ... aremakingthemselvesfeltasadistinctivepresencewithinthewider South Asianmigrantcommunityoverseas.SeealsoBaniaBibliographyBanks,Marcus(1992).OrganizingJainisminIndiaandEng-land.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Carrithers,Michael,andCarolineHumphrey,eds.(1991).TheAssembly of Listeners:JainsinSociety.Cambridge:Cam-bridgeUniversityPress.Dundas,Paul(1992).TheJains.London:Routledge.Fischer,Eberhard,andJyotindrajain(1977).ArtandRituals:2,500Years of JainisminIndia.Delhi:SterlingPublishersPri-vateLtd.Jaini,PadmanabhS.(1979).TheJainaPath of Purification.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Mathias,Marie-Claude(1985).DIlivranceetconviviality:LesystemeculinairedesJaina.Paris:EditionsdelaMaisondesSciencesdel'Homme.Pande,G.C.,ed.(1978).SramanaTradition:ItsContributiontoIndianCulture.Ahmedabad:L.D.Institute of Indology.Sangave,VilasA.(1959).JainaCommunity:ASocialSurvey.Reprint.1980.Bombay:PopularBookDepotVinayasagar,Mahopadhyaya,andMukundLath,eds.andtrans.(1977).KalpaSutra.Jaipur:D.R.Mehta,PrakritBharati.MARCUSBANKSJatETHNONYMS:Jt,JatOrientationIdentificationandLocation.Primarilyendogamouscom-munitiescallingthemselvesandknownasJatlivepredomi-nantlyinlargeparts of northernandnorthwesternIndiaandinsouthernandeasternPakistan,assedentaryfarmersand/ormobilepastoralists.Incertainareastheytendtocallthem-selvesBaluch,Pathan,orRajput,ratherthanJat.Most of thesecommunitiesareintegratedasacasteintothelocallyprevalentcastesystem.Inthepastthreedecadesincreasingpopulationpressureonlandhasledtolarge-scaleemigration of thepeasantJat,especiallyfromIndia,toNorthAmerica,theUnitedKingdom,Malaysia,andmorerecentlytheMid-dleEast.SomemaintainthatthesedentaryfarmingJatandthenomadicpastoralJatare of entirelydifferentorigins;oth-ersbelievethatthetwogroupsare of thesamestockbutthattheydevelopeddifferentlife-stylesoverthecenturies.Neitherthefarmersnorthepastoralistsare,however,tobeconfusedwithotherdistinctcommunities of peripateticpeddlers,arti-sans,andentertainersdesignatedinAfghanistanbytheblan-ketterms"Jat"orJat;thelattertermsareconsideredpejora-tive,andtheyarerejectedasethnonymsbytheseperipateticcommunities.InPakistanalso,amongtheBaluchi-andPashto-speakingpopulations,thetermswere,andtoacertainextentstillare,usedtoindicatecontemptandlowersocialstatus.Demography.Noreliablefiguresareavailableforrecentyears.In1931thepopulation of allsedentaryandfarmingJatwasestimatedat8,377,819;intheearly1960s8,000,000wastheestimateforPakistanalone.TodaytheentireJatpopula-tionconsists of severalmillionmorethanthat.linguisticAffiliation.AllJatspeaklanguagesanddialectsthatarecloselyconnectedwithotherlocallyspokenlan-guages of theIndo-IranianGroup.Threealphabetsareused,dependingprimarilyonreligionbutpartlyonlocality:theArabic-derivedUrduoneisusedbyMuslims,whileSikhsandHindususetheGurmukhi(Punjabi)andtheDevanagari(Hindi)scripts,respectively.Jatav115ciallytobedependentuponthemother,whomayinturnbe-comedependentupontheminoldage.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InIndia'svillagesthecastesystemisanorganicdivision of labor,eachcastehavingatraditionallyassignedanddistinctoccupationandduty.BecauseJatavs,asChamars,dothepollutingandpollutedtasks of removingdeadcattlefromthevillageand of workingwithleather,theyarerankedasUntouchablesatthebottom of thesystem.Tra-ditionally,theirmajoroccupationinthevillagewasagricul-turalandothermeniallaborforlandowners.Incities,wherethetraditionalinterdependencies of thecastesystemarevir-tuallynonexistent,Jatavsaremorelikeadistinctandde-spisedethnicgroup.PoliticalOrganization.InpreindependentIndiaJatavsgainedconsiderablepoliticalexpertisebyformingassocia-tionsandbydevelopingaliteratecadre of leaders.Theytriedtochangetheirpositioninthecastesystemthrough'Sanskri-tization,"theemulation of upper-castebehavior.JatavsclaimedKshatriyaorwarrior-classoriginandrank,andtheyorganizedcasteassociationstoreformcastebehaviorandlobbyfortheirclaims.AfterindependenceIndialegallyabol-ishedthepractice of untouchability,establishedtheuniversalfranchise,anddevelopedthepolicy of "protectivediscrimina-tion."ThatpolicyreserveselectoralconstituenciesforSched-uledCastecandidatesaccordingtotheirpercentages of pop-ulationinthenationandthestates;itdoeslikewiseforjobsinthenationalandstatecivilservices;anditofferseducationalbenefitstothem.Jatavshavetakenadvantage of thatpolicyandturnedtoactiveparticipationinIndia'sparliamentarysystem of government.Attimestheyhaveelectedmembers of theircastetovariousstateandnationallegislatures.Invil-lagestheyhavebeenlesssuccessfulatinfluencinglocalpoliti-calinstitutionsandcapturingfundsmeantfordevelopmentalprojects.AmajorinfluenceuponJatavswastheUntouchableleaderDr.B.RAmbedkar(d.1956)whoencouragedUn-touchablestofightfortheirrights,and,asfirstministerforlawinIndia,providedapowerfulrolemodel.Throughtheirpoliticaleffortshisstatueandpicturemaybefoundinpublicparksandbusstations,symbolicallyassertingtheirquestforequalcitizenshipinthenation.SocialControl.Everydaycontrolandleadership of localcommunitieswastraditionallyinthehands of hereditaryheadmen(chaudhari).Seriouscases of conflict,breaches of casterules,andothercaste-relatedproblemsweredecidedbycouncils of adultmen(panchayat)ineachlocality.Inthepast,higher-levelcouncilsexistedformoreseriouscasesorforappeals.Thecouncilsystemandthepowers of hereditaryheadmenhavegraduallyeroded,especiallyincitieswherethecourtsandthemoreeducatedandpoliticallyinvolvedleadersandbusinessmenhavebecomemoreprominentandin-fluential.Conflict.Conflictsarisewithinandbetweenfamiliesandindividualsovermoney,children,inheritanceclaims,drink-ing,insults,andthelike.Inrecentyearsconflicts,bothincit-iesandvillages,havetakenapoliticalturnasJatavs,andotherUntouchables,havetriedtoasserttheirrights.Non-Untouchablecasteshavereactednegatively.Seriousriotsbe-tweenJatavsanduppercasteshaveoccurredincities,suchasAgra,anddangerousconflictshavealsooccurredinvillages.Jatavsfeelthatthepace of changeismuchtooslow,whileuppercasteshaverejecteditastoofast,unjustified,andcon-trarytoorthodoxHinduteaching.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Ingeneral,JatavsandotherChamarsareHindus.Theyreject,however,theHinduteachingthatmakesthemUntouchables,aswellastheBrahmanpriestswhowrotethesacredtextssodefiningthem.MostmajorHindufestivals,particularlyHoli,areobserved,asaremajorlife-cycleceremonies.InpostindependentIndiaJatavsmayentermajorHindutemplesandvisitpilgrimagespots.SomeChamarsaredevotees of theChamarsaintRaviDas.Anum-ber of JatavshavefollowedDr.AmbedkarandconvertedtoBuddhismasarejection of thecastesystemandasanasser-tion of theequality of allindividuals.Buddhismforthemisapoliticalideologyinreligiousform.Ambedkarhimselfhasbeenapotheosizedasabodhisattva;hisbirthdayisthemajorpublicJatavfestival.Beliefisinthemajordeities of Hindu-ism,especiallyintheirlocalizedforms.TheBuddhaandDr.Ambedkarhavebecomepart of thepantheon.Ghosts of thosewhodiedbeforetheirtime(bhut)andotherspiritsarebelievedtobeabletopossessorharmlivingpeople;fear of theevileyeisalsowidespread.ReligiousPractitioners.BrahmanprieststraditionallyhavenotservedJatavsandotherUntouchables.Insteadlocalheadmenhaveofficiatedatrituals.Shamans(bhagat),whoaresometimesJatavs,havebeenknowntobeconsultedincases of spiritpossessionandotherillnesses.Ceremonies.Life-cycleceremoniesatbirth,firsthaircut-ting,marriage,anddeatharethemajorpublicceremonies.Marriageisthemostimportantritualasitinvolvespublicfeasts,thehonor of thegirl'sfamily,cooperation of neighborsandspecifickin,andgiftgivingoveryearstothefamilies of marrieddaughters.Deathritualsalsorequireparticipation of agnatesandmaleneighborstocrematethecorpseimmedi-atelyand of womentokeenritually.Verysmallchildrenareburied.Memorialfeastsormealsforthedeadaregivenoveraperiod of ayear.Arts.Theverbalarts,particularlythecomposition of vari-ousforms of poetry,arecultivated,asistheskillinsingingvariousforms of song.Medicine.Folkremediesareusedandpractitioners of Ayurvedic,Unani,andhomeopathicmedicinesarecon-sulted.Modemmedicinesandphysiciansareusedwhenaffordable.DeathandAfterlife.Beliefintransmigration of soulsiswidespread,andsomebelieveinanafterlifeinHeaven(Svarg)orHell(Narak).Asontoperformthefuneralobse-quiesisessential.Thedeadsoullingersafterdeathbutpassesonafteranumber of days.SeealsoNeo-Buddhist;UntouchablesBibliographyBriggs,GeorgeW.(1920).TheChamars.Calcutta:Associa-tionPress.Cohn,Bernard(1954)."TheCamars of Senapur:AStudy of Jat111HistoryandCulturalRelationsLittleisknownabouttheearlyhistory of theJat,althoughseveraltheorieswereadvancedbyvariousscholarsoverthelast100years.Whilesomeauthorsarguethattheyarede-scendants of thefirstIndo-Aryans,otherssuggestthattheyare of Indo-ScythianstockandenteredIndiatowardthebe-ginning of theChristianera.TheseauthorsalsopointtosomeculturalsimilaritiesbetweentheJatandcertainothermajorcommunities of thearea,suchastheGujar,theAhir,andtheRajput,aboutwhoseoriginssimilartheorieshavebeensuggested.Infact,amongbothMuslimsandSikhstheJatandtheRajputcastesenjoyalmostequalstatus-partlybecause of thebasicegalitarianideologyenjoinedbybothre-ligions,butmainlybecause of thesimilarpoliticalandeco-nomicpowerheldbybothcommunities.AlsoHinduJatcon-sidertheGujarandAhirasalliedcastes;exceptfortherule of casteendogamy,therearenocasterestrictionsbetweenthesethreecommunities.Inotherscholarlydebatesabouttheori-gins of theJat,attemptshavebeenmadetoidentifythemwiththeJarttika,referredtointheHinduepictheMahabharata.SomestillmaintainthatthepeopleArabhisto-riansreferredtoastheZutt,andwhoweretakenasprisonersintheeighthcenturyfromSindhinpresent-daysouthernPa-kistantosouthernIraq,wereactuallybuffalo-herdingJat,orwereatleastknownassuchintheirplace of origin.Inthesev-enteenthcenturya(Hindu)kingdomwasestablishedinthearea of BharatpurandDholpur(Rajasthan)innorthernIndia;itwastheoutcome of manycenturies of rebellionagainsttheMogulEmpire,anditlastedtill1826,whenitwasdefeatedbytheforces of theBritishEastIndiaCompany.Farthernorth,inthePunjab,intheearlyyears of theeight-eenthcentury,Jat(mainlySikh)organizedpeasantuprisingsagainstthepredominantlyMuslimlandedgentry;subse-quently,withtheinvasion of thearea-firstbythePersianKingNadirShahandthenbytheAfghanAhmadShahAbdali-theycontrolledamajorpart of theareathroughclose-knitbands of armedmaraudersoperatingundertheleadership of thelandowningchiefs of well-definedterritor-ies.Because of theirmartialtraditions,theJat,togetherwithcertainothercommunities,wereclassifiedbyBritishadminis-trators of imperialIndiaasa'martialrace,"andthistermhadcertainlong-lastingeffects.Onewastheirlarge-scalerecruit-mentintotheBritish-Indianarmy,andtothisdayaverylargenumber of JataresoldiersintheIndianarmy.ManySikhJatintheIndianpart of Punjabareinvolvedinthecurrentmove-mentforthecreation of anautonomousKhalistan.SettlementsTheJatasawholearepredominantlyrural.Dependingonwhethertheyaresedentaryornomadic,theJat of variousre-gionsliveinpermanentvillagesortemporarycamps.Overthelast200yearstherehasbeenincreasingsedentarization of no-madicJat;thistrendbeganinthelastdecades of theeight-eenthcenturywhenmanypastoralistssettledinthecentralPunjabundertheauspices of Sikhrulethere,anditcontin-uedoveraverylargeareawiththeexpansion of irrigationinBritishimperialtimes.Withtheconsequentexpansion of cul-tivationallthesepastoralistsarefacingincreasingdifficultiesinfindinggrazinglandsfortheirherds.Thebuffalobreedersfacethemaximumdifficultiesinthisrespect,sincetheirani-malsneedtobegrazedin ... aremakingthemselvesfeltasadistinctivepresencewithinthewider South Asianmigrantcommunityoverseas.SeealsoBaniaBibliographyBanks,Marcus(1992).OrganizingJainisminIndiaandEng-land.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Carrithers,Michael,andCarolineHumphrey,eds.(1991).TheAssembly of Listeners:JainsinSociety.Cambridge:Cam-bridgeUniversityPress.Dundas,Paul(1992).TheJains.London:Routledge.Fischer,Eberhard,andJyotindrajain(1977).ArtandRituals:2,500Years of JainisminIndia.Delhi:SterlingPublishersPri-vateLtd.Jaini,PadmanabhS.(1979).TheJainaPath of Purification.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Mathias,Marie-Claude(1985).DIlivranceetconviviality:LesystemeculinairedesJaina.Paris:EditionsdelaMaisondesSciencesdel'Homme.Pande,G.C.,ed.(1978).SramanaTradition:ItsContributiontoIndianCulture.Ahmedabad:L.D.Institute of Indology.Sangave,VilasA.(1959).JainaCommunity:ASocialSurvey.Reprint.1980.Bombay:PopularBookDepotVinayasagar,Mahopadhyaya,andMukundLath,eds.andtrans.(1977).KalpaSutra.Jaipur:D.R.Mehta,PrakritBharati.MARCUSBANKSJatETHNONYMS:Jt,JatOrientationIdentificationandLocation.Primarilyendogamouscom-munitiescallingthemselvesandknownasJatlivepredomi-nantlyinlargeparts of northernandnorthwesternIndiaandinsouthernandeasternPakistan,assedentaryfarmersand/ormobilepastoralists.Incertainareastheytendtocallthem-selvesBaluch,Pathan,orRajput,ratherthanJat.Most of thesecommunitiesareintegratedasacasteintothelocallyprevalentcastesystem.Inthepastthreedecadesincreasingpopulationpressureonlandhasledtolarge-scaleemigration of thepeasantJat,especiallyfromIndia,toNorthAmerica,theUnitedKingdom,Malaysia,andmorerecentlytheMid-dleEast.SomemaintainthatthesedentaryfarmingJatandthenomadicpastoralJatare of entirelydifferentorigins;oth-ersbelievethatthetwogroupsare of thesamestockbutthattheydevelopeddifferentlife-stylesoverthecenturies.Neitherthefarmersnorthepastoralistsare,however,tobeconfusedwithotherdistinctcommunities of peripateticpeddlers,arti-sans,andentertainersdesignatedinAfghanistanbytheblan-ketterms"Jat"orJat;thelattertermsareconsideredpejora-tive,andtheyarerejectedasethnonymsbytheseperipateticcommunities.InPakistanalso,amongtheBaluchi-andPashto-speakingpopulations,thetermswere,andtoacertainextentstillare,usedtoindicatecontemptandlowersocialstatus.Demography.Noreliablefiguresareavailableforrecentyears.In1931thepopulation of allsedentaryandfarmingJatwasestimatedat8,377,819;intheearly1960s8,000,000wastheestimateforPakistanalone.TodaytheentireJatpopula-tionconsists of severalmillionmorethanthat.linguisticAffiliation.AllJatspeaklanguagesanddialectsthatarecloselyconnectedwithotherlocallyspokenlan-guages of theIndo-IranianGroup.Threealphabetsareused,dependingprimarilyonreligionbutpartlyonlocality:theArabic-derivedUrduoneisusedbyMuslims,whileSikhsandHindususetheGurmukhi(Punjabi)andtheDevanagari(Hindi)scripts,respectively.Jatav115ciallytobedependentuponthemother,whomayinturnbe-comedependentupontheminoldage.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InIndia'svillagesthecastesystemisanorganicdivision of labor,eachcastehavingatraditionallyassignedanddistinctoccupationandduty.BecauseJatavs,asChamars,dothepollutingandpollutedtasks of removingdeadcattlefromthevillageand of workingwithleather,theyarerankedasUntouchablesatthebottom of thesystem.Tra-ditionally,theirmajoroccupationinthevillagewasagricul-turalandothermeniallaborforlandowners.Incities,wherethetraditionalinterdependencies of thecastesystemarevir-tuallynonexistent,Jatavsaremorelikeadistinctandde-spisedethnicgroup.PoliticalOrganization.InpreindependentIndiaJatavsgainedconsiderablepoliticalexpertisebyformingassocia-tionsandbydevelopingaliteratecadre of leaders.Theytriedtochangetheirpositioninthecastesystemthrough'Sanskri-tization,"theemulation of upper-castebehavior.JatavsclaimedKshatriyaorwarrior-classoriginandrank,andtheyorganizedcasteassociationstoreformcastebehaviorandlobbyfortheirclaims.AfterindependenceIndialegallyabol-ishedthepractice of untouchability,establishedtheuniversalfranchise,anddevelopedthepolicy of "protectivediscrimina-tion."ThatpolicyreserveselectoralconstituenciesforSched-uledCastecandidatesaccordingtotheirpercentages of pop-ulationinthenationandthestates;itdoeslikewiseforjobsinthenationalandstatecivilservices;anditofferseducationalbenefitstothem.Jatavshavetakenadvantage of thatpolicyandturnedtoactiveparticipationinIndia'sparliamentarysystem of government.Attimestheyhaveelectedmembers of theircastetovariousstateandnationallegislatures.Invil-lagestheyhavebeenlesssuccessfulatinfluencinglocalpoliti-calinstitutionsandcapturingfundsmeantfordevelopmentalprojects.AmajorinfluenceuponJatavswastheUntouchableleaderDr.B.RAmbedkar(d.1956)whoencouragedUn-touchablestofightfortheirrights,and,asfirstministerforlawinIndia,providedapowerfulrolemodel.Throughtheirpoliticaleffortshisstatueandpicturemaybefoundinpublicparksandbusstations,symbolicallyassertingtheirquestforequalcitizenshipinthenation.SocialControl.Everydaycontrolandleadership of localcommunitieswastraditionallyinthehands of hereditaryheadmen(chaudhari).Seriouscases of conflict,breaches of casterules,andothercaste-relatedproblemsweredecidedbycouncils of adultmen(panchayat)ineachlocality.Inthepast,higher-levelcouncilsexistedformoreseriouscasesorforappeals.Thecouncilsystemandthepowers of hereditaryheadmenhavegraduallyeroded,especiallyincitieswherethecourtsandthemoreeducatedandpoliticallyinvolvedleadersandbusinessmenhavebecomemoreprominentandin-fluential.Conflict.Conflictsarisewithinandbetweenfamiliesandindividualsovermoney,children,inheritanceclaims,drink-ing,insults,andthelike.Inrecentyearsconflicts,bothincit-iesandvillages,havetakenapoliticalturnasJatavs,andotherUntouchables,havetriedtoasserttheirrights.Non-Untouchablecasteshavereactednegatively.Seriousriotsbe-tweenJatavsanduppercasteshaveoccurredincities,suchasAgra,anddangerousconflictshavealsooccurredinvillages.Jatavsfeelthatthepace of changeismuchtooslow,whileuppercasteshaverejecteditastoofast,unjustified,andcon-trarytoorthodoxHinduteaching.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Ingeneral,JatavsandotherChamarsareHindus.Theyreject,however,theHinduteachingthatmakesthemUntouchables,aswellastheBrahmanpriestswhowrotethesacredtextssodefiningthem.MostmajorHindufestivals,particularlyHoli,areobserved,asaremajorlife-cycleceremonies.InpostindependentIndiaJatavsmayentermajorHindutemplesandvisitpilgrimagespots.SomeChamarsaredevotees of theChamarsaintRaviDas.Anum-ber of JatavshavefollowedDr.AmbedkarandconvertedtoBuddhismasarejection of thecastesystemandasanasser-tion of theequality of allindividuals.Buddhismforthemisapoliticalideologyinreligiousform.Ambedkarhimselfhasbeenapotheosizedasabodhisattva;hisbirthdayisthemajorpublicJatavfestival.Beliefisinthemajordeities of Hindu-ism,especiallyintheirlocalizedforms.TheBuddhaandDr.Ambedkarhavebecomepart of thepantheon.Ghosts of thosewhodiedbeforetheirtime(bhut)andotherspiritsarebelievedtobeabletopossessorharmlivingpeople;fear of theevileyeisalsowidespread.ReligiousPractitioners.BrahmanprieststraditionallyhavenotservedJatavsandotherUntouchables.Insteadlocalheadmenhaveofficiatedatrituals.Shamans(bhagat),whoaresometimesJatavs,havebeenknowntobeconsultedincases of spiritpossessionandotherillnesses.Ceremonies.Life-cycleceremoniesatbirth,firsthaircut-ting,marriage,anddeatharethemajorpublicceremonies.Marriageisthemostimportantritualasitinvolvespublicfeasts,thehonor of thegirl'sfamily,cooperation of neighborsandspecifickin,andgiftgivingoveryearstothefamilies of marrieddaughters.Deathritualsalsorequireparticipation of agnatesandmaleneighborstocrematethecorpseimmedi-atelyand of womentokeenritually.Verysmallchildrenareburied.Memorialfeastsormealsforthedeadaregivenoveraperiod of ayear.Arts.Theverbalarts,particularlythecomposition of vari-ousforms of poetry,arecultivated,asistheskillinsingingvariousforms of song.Medicine.Folkremediesareusedandpractitioners of Ayurvedic,Unani,andhomeopathicmedicinesarecon-sulted.Modemmedicinesandphysiciansareusedwhenaffordable.DeathandAfterlife.Beliefintransmigration of soulsiswidespread,andsomebelieveinanafterlifeinHeaven(Svarg)orHell(Narak).Asontoperformthefuneralobse-quiesisessential.Thedeadsoullingersafterdeathbutpassesonafteranumber of days.SeealsoNeo-Buddhist;UntouchablesBibliographyBriggs,GeorgeW.(1920).TheChamars.Calcutta:Associa-tionPress.Cohn,Bernard(1954)."TheCamars of Senapur:AStudy of Jat111HistoryandCulturalRelationsLittleisknownabouttheearlyhistory of theJat,althoughseveraltheorieswereadvancedbyvariousscholarsoverthelast100years.Whilesomeauthorsarguethattheyarede-scendants of thefirstIndo-Aryans,otherssuggestthattheyare of Indo-ScythianstockandenteredIndiatowardthebe-ginning of theChristianera.TheseauthorsalsopointtosomeculturalsimilaritiesbetweentheJatandcertainothermajorcommunities of thearea,suchastheGujar,theAhir,andtheRajput,aboutwhoseoriginssimilartheorieshavebeensuggested.Infact,amongbothMuslimsandSikhstheJatandtheRajputcastesenjoyalmostequalstatus-partlybecause of thebasicegalitarianideologyenjoinedbybothre-ligions,butmainlybecause of thesimilarpoliticalandeco-nomicpowerheldbybothcommunities.AlsoHinduJatcon-sidertheGujarandAhirasalliedcastes;exceptfortherule of casteendogamy,therearenocasterestrictionsbetweenthesethreecommunities.Inotherscholarlydebatesabouttheori-gins of theJat,attemptshavebeenmadetoidentifythemwiththeJarttika,referredtointheHinduepictheMahabharata.SomestillmaintainthatthepeopleArabhisto-riansreferredtoastheZutt,andwhoweretakenasprisonersintheeighthcenturyfromSindhinpresent-daysouthernPa-kistantosouthernIraq,wereactuallybuffalo-herdingJat,orwereatleastknownassuchintheirplace of origin.Inthesev-enteenthcenturya(Hindu)kingdomwasestablishedinthearea of BharatpurandDholpur(Rajasthan)innorthernIndia;itwastheoutcome of manycenturies of rebellionagainsttheMogulEmpire,anditlastedtill1826,whenitwasdefeatedbytheforces of theBritishEastIndiaCompany.Farthernorth,inthePunjab,intheearlyyears of theeight-eenthcentury,Jat(mainlySikh)organizedpeasantuprisingsagainstthepredominantlyMuslimlandedgentry;subse-quently,withtheinvasion of thearea-firstbythePersianKingNadirShahandthenbytheAfghanAhmadShahAbdali-theycontrolledamajorpart of theareathroughclose-knitbands of armedmaraudersoperatingundertheleadership of thelandowningchiefs of well-definedterritor-ies.Because of theirmartialtraditions,theJat,togetherwithcertainothercommunities,wereclassifiedbyBritishadminis-trators of imperialIndiaasa'martialrace,"andthistermhadcertainlong-lastingeffects.Onewastheirlarge-scalerecruit-mentintotheBritish-Indianarmy,andtothisdayaverylargenumber of JataresoldiersintheIndianarmy.ManySikhJatintheIndianpart of Punjabareinvolvedinthecurrentmove-mentforthecreation of anautonomousKhalistan.SettlementsTheJatasawholearepredominantlyrural.Dependingonwhethertheyaresedentaryornomadic,theJat of variousre-gionsliveinpermanentvillagesortemporarycamps.Overthelast200yearstherehasbeenincreasingsedentarization of no-madicJat;thistrendbeganinthelastdecades of theeight-eenthcenturywhenmanypastoralistssettledinthecentralPunjabundertheauspices of Sikhrulethere,anditcontin-uedoveraverylargeareawiththeexpansion of irrigationinBritishimperialtimes.Withtheconsequentexpansion of cul-tivationallthesepastoralistsarefacingincreasingdifficultiesinfindinggrazinglandsfortheirherds.Thebuffalobreedersfacethemaximumdifficultiesinthisrespect,sincetheirani-malsneedtobegrazedin...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - Overview pot

Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - Overview pot

... alt="" ContentsProjectStaffviContributorsviiPrefacexiiiIntroductionxixMaps1. South Asia xxviii2.CulturalRegions of South Asia xxix3.MajorLanguages of South Asia xxx4.DominantReligiousGroups of South Asia xxxi5.CulturalGroups of South Asia xxxii Cultures of South Asia 1Appendix:AdditionalCastes,CasteClusters,andTribes309Bibliography342EthnonymIndextoAppendix349Glossary363Filmography367Index372Bibliography373Directory of Distributors373EthnonymIndex375Introductionxxipopulationin1990 ... features of ordinarylifeinthesubcontinent.Withoutclaiminganyfa-vorites,wewillsimplypointtothework of AhmadAli,MulkRajAnand,BankimChandraChatterjee,NiradC.Chaud-huri,AnitaDesai,RuthPrawerJhabvala,HanifKureishi,ManoharMalgonkar,KamalaMarkandaya,VedMehta,W.D.Merchant,RohintonMistry,RK.Narayan,RajaRao,SalmanRushdie,KushwantSingh,andRabindranathTagore(theirmanybooksarenotlistedinthefollowingbibliogra-phy). Of BritishliteraturedealingwiththeoldIndiathereisamassiveamount:mostoutstandingsurelyareRudyardKipling'sshortstories,E.M.Forster'sAPassagetoIndia(1924),andLeonardWoolf'sVillageintheJungle(1913).AfineintroductiontoIndianreligionsandphilosophywaseditedbydeBary(1958),anewedition of whichwasre-centlyprepared.Verysimilarinitscoverage of HinduismandBuddhism,andlikethepreceding volume featuringmanytranslationsfromtheclassics,isRadhakrishnanandMoore(1957).AnothersuccinctintroductiontoIndianphilosophyisBishop(1975).Aconcisedictionary of HinduismisStutleyandStutley(1977);Garrett(187 1-1 873),thoughold,mayalsoberecommended.Thenaturalhistory of thesubcontinenthasbeenstudiedinincredibledetail,andsothereare,forexample,excellenthandbooksontheflora of eachregion(most of themnowquiteold,however).Asuperbnewencyclopedicsurveythatcoversflora,fauna,geography,geology,andclimatologyinasingle volume iseditedbyHawkins(1986).Alsoveryusefulforitsbotanical,zoological,andhistoricalinformation(al-thoughnotforitsout -of- dateeconomicdata)isWatt(1908),whichisaone -volume abridgment of ADictionary of theEconomicProducts of Indiathathewrotein188 5-1 893.Amodem encyclopedia that ... seentwoprimeministersandan"heirapparent'killed;Pakistanhashangedonepresidentandseenanotherdieinaplanecrash;Bangladeshhaslosttwopresi-dentstoassassination;andinSriLankaaswellasBhutanoneprimeministerhasbeenassassinated.Thegrimmodelforall of theseacts of desperationwasnodoubttheshockingassas-sination of MahatmaGandhiin1948,aneventthatshowedextremists of allsortsthatifapersonwerewillingtodie,heorshecouldprobablytakeamajornationalleaderalongwithhim.Thiswasstilljustastruein1991.TheNations of South Asia Althoughthefocus of this volume isthedistinctculturalgroups of South Asia, itisnecessarytoprovidesomebasicin-formationaboutthenationsinwhichthesepeoplelive.Thesenationsareshownonmap1,withcapitalcitiesalsoindicated.Bangladesh(People'sRepublic of Bangladesh),formerlytheEasternProvince of Pakistan,becameanindependentna-tionin1971.Itoccupiesaterritory of some144,000squarekilometersandisborderedonthewest,north,andeastbyIndiaandbyMyanmar(formerlyBurma)onthesoutheast.In1990thepopulationwasestimatedat118,000,000.Dhaka(formerlyDacca)isthecapitalcity,withChittagong,Khulna,Rajshahi,andBarisalbeingothermajorurbancenters.TheofficiallanguageisBangla(Bengali),with98percent of thepopulationbeingethnicBengalisand87percentMuslims.Bangladeshisamongthepoorestnationsinthe world withanannualpercapitaincome of U.S.$113in1986.In1988,1989,1991,andonmanyotheroccasionsBangladeshhassufferedtheeffects of monsoonsandcyclonesthathavekilledtens of thousandsandleftmillionshomeless.Bhutan(Kingdom of Bhutan)islocatedintheeasternHimalayanMountainsandisborderedbyIndiaonthe south andwest,Sikkimonthewest,andChina(Tibet)onthenorth.Itoccupies47,000squarekilometers,inthreedistinctregionsof...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - A doc

Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - A doc

... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,inalandwhereeach of theuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomain of theuyuwhowasthecause of death.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury, J. N.(1971).AComparativeStudy of AdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.Memoirs of theRoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPractices of theMinyongAbors of Assam,India."Anthropos49:58 8-6 04. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III SOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirareacaste of cowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwelloveramilliontoday:theynumbered750,000in ... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,inalandwhereeach of theuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomain of theuyuwhowasthecause of death.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury, J. N.(1971).AComparativeStudy of AdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.Memoirs of theRoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPractices of theMinyongAbors of Assam,India."Anthropos49:58 8-6 04. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III SOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirareacaste of cowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwelloveramilliontoday:theynumbered750,000in ... Tomeanethnologistwhospeaks of theAryanrace,Aryanblood,Aryaneyesandhair,isasgreatasinnerasalinguistwhospeaks of adolichocephalicdictionary,orabrachyce-phalicgrammar."FormanycenturiesaftertheirarrivalintheIndo-GangeticPlain,theAryanslivedashorsemenandcattleherders,clearingpatchesintheforestsandinhabitingsmallvillages,ratherthanlivingintheancienttownsthattheiran-cestorshadprobablyhelpedbringtoruin.Onlywiththestart of theIndianIronAge(about700B.C.)didAryantownsbegintoemerge;thisdevelopmentpresumesabackground of settledfarmingintheplainsbythatera.Therehasbeenmuchspeculationaboutthesubsequentdevelopment of northernIndiansocietyandtheAryans'fur-thercolonization of thesubcontinent;aboutrelationsbe-tweenthemandtheconquered"Dasas"or"Dasyu"(namesmeaning"slaves"andprobablyreferringtoremnants of theearlierIndusValleypopulation);andabouttherise of thecastesystem.DuringtheVedicperiod(about1500to800B.C.)theAryansdevelopedtheenormouslyelaboraterituals of Brahmanism,theforerunner of Hinduism;andtheyformedastratifiedsocietyinwhichtherudiments of thecastesystemwerealreadyapparent.Thustherewasapriestlycaste(Brahmana),arulingnoblecaste(Rajanya),awarriorcaste(Kshatriya),andthemenialcaste(Sudra).PriortotheMauryanEmpire(321to185B.C.)therewasnoorganizedAr-yangovernmentwithaclass of bureaucratstoadministerthelandthroughoutIndia.Instead,therewerenumerousrulingchieftains(rajan)whocommandedtheirarmiesandwereas-sistedbypurohitas,menwhocounseledandprotectedtherul-erswiththeirmagicalskills.Aslargerkingdomsemergedthepurohitabecamelikeacombinedarchbishopandprimemin-ister,consecratingtheking,givinghimpoliticalcounsel,andperformingmajorsacrificesforhim.Theintroduction of irontechnologyledtourbanization,andby500B.C.many of thesekingdomshadanimportantmerchantclassinthetownswhowerealreadyusingcopperandsilvercoins.SiddharthaGautama,theBuddha,camefromtherulingfamily of onesuchkingdom(Kosala,nowinBiharState).SeealsoCastes,HinduBibliographyBurrow,Thomas(1975)."TheEarlyAryans."InACulturalHistory of India,editedbyA.L.Basham,2 0-2 9.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Childe,VereGordon(1926).TheAryans:AStudy of Indo-EuropeanOrigins.London:KeganPaul,Trench,Triibner&Co.,Ltd.Reprint.1987.NewYork:DorsetPress.Thapar,Romila(1980)."IndiabeforeandaftertheMauryanEmpire."InTheCambridge Encyclopedia of Archaeology,ed-itedbyAndrewSherratt,25 7-2 61.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.PAULHOCKINGSAssameseETHNONYMS:noneTheterm"Assamese"isoftenusedtorefertothosewhoarecitizens of Assam:Mymensinghysettlers(fromBangladesh)andtea-gardenlaborersarethusincludedinitscoverage.Thetermcanalsobeusedtodescribetheindigenousorlong-settledinhabitants of thisnortheastIndianstate.TheBrahmaputraValleypopulationreached12.5mil-lionin1971;atthetime of the1961censustherewere16,307inhabitedvillagesinAssamwithanaveragepopulation of alittlemorethan500.About12millionpeoplespokeAssa-mesein1981.Thepeople of Assamhavebeendescribedassmallinstaturewithdarkyellowcomplexion,anindication of theirMongoloidorigin.Theirlanguagewasinpremoderntimestheeasternmostmember of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.TheAssameseforcenturieshaveoccupiedaperipheralposition,bothgeographicallyandpolitically,inrelationtotherest of India.ThecountrywasoriginallyruledbytheAhoms,aShanpeoplewhomigratedfromupperMyanmar(Burma),atthebeginning of thethirteenthcentury.Thesepeoplevariouslyappliedtheterms"Assam,""Asam,"or"Aham"totheircountry.TheAhomsmaintainedchronicles of themainevents of theirreign.Assamoriginallyconsisted of sixdistricts of thelowerBrahmaputraorAssamValley.Butwhenin1822achiefcommissionership of AssamwascreatedbytheBritishitwasextendedtoincludetwodistrictsintheSurmaValley,sixhillareas,andtwofrontiertracts.Villagersassociateonthebasis of membership of alocalcenter of de-votionalworshipcalleda"namehouse"(namghar),whosemembersdescribethemselvesas"onepeople"(raij).Thereareusuallyseveralnamehousesinavillage.Assamesehouse-holdscanbegradedintofiveeconomiccategories,chieflyonthebasis of income.Villagesarealsomadeup of familiesfromanumber of distinctcastes.RiceisthestapleinAssam.Ifaharvestisgoodthepeo-plemayrelaxandenjoytheirabundanceforthemonths8AnavilBrahmanstrivetomarrytheirdaughterstoDesaimenbutatthecost of largedowries.Hypergamyisalsopracticed.Thissystemper-mitsawomantomarryaman of ahigherbutnotalowerso-cialstatusthanherown.AnavilBrahmanshaveapreferenceforpatrilocality,patrilinealsystems of inheritance,andresi-denceinjointfamilygroups.Brahmanicidealsleadtoapreferencefordowrymarriage.Thelaws of Manudistinguisheightdifferentforms of marriage, of whichfourareactuallyvariations of thedowrymarriage;anditisthesefourthataretheoreticallyrecommendedtoBrahmans.BibliographyMarriot,McKim(1968).'CasteRankingandFoodTransac-tions:AMatrixAnalysis."InStructureandChangeinIndianSociety,editedbyMiltonSingerandBernardS.Cohn,13 3- 171.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.VanderVeen,KlaasW.(1972).1GiveTheeMyDaughter.Assen:VanGorcum&Comp.N.V.LeSHONKIMBLEAndamaneseETHNONYM:MincopieOrientationIdentification.TheAndamanesearetheindigenoustribes of Negritohuntersandgatherers of theAndamanIslands.In1908,theterm"Andamanese"referredtothirteendistincttribalgroups,eachdistinguishedbyadifferentdialectandgeographicallocation.Todayonlyfourtribesremainandarereferredtocollectivelyas"Andamanese."ThefourextanttribesaretheOngees of LittleAndamanIsland,theSentine-lese of NorthSentinelIsland,theJarwas of theMiddleAndamans,andtheGreatAndamanese of StraitIsland.Location.TheAndamanIslands,whichcompriseanar-chipelago of 348islands,arelocatedintheBay of Bengalbe-tween10°30'and13°30'Nand92°20'and93°0'E.Thetotallandareais8,293squarekilometers, of whichabout7,464squarekilometersarecoveredwithtropicalrainforests.Thenorthernandcentralislandsarehilly,whilethesouthernislandsaresurroundedbyoffshorecoralreefsandarecriss-crossedwithtidalcreeks.Thesouthwesternandnorthwesternmonsoonscreatearainyseasonthatlastsapproximatelyninetotenmonthseachyear;annualprecipitationis275to455centimeters.TheonlydryseasonontheislandsbeginsinFebruaryandendsinMarch.Demography.In1800,thetotaltribalpopulationontheislandswasestimatedatapproximately3,575.In1901,theestimatedroppedto1,895,andin1983,thetotaltribalpopu-lationwas269. Of the1983estimateonlythecount of 9GreatAndamaneseand98Ongeeswasaccurate.TheJarwasandtheSentineleseareisolatedbytopographyandbyeachtribe'shostilitytowardoutsiders.Since1789,thepopulation of nontribalpeoplesontheislandshassteadilyincreased.Thetotalnumber of outsidersontheislandswas157,552in1983comparedtothe269tribals.Theintrusion of outsidersanddiseasesintroducedbythem,suchasmeasles,ophthal-mia,andvenerealdisease,hascontributeddirectlytotheoveralldeclineintribalpopulationanditsdisproportionatemale/femaleratio.Theislands'expandingtimberindustryandthesettlement of increasingnumbers of nontribals,pri-marilyfrommainlandIndia,alsohavereducedthetotalareaavailableforusebythetribal.LinguisticAffiliation.Areallinguisticconnection of An-damanesewith South andSoutheastAsianlanguageareashasnotbeensystematicallyestablished.Andamaneseasalanguagefamilyiscomposed of twomaingroups:Proto-LittleAndamanese,whichincludesOngee,Jarwa,andSentinelese;andProto-GreatAndamanese.Proto-GreatAndamaneseisfurthersubdividedintothreegroups:BeaandBaie of South Andamans;Puchikwar,Kede,Juwoi,Koi,andJko of MiddleAndamans;andBo,Chari,Jeru,andKora of NorthAnda-mans.Earlyethnographicaccountssuggestthateach of thetribalgroupsontheislandsspokemutuallyunintelligiblelan-guages.Yetlinguisticrecords,compiledbytheisland'sad-ministratorsandmorerecentresearch,suggestagreatdegree of overlapintermsusedbyeachgroup.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAndamanesearebelievedtoshareaculturalaffinitywithsome of theOrangAslis of insularSoutheast Asia. IthasbeenarguedthattheAndamanesearrivedfromtheMalayandBurmesecoastsbylandinlatequaternarytimesor,atalatertime,bysea.ThereisalsospeculationthattheAnda-manesecamefromSumatraviatheNicobarIslands.How-ever,thepreciseorigins of theAndamaneseremainscholarlyspeculationsthathavenotbeenthoroughlyinvestigatedandresearched.Theearlyrecordedhistory of theislandsbeganinearnestwiththeBritishin1788.Rapidchangesintradewindsinthearea,monsoons,andcoralreefssurroundingtheislandscausedmanyshipwrecks;thosefewwhosurvivedship-wreckswerekilledbytheAndamanese.Inaneffortto...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - B potx

Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - B potx

... inBirbhum,inJayadeva-Kenduli,Gopalnagar,Dubrajpur,andBilvamangala.Baulsingersareusuallymen,andtheyplayavariety of instrumentstoaccompanythesongs.Themostcommonisthegopijantraorektara,aone-stringedinstrumentmadefromgourdandsplitbamboo.Theymayalsoplaythedotara,atwo-stringedlutewithalongneck,aswellasvariousdrums,andsometimessmallcymbalsoraharmonium.Baulsusuallydressinorangeorsaffron,toshowtheiras-sociationwiththereligiouslife.Menwearthealkhalla,arobe of coarsecloth,smallbellsattheankles,longhair(ofteninatopknot),andbeards,andsometimesrudrakshabeads(sa-credtothegodShiva).Womenmaywearsimplewhiteorsaf-fronsarisandnojewelry.Baulshaveasystem of religioustheologyandpracticethatischaracterizedbythebeliefthatGodexistsphysicallywithinthe world, especiallywithinthehumanbody.Thisdif-fersfrommoretraditionalIndianreligiousthought(bothVedicanddharmic)thatunderstandsthebodyasmoredis-tantfromthegodsandemphasizestheimportance of purityandtranscendence of thephysical world. ForBauls,thebodyispurebecausethegodispresent.Theteacherorguruisim-portantbecausehecanguidethestudenttowardthevision of thegodwithin(bhagavatadarshan).Baulreligiousbeliefandpracticeareexpressedinsong,thereisnorevealedtextandnosinglefounder.Somesongsemphasizespontaneity(sahaja)andthestates of religiousec-stasyandcreativitythatcome of theirownaccord,withoutef-fort.ThesestatesarehighlyvaluedbyBauls.Othersongsde-scribetherole of disciplinedreligiouspractice(sadhana),whichseekstoinducethestate of ecstasy(bhava).Baulpracticeshowstantricinfluence,bothintheimpor-tance of havingafemalepartnerandinitsacceptance of sex-ualityasapathtoreligiousexperience.Thegodisassociatedwithcreativityandisunderstoodtodwellphysicallyinthesexualfluids of thebody.Thesefluidsmeetduringsexualrit-ual,whichtakesplacewhenthemaleandfemaleessencesarebelievedtobestrongest.Atthistime,themaleandfemaleas-pects of thedivineareunderstoodtobefullypresent,andthegod(oftenunderstoodtobeadivinecouple,thegodandgod-dess)canbeperceivedbytheperformers of theritual.Manypoeticmetaphorsareusedtodescribethisprocess:theunion of waterandmilk,catchingthefishathightide,thepiercing of themoons.Whenthedeityisfullymanifestinthebody,thebodyisrecognizedasamicrocosm of theuniverse.AsaBaulproverbstates,'Whatisnotinthebodyisnotintheuniverse."Baulbeliefsarederivedfrommanysources.TantricBud-dhismwasstronginBengalfromperhapsthefifthcenturyA.D.untiltheMuslimconquestintheearlythirteenthcentury.SufismorIslamicmysticismthenaroseintheareaandbe-cameintermingledwiththerisingtide of devotionalVaish-navism(inBengal,focusingontherelationshipbetweenKrishnaandhismistressRadha)anditstantricoffshoot,SahajiyaVaishnavism.Shaktareligion,theworship of thegoddess(informssuchasKaliorDevi),grewfromanesotericmeditativetraditiontowidespreaddevotionallove,anditwasalsoastronginfluenceontheBaultradition.ShaktismwasincorporatedintheBaulsongsbothasworship of thephysi-calwomanandasimageryfromKundaliniyoga.InBaulsongandpoetry,thedeitymaybecalledBhagavan,Radha/Krishna,Shiva/Shakti,Allah,theman of theheart,theun-knownbird,thegreatbliss(mahasukha),orinfinitelight.Today,Baulsarebothreligiouspractitionersandenter-tainers,andtheymaysingbothreligiousandsecularsongs.Withthepopularity of ChristianityamongWesternizedIndi-ans,someBaulsongsnowincludeChristianelementsaswellasmoretraditionalones.BibliographyBhattacarya,Deben,trans.(1989).Songs of theBards of Ben-gal.NewYork:GrovePress.Capwell,Charles(1974)."TheEsotericBelief of theBauls of Bengal."Journal of AsianStudies33:25 5-2 64.Dasgupta,Alokeranjan,andMaryAnnDasgupta(1977).RootsintheVoid:BaulSongs of Bengal.Calcutta:K.P.Bagchi.Karim,Anwarul(1980).TheBauls of Bangladesh.Kushtia:LalanAcademy.McDaniel,June(1989).TheMadness of theSaints:EcstaticReligioninBengal.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.JUNEMcDANIEL52BrahmanandChhetri of NepalistheNepaliequivalent of Kshatriya,thesecond of thefourvarnasintowhichclassicalIndiansocietywasdivided.Location.BrahmansandChhetrisarefoundthroughoutNepal.ThoselivingintheTerai(the ... areprominentingovernmentservice,financialserv-ices,andpolitics.IndustrialArts.AnyneedsthatBrahmansandChhetrisexperienceforcraftandindustrialproductsaremetbylower-rankedartisancastes,suchasblacksmiths,tailors,andleatherworkers.Trade.InruralareasBrahmansandChhetristypicallyrelyonothers,suchasNewarshopkeepers,fortheircommercialrequirements.Division of Labor.OnlyBrahmanmalesmayactaspriests,butmuch of thedailyhouseholdpuja(worship)isdonebywomen.Theday-to-dayagropastoralactivities of BrahmanandChhetrifamiliesaresharedbetweenmenandwomen.Bothsexesworkinthefields,butoverallwomenspendmorehoursperdayinagriculturalanddomesticlaborthanmen.Theyperformmost of thechildcare,preparationandcooking of food,andweedingandtending of crops.Mendotheplowingandmaintaintheterracewalls.Bothareactiveatharvesttime.LandTenure.BrahmansandChhetrisareoftenlandown.ers.Fieldsareoftenterracedandmostlyhavebeenfraction-atedintosmallplotsthroughinheritanceovergenerations.Large-scaleabsenteelandlordismisnotcommoninthehills of Nepal.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.BrahmansandChhetrisaremembers of twokinds of clans,thethaT(indicatedasasur-name)andthegotra;theformerisexogamousifarelationcanbetraced,butthelatterisstrictlyexogamous.Descentandinheritancefollowthemalelineexclusively.KinshipTerminology.Allfirstcousinsareaddressedbysiblingterms.Siblingsaredesignatedaseitherolderoryoungerbrothersorsisters:thereisnogenerictermforbrotherorsister.Unrelatedpersons,includingstrangers,arealsooftenaddressedbykinshipterms.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Mostmarriagesaremonogamous,butpoly-gynousunionsweretraditionallyfrequentandarestillocca-sionallyfound.Secondandsubsequentwivesareoftenmem-bers of otherethnicgroups,suchastheGurungs,Magars,Tamangs,Sherpas,andNewars,butnotlow-casteartisangroups.Withtheexception of Thakuris,theself-proclaimedaristocratsamongtheChhetriswhopracticematrilateralcross-cousinmarriage,cousinmarriageisnotpracticed.Brah-mangirlstraditionallymarriedbytheage of 11,andChhetrigirlsafewyearslater,buteducatedurbandwellersnowmarryintheirlateteensorearlytwenties.Groomsarenormallyafewyearsolderthantheirbrides.Villageexogamyisusuallyobserved,andparentsarrangetheirchildren'smarriageswiththehelp of anintermediary.Anastrologeralsoisconsultedtoensurethatthecouplemakeagoodmatch.Theboy'sfamilypriest,inconsultationwiththebride'sfamily,setsanauspi-ciousdateandtime,basedonthelunarcalendar(severalmonths of theyearareinauspiciousformarriage).Theentireweddingceremonylastsafullday,fromthetimethemembers of thegroom'spartyarriveatthebride'shometilltheyleavethenextdaywiththebride.Themostimportantpart of the34BengaliCeremonies.TheBengaliHindureligiouscalendarisre-pletewithworshipceremonies(puja)devotedtothedeities of boththeGreatandLittleTraditions.Especiallyimportantistheannualfestival(orgajan) of theLordShiva,asarethose of hiscounterpartgoddesses,KaliandDurga.ThegoddessesLakshmi (of wealthandgoodfortune)andSaraswati (of learningandculture)alsohaveannualceremonies.Impor-tantfolkdeitiespropitiatedbyHindusandMuslimsalikein-cludethe"goddesses of thecalamities"-Sitala,goddess of smallpox;Olabibi,goddess of cholera;andManasa,goddess of snakes-all of whomhavetheirannualfestivals.BengaliMuslimscelebratethemajorfestivals of Islam:theIdal-Fitr,whichmarkstheend of theMuslimmonth of fasting(Rama-dan);theIdal-Adha,or"feast of thesacrifice,"coterminouswiththeannualpilgrimage(haj)toMeccaandcommemorat-ingthestory of theprophetIbrahim'swillingnesstosacrificehissonatGod'scommand.EventhoughBengaliMuslimsareSunnis,theyalsoobservethefestival of Muharram,usu-allyassociatedmoreprominentlywiththeShiadivision of Islam,inwhichthedeath of Hussain,grandson of theProphetMohammedandmartyr of thefaith,ismourned.Bengalisalsocelebratethewell-knownHindurite of springcalledHoli;formembers of allreligiousfaiths,theannualnewyearceremonyonthefirstday of theHindu(andBen-gali)month of Baisakh,comingbetweenAprilandMayandmarkingtheonset of spring,isajoyousoccasion.Arts.UrbanBengalieliteculturehasproducedone of South Asia& apos;sfinestliterarytraditions,includingnotonlythenovel,shortstory,andpoetrybutdramaandfilmaswell.Some of India'sbestclassicalmusiciansandgreatestexpo-nents of thedancehavebeenBengalis.BengalishavealsomademajorcontributionstoIndianand world cinema.RuralBengalhasanoldandwell-developedfolkliterature,includ-ingnarrativepoetry(puthi),drawnfromhistory,myth,andlegend,aswellasaverypopularitineranttheater(calledjatra).Thereisalsoastrongtradition of religiousfolkmusic,particularlyassociatedwiththemoredevotionalandmysticalpractices of popularHinduism(e.g.,worship of thegoddessKaliandtheLordKrishna)and of popularIslam(e.g.,thede-votionalgatherings of thevariousSufiorders).Terra-cottatempleandmosquearchitecturethroughoutBengalismuchadmired,andthereisafolktradition of painting,seeninHindureligiousscrollsandintheflowery,andoftenobscure,religioussymbols(alipana)commonlydaubedinwhitericepasteonthewallsandfloors of homesteadsbyHinduvillagewomen.Finally,despiteindustrializationandthespread of commerciallymanufacturedproductsthroughouttheregion,theBengaliruraleconomystilldependsontheservices of tra-ditionalcraftspeople-weavers,potters,carpenters,black-smiths,metalworkers,andthelike-whosewaresoftenrepre-sentahighquality of bothtechniqueandaestheticdesign.Medicine.AlthoughmodemscientificmedicinehaslongbeenknownandacceptedinBengal,thehomeopathic,allo-pathic,andtheHinduAyurvedicandMuslimUnanimedicaltraditionscontinuetoexistasalternatives.Therealsore-mainsahost of folkbeliefsandcuringpracticesamongboththeurbanimmigrantpoorandthepeasantryasawhole.Folkhealers(ojhaorfakir)arecommonlycalledupontotreateverythingfromtemporaryillnessesandchronicdiseasestobonefracturesandsnakebite,aswellastocounteractethno-psychiatricafflictionsresultingfromsorceryandghostpos-session.Folkcuringpracticesstresstheuse of magicalverses(mantras),oftencombinedwithindigenousmedicinalcon-coctions.Traditionalhealersalsoprovideamuletsforprotec-tionagainstdevilryandsorcery,thewearing of whichisubiq-uitousnotonlyamongthepeasantryandtheurbanpoorbutalsoamongtheBengalimiddleclassesaswell.DeathandAfterlife.BengaliHindus, of course,acceptthedoctrine of samsara,orthetransmigration of soulsfromoneearthlylifetoanother.Funerarycremations,practicedbynearlyallHinducastes,arethoughttoreleasetheindividual'sspiritualessenceorsoulfromitstransitoryphysicalbody.Bearingtheinfluence(karma) of alltheactions of itsjustter-minatedearthlyembodiment,thesoulthenisreincarnatedintoanewworldlyformandway of lifeshapedbythosepastactions.Normallyaman'seldestsoncarriesoutthefuneraryrites,lightingthefuneralpyreafterfirstplacingaburningstickinthemouth of thedeceased.Muslimbeliefsrequirethatatdeaththepersonberituallybathed,shrouded,andburiedinacoffinwiththeheadfacingtheholycity of Mecca,afterwhichtherefollowsafuneraryprayerceremonyideallyledbyeitherarelativeorarecognizedleader of thelocalMus-limcommunity.Thedeadarethoughttoenteranindefinitetransitionalstate-duringwhichthewickedbegintoexperi-encepunishmentandthevirtuousto ... herhusband'sproperty.Socialization.Motherandchildareconsideredpollutinguntiltheeleventhdayafterbirth,whenapurifyingceremonyisconductedandthebabyisgivenaname.Thefirstfeeding of rice,calledpasni,isgivenafter5monthsforagirland7monthsforaboy.Aboy'sheadisshavedatabout7years of age(asmalltuft of hairisleftonthebackasasignthatheisaHindu),andheisformallyinitiatedintofullcastemember-shipwhenhereceivesthesacredthread,eitheratthetime of thehaircutorafewyearslater.Atherfirstmenstruationagirlisremovedtoanotherhouse,wheresheisshieldedfromthesight of anymeninherfamilyandfromthesun.Bothparentsparticipateinraisingtheirchildren,butwomenperformmost of thechildcare,especiallyinthepreteenyears.Fathersactasdisciplinariansastheirchildrengrowolder.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Acastesystemprevails,withtheBrahmansandChhetrisoccupyingaveryhighpositioninit.PoliticalOrganization.Villagepoliticallifetendstofol-lowitsowndynamic,regardless of changesinthenationalpo-liticalscene.Villageaffairstendtobemanagedbyformalorinformalcouncils of villageeldersinwhichBrahmansandChhetris,byvirtue of theirstatusaslandholdersandtheirrel-ativelyhighereducation,oftenplayprominentroles.Nation-allytheking,whoseancestorunifiedthecountryinroughlyitspresentformattheend of theeighteenthcentury,hasal-waysbeenaThakuri,anaristocraticsection of Chhetris.TheRanafamily,whichprovidedallprimeministersfrom1846till1950andisstillpowerfulinthegovernmentandarmy,isalsoChhetri.ThemovementtooverthrowtheRanasandsubsequentpoliticalmovementsaimedatdemocraticorso-cialistreformhavefrequentlybeenledbyBrahmansandChhetris.SocialControl.Until1963Nepal'sMulkiAin(nationalcode)explicitlystatedwhichactivitieswereproperforeachcastegroupandprescribedpenaltiesforinfractions of thelaw.Sincethecode'srevisionin1963,theMulkiAintreatsallcitizensequallyunderthelaw.Conflict.Thoseconflictsthatcannotbesettledthroughinformalmeansatthevillagelevelarereferredtothelegalandjudicialsystem of Nepal.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.AllBrahmansandChhetrisareHindusandsubscribetomost of thebasicHindubeliefs.Atamini-mumtheseincludethreenotions.Oneisdharma-theideathateachpersonhasaspecificduty,moralcode,andset of behaviorswhichareentailedbyvirtue of membershipinagroup(suchasacastegroup).Anotherideaisthat of karma-sometimeslikenedto'causeandeffect,"becauseitexplainswhateverpresentstate of affairsexistsinterms of theeventsinpreviouslivesthatproducedit.Thethirdismoksha(salvation)-releasefromtheround of rebirthsthatreincar-nationinvolves.ReligiousPractitioners.Brahmansmayactasfamilypriests(forBrahmanandChhetrihouseholds,butnotforothercastesandethnicgroups),aswellasofficiateatshrinesandtemplesandatritualsassociatedwithmajorfestivals.Theyalsohandlealltheritualsperformedduringmarriage.Theyaregenerallypresentonreligiousoccasionsandreadex-cerptsfromtheVedasorotherSanskrittexts.TheyalsorecitefromthePuranasandfromthetwogreatHinduepics,theRamayanaandtheMahabharata.Ceremonies.AllBrahmansandChhetrisareHindusandobservefestivals,performrituals,andworshipdeitiesassoci-atedwithHinduism.One of themoreimportantannualfesti-valsisDasein(orDurgaPuja),inwhichthegoddessDurga(Kali)isworshipedoverafortnightinthemonth of October.Manyritualofferingsandanimalsacrificesaremadeatthistime,andthereismuchfeastingandvisitingamongimmedi-atefamilyandextendedkin.Onthetenthday of thefort-nighteachindividualmaleandfemalepaysrespecttoseniorrelatives,whothenreciprocatebyplacingacoloredtikaontheforehead of thejuniorperson.AlsoobservedisPhagu(calledHoliinIndia),thespringrite of HinduculturerelatedtofecundityandthegodKrishna.Itcomesinthemonth of Phagun(February-March)andisariotoustimewhenmen,women,andchildrensing,dance,andthrowcoloredpowderandwaterateachother.OtherannualfestivalsincludeTihar(Dipavali,thefestival of lights),JanaiPurnima(changing of thesacredthread),andTij-panchami(apurificatoryriteforwomen).Ritualsinadditiontothosementionedabove(underSocializationandMarriage)includeworship of thehouseholdgod(kuldevta),worship of brothersbysisters(bhaitika,celebratedduringTihar),anddaily(morningandsome-timesevening)worship of various of theHindudeities,in-cludingGanesh,Shiva,Vishnu,Ram,Krishna,Saraswati,Durga,Parvati,Narayan,Bhairab,andmanyothers.SomeChhetris of westNepalworshipMashtathroughshamans(dhamisorjhankris)andknowlittleornothingabouttradi-tionalHindudeitiesandfestivals.Arts.BrahmansandChhetrisarenotknownfortheirar-tisticinterestsorabilities.Music,dance,andvisualandplas-ticartsaretraditionallythedomain of other,generallylowercastes,andexceptamongeducatedurbanpeopleBrahmansandChhetrisdonotindulgethemselvesintheseactivities.Theirsimple,mostlyundecoratedhousesreflectthislack of artisticbent.Medicine.BrahmansandChhetriswillacceptmedicalhelpfromanyavailablesource,whetheritisanAyurvedicdoctor(aspecialistinherbalmedicine),apassingBuddhistlamawithareputationforeffectivemedicines,ashamanwhoBadaga15HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheearlyBadagas,refugeesfromtheMusliminvaders of My-sore,hadtocuttheirfarmsteadsout of theNilgiriforests.Theycontinuedsomeslash-and-burncultivationthereuntilthe1870s.Bythattimethelanddemands of Britishteaandcoffeeplanters,thenresidentforhalfacentury,hadcreatedamarketforfarmland,whichtemptedmanyBadagastosellsome of theirland.Butmost of theirlandwasretained.Bytheearlytwentiethcenturytheywerepursuingadvancededu-cationandsomeurbanprofessions.FormanyyearsnowtheBadagashavebeenadaptingtotheirownusecertainaliencustomsandtechniques.Nowhereisthismoreevidentthaninagriculture.SettlementsThevillages,eachinhabitedonlybyBadagas of aparticularclanandusuallycontainingnomorethanseveralhundredpeople,consist of parallelrows of stoneorbrickhouseswithtiledroofs.Theyliealongtheslope of ahillonitsleewardside,forprotectionfromthewesterlymonsoon.Thefieldsspreadoutallaround.Uptoahalf-dozentemplesandshrinesfordifferentHindugodsarefoundineachvillage.Modernvillageshaveelectricityandpipedwatertocommunaltaps,butnotlongagothewatersupplywasanearbystreamoratbestachannelrunningintothevillagefromastream.Oneotheruniversalfeatureisavillagegreen,importantasacoun-cilplace,playground,danceground,funeralplace,andgen-eralgrazingareaforthecalves.ThetraditionalBadagatwo-roomhouses,stillincommonuse,arebuiltingroups of adozenorlesstoformacontinuouslinealongalevelpiece of ground.Theyarenowmade of whitewashedbrickandhavetiledorcorrugated-ironroofs,butthetraditionalbuildingmaterialwaswattleanddaub.Scarcelyanythatchedroofsnowremain.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.IngeneralBadagasusefieldsaroundthevillagestopracticemixedfarm-ing of millets,barley,wheat,andavariety of Europeanvegeta-bles,two of which-thepotatoandcabbage-havenowas-sumedmajorcommercialimportance.Milletswerethestapleuntilthiscentury,andtheyweresometimescultivatedinfor-estclearingsbytheslash-and-burntechnique.Badagafarm-ersusenoirrigation;instead,theyrelyontherainfall of tworegularmonsoonseasons.Duringthiscenturytheyhavegrad-uallyshiftedfromsubsistencefarming of traditionalgrainstocash-cropfarming of potatoesandcabbages.Afterseveralseasons of disease,potatoeswererecentlysupersededbynu-meroussmallplantations of tea(whichwasfirstintroducedherebytheBritishin1835)andcabbagefields.Crops of Eu-ropeanoriginarenowgrownonmachine-madeterraceswiththehelp of chemicalfertilizers,trucktransport,improvedseed,andevencropinsurance;similartechniquesareusedontheteaplantations,whichmustmaintain world marketstan-dards.Herds of buffaloandcowsarekeptfordairypurposes;thesearelessnumerousthaninthepast,andtheyareneverkeptformeat,eventhoughmostpeoplearenotvegetarians.Poultryarefrequentlykeptandponiesoccasionally.Bee-keepingispracticednow,butinearlierdaysonlywildhoneywascollectedintheforests.Althoughpotatoesandpur-chasedricearethestaplesnowadays,theBadagastradition-allyatewheatandvariousmillets.Theirmixedfarmingpro-ducesagoodvariety of bothlocalandEuropeancrops,andtheirdietalsomaybecomplementedwithsomewildforestplants.MostBadagasarenonvegetarian,eatingmuttonandoccasionalwildgame.Thereisnoevidence of opiumaddic-tion,althoughthiswasanopium-producingcommunityinthelastcentury.Illicitliquorisproduced.IndustrialArts.AlthoughBadagashavebeendoingbuild-ingandurbantradesforaboutacentury,until1930theylookedtotheKotastosupplyall of theirneedsinpottery,car-pentry,leather,blacksmithing,silverornaments,thatching,andfurniture.Badagasincludenospecializedartisanphra-triesorsubcastes.Trade.Thiscommunityiswellknownforitscomplexsym-biosiswiththeToda,Kota,andKurumbatribesof...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - C ppt

Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - C ppt

... adivinerhasidentifiedwhatistobedone.Thereareallmanner of privatecuringrituals,andtheseareheldbywhomeverknowshow,notbyprofessionals;theytendtoinvolvesacrificestointrudingspirits,soulrecall-ing,andtheleaving of miniatureimages of wealthoutsidethevillageforthespirits.Therearefewdefiniteseasonalcalen-dricalceremonies,butvillageritesmustbeheldbeforeclear-ing,planting,andharvesting.Allsorts of means(suchasob-servingcracksinheatedeggshells,thebileductsinpiglivers,orhowadyingfowlcrossesitslegs)areusedfordiviningthesource of troublesandtheauspiciousness of plans.Arts.Withminorexceptions,allChinartisnonrepresen-tative,andmanyChinusedtofindithardeventorecognizeadrawnorpaintedhumanfigure,thoughphotographswereclearenoughtothem.Floral-geometricdecorationisfoundintheweavingandinthememorialpostsmentionedearlier.Some of thedesignfiguresconventionallystandforthings-forexample,forvariouskinds of possessionsbelongingtoapersonbeingcommemorated-butnoneisiconic.DiseaseandCuring.Thefirstrecourseinthetreatment of diseasesandeven of woundsistheuse of mediumswhoar-rangefortheplacation of thespiritsresponsible,whomightotherwisepreventrecovery.Alongsidethisthereisawideva-riety of quiteidiosyncratictreatment,chiefly of anherbalna-ture,whichismainlypassedonfrommotherstodaughtersanddaughters-in-law.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeadareburied,andintheSouthernChinhillsthereissecondaryreburial of thebonesinasmalljar.Ingeneraltheblanket-wrappedcorpseisin-terredinastone-linedchamberinoneside of averticalpit.Thosewhohavediedaviolentdeathandwhothereforearelikelytohavebecomedangerousghostsareburiedinasepa-rategravesite,remotefromthevillageandsurroundingtrails.Therange of memorialconstructionsisconsiderable,butamongthemshouldbementioned-inadditiontothecom-memorativeposts-thestoneplatformsinandaroundthevillage,onwhichpeoplecanrestandonwhich,somesay,thespirit of thedeceasedmaysometimescomeandrest;andtheclusters of miniaturehousesontallstilts,inwhichperi-odicofferings of foodandminiaturefurnishingsareplacedforthespirit of thedeceased.Aninterestingfeature of thestoneplatforms(inthecase of deceasedmales),behindwhichthememorialpostsareraised,istheline of smallstonesthatmayalsobepresent,eachrepresentingeitherahumanvictim of thedeceasedor,equivalently,anotherman'swifeseducedbythedeceased.Modemmemorialstoneshavewrittenonthemlists of thedeceased'spossessionsinlife,ofteninastonishingdetail,downtotheoddenameledtincuporpair of woolensocks.SeealsoMizoBibliographyCarey,B.S.,andH.P.Tuck(1896).TheChinHills.2vols.Rangoon:GovernmentPress.Lehman,F.K.(1963).TheStructure of ChinSociety.Urbana:University of IllinoisPress.Lehman,F.K.(1970)."OnChinandKachinMarriageCy-cles."Man,n.s.5:11 8-1 25.Lehman,F.K.(1989)."InternalInflationaryPressuresinthePrestigeEconomy of theFeast -of- MeritComplex."InUpland-LowlandContrastsinMainlandSoutheast Asia, ed-itedbySusanB.Russell,8 9-1 02.NorthernIllinoisUniver-sityCenterforSoutheast Asia StudiesOccasionalPaper.DeKalb.Parry,N.E.(1932).TheLakhers.London:Macmillan.Shakespear,John(1912).TheLusheiKukiClans.London:Macmillan.CochinJew71dianSociety,editedbyMiltonB.SingerandBernardS.Cohn,39 7-4 11.Chicago:Aldine.Patterson,MaureenL.P.(1970)."ChangingPatterns of Oc-cupationamongChitpavanBrahmans."IndianEconomicandSocialHistoryReview7:37 5-3 96.Patterson,MaureenL. ... tothegovernment.TheChakmarajatraditionallyreceivedasmallportion of taxonswiddenland.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Theparibar(family)isthebasickinshipunitinChakmasociety.Beyondtheparibarandbari(homestead),multihouseholdcompoundsarethenextwidestunit,themembers of whichmayformworkgroupsandhelpeachotherinotheractivities.Nextarethehamlets,com-prised of anumber of bari.Theyformworkgroupsforeco-nomicactivitiesrequiringtravel,suchasswiddencultivation,fishing,collecting,etc.Hamletpeopleareorganizedandledbyaleadercalledthekarbari.Thevillageisthenextlargergroupwhoarrangeafewritualstogether.DescentamongtheChakmaispatrilineal.Whenawomanmarries,sheleavesherownfamilyandisincorporatedintothat of herhusband.Propertyisinheritedinthemaleline.Despitethepatrilineal-ity,somerecognitionisgiventomaternalkin.Forexample,anindividual'smother'sfamilywillparticipateinhisorhercremationceremony.KinshipTerminology.Thepatrilinealnature of theChakmakinshipsystemispartiallyreflectedinthekinshipterminology.Thus,differenttermsareusedtoaddressafa-ther'sbrotherandamother'sbrotherandtoaddressafa-ther'ssisterandamother'ssister.Ontheotherhand,inthegrandparentalgenerationthedistinctionbetweenpaternalandmaternalkindisappears,withallgrandfathersbeingcalledajuandallgrandmothersnanu.Inthefirstdescendinggeneration,thereisagainnodistinctionbetweenpatrilinealandothertypes of kin.Thusfather'sbrother'schildren,fa-ther'ssister'schildren,mother'sbrother'schildren,andmother'ssister'schildrenarealltermedda(male)anddi(female).MarriageandFamilyMarriage.PolygynousmarriagesarepermissibleamongtheChakma,althoughtheyarelesscommontodaythaninthepast.Marriagesareusuallyarrangedbytheparents,butopinions of potentialspousesareconsidered.Ifaboyandgirlloveeachotherandwanttomarry,theparentsusuallygivetheirconsentprovidedtherules of marriageallowthemtodoso.Chakmarules of exogamyforbidmarriagebetweenpeoplebelongingtothesamegutti(orgusthi).Thisguttimaybede-finedasapatrilineagewhosememberstraditionallytraceddescentfromacommonancestorwithinsevengenerations.However,earlyinthepresentcenturyaChakmaprince,RamonyMohonRoy,tookforhiswifeawomanrelatedtohimwithinfivegenerations,bothbeingdescendants of thesamegreat-grandfather.Followingthisexample,ithasnowbecomecommonformarriagestobeallowedwithanyonenotpatrilineallyrelatedwithinfourgenerations.Theguttiseemstohavebeenredefinedaccordingly.Inmorerecenttimes,Chakmastillsaythatmarriageshouldnottakeplacewithinthegutti,andyetitsometimeshappensthatsecondcousins(thedescendants of thesamegreat-grandfather)arepermit-tedtomarry.Virilocalresidenceaftermarriageisthenormandpeopledonotlookfavorablyuponuxorilocalresidence;however,rareinstances of uxorilocalresidencehavebeenreported.DomesticUnit.Thefamily(paribar)usuallycomprisesahusbandandwife,togetherwiththeirunmarriedchildren.However,thereareinstances of marriedsonswiththeirwivesandchildrenlivingtogetherwiththeirparentsinoneparibar.Usuallyallmembers of theparibaroccupyasinglegharorhouse.However,ifaparibarexpandstothepointwhereitisimpossibleoruncomfortableforallmemberstoliveunderthesameroof,oneortwoannexesmaybeaddedattheside of themainbuilding.Butevenwhentheparibarmembersliveunderseparateroofs,theycontinuetocookandeattogether.Inheritance.Propertyisdividedequallyamongthesons.Thedaughtersusuallydonotinherit.Usuallyayoungersonwhocaresforhisparentsintheiroldagereceivesthehome-steadinadditiontohisshare.Socialization.Infantsandchildrenareraisedbybothpar-entsandsiblings.Inathree-generationfamily,grandparentsalsotakeactiverolesinsocializingandenculturatingthechil-58Castes,HinduMandelbaum,David.G.(1970).SocietyinIndia.2vols.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:University of CaliforniaPress.Raheja,GloriaG.(1988)."India:Caste,Kingship,andDom-inanceReconsidered."AnnualReview of Anthropology17:49 7-5 22.W.D.MERCHANTChakmaETHNONYM:ChangmaOrientationIdentification.TheChakmaspeakadialect of BengaliorBangla,liveinsoutheasternBangladesh,andarepredomi-nantly of theBuddhistfaith.AlthoughtheyaregenerallyknownintheanthropologicalliteratureasChakma-andareofficiallysotermedinBangladesh-theyusuallycallthem-selvesChangma.Location.Bangladeshislocatedbetween20034'and26038'Nand88001'and92041'E.Chakma(andanotherelevenethnicminoritypeoples)occupythreehillydistricts of Bangladesh-Rangamati,Bandarban,andKhagrachhari.Thishillregioniscutbyanumber of streams,canals,ponds,lakes,andeasternrivers;itcoversatotalarea of about13,000squarekilometers.SomeChakmaalsoliveinIndia.Demography.Accordingtothe1981censusthetotalChakmapopulationinBangladeshwas212,577,makingthemthelargesttribalgroupinBangladesh.In1971afurther54,378ChakmawereenumeratedinneighboringIndianter-ritory.Theyconstitute50percent of thetotaltribalpopula-tion of thesoutheasternhillregion,althoughtherearealsomanyBengali-speaking(nontribalororiginallyplains)peopleintheregionwhomigratedthereatvarioustimesinthepast.Asaresult,Chakmanowconstitutelessthan30percent of thetotalpopulation of thatregion.In1964,thisregionlostitsofficiallydesignatedtribalstatus,andasaresultmanypeo-plefromtheplainsmigratedthere.LinguisticAffiliation.TheChakmaspeakadialect of Bangla(Bengali),whichtheywriteinthestandardBanglascript.(Thisisthemothertongue of almost99percent of thetotalpopulationinBangladesh-i.e., of some110millionpeople.)However,itseemslikelythattheChakmaoncespokeanArakanese(Tibeto-Burman)language,whichtheylaterabandonedinfavor of theIndo-Europeantongue of theirBengalineighbors.TheChakmawriterBirajMohanDewangivesafigure of 80percentfortheBangla-derivedChakmavocabulary.HistoryandCulturalRelationsScholarsdifferontheoriginandhistory of Chakma.OnepopularviewamongtheChakmaisthattheirancestorsoncelivedinChampoknagar,althoughopinionsdifferastoitslo-cation.ItisalsoguessedthattheChakmaderivedtheirnamefromChampoknagar.AccordingtooralhistorytheChakmaleftChampoknagarforArakaninBurmawheretheylivedforabout100years.TheyhadtoleaveArakanforBangladeshinoraroundsixteenthcentury,whenBangladeshwasgovernedbyMuslimrulers,beforethearrival of theBritish.Evenifwedonotbelievethestory of theirorigininChampoknagar,wehavereasontobelievetheChakmalivedinArakanbeforetheymigratedtoBangladesh.Theywerethennomadicshift-ingcultivators.OntheirarrivalinBangladeshtheChakmachiefsmadeabusinesscontractwiththeMuslimrulers,promisingtopayrevenueortaxincotton.Inreturntheywereallowedtoliveinthehillregionandengageintradewiththelargersociety.Bythelateeighteenthcentury,Britishauthori-tieshadestablishedthemselvesinthesoutheasterndistricts of Bangladesh.TheBritishformallyrecognizedadefiniteter-ritory of theChakmaraja(theparamountchief).In1776,SherdoulatKhanbecametheChakmaraja.Hefoughtunsuc-cessfullyagainsttheBritish.FurtherfightingbetweentheChakmaandtheBritishtookplacebetween1783and1785.In1787,RajaJanbuxKhan,son of SherdoulatKhan,madeapeacetreatywiththeBritishgovernment,promisingtopaythelatter500maunds of cotton.TheBritishrecognizedtheoffice of Chakmarajathroughouttherest of theirrule.Differ-entChakmarajasmaintainedgoodrelationswiththeauthor-ities of centraladministrationandtheChakmaincreasinglycameincontactwiththeBengalipeopleandculture.SettlementsTraditionallytheChakmabuildtheirhousesabout1.8me-tersabovethegroundonwoodenandbamboopiles.Withtheincreasingscarcity of bambooandwood,theyhavestartedtobuildhousesdirectlyonthegroundintheBengalistyle.TheChakmahaveasettledvillagelife.Afamilymaybuildahouseonaseparateplot of land.Afewfamiliesalsobuildhousesonthesameplot of land.Theseunits(clusters of houses)areknownasbari(homestead).Anumber of bariconstituteahamlet(paraoradam).Anumber of hamletsmakeupagramorvillage.Thisisalsoknownasamouza,a"revenuevillage."Mosthousesarebuiltontheslopes of thehills,usuallynearstreamsorcanals.Bambooiswidelyusedinmakinghouses.Thepillarsaremade of bamboo(orwood);theplatform(abovetheground)andwallsarealso of bamboo.Theroofismadewithbambooandhemp.AveryfewChakmahavestartedusingtinformak-ingroofs.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theeconomyisbasedonagriculture.Chakmafarmersutilizethreedifferentmicroenvironments:flatlands,whichcanbeirrigated,slightlyhigherlands,whicharenotusuallyirrigated;andrela-tivelysteephighlands.Eachmicroenvironmentisutilizedforthecultivation of specificcrops.Intheirrigatedlowlands,theChakmagrowwetrice.Hereplowingisdonewithasinglemetal-bladewoodenplowdrawnbybullocksorwaterbuffalo.TheChakmawholearnedplowagriculturefromBengalisinthemid-nineteenthcenturygrowwetricetwiceayearonthesameland.Thecropisharvestedbyhandwiththehelp of sickles.OnslightlyhigherlandstheChakmacultivateavari-Chin67theresultingdangerousspiritsandmadeitpossibletosendthemasservantstotheLand of theDead.TheSouthernChinneverpracticedheadhunting.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheChin-Lushaitraditionalpantheoniscomplicated.Thereisgenerallyasomewhatremotecreatorgod,sometimeswithafemalecounterpart.SomesayhisrealmiscoextensivewiththeLand of theDead.Heisreveredasaremotefatherfigure,buthispowerconsistsonly of avagueabilitytoprotectoneagainstultimateadversity.Itisinthelight of thesecharacteristicsthatthetraditionalhighgodservedasasort of modeltowhichthe ... kinds of goods)insurroundingvillages.Thereweresmithswhomadethetraditionalsilver-amalgam(lateralumi-num)jewelry-suchasthebracelets,belts,earrings,rings,andnecklaceshungwithimportedbeadsandsilverrupeecoins-aswellasbrasshairpinsandotheritems,butthosear-tisanswereevenfewerinnumberthantheonesmentionedabove.indeed,thetradeinthelatteritemswasakintothelong-distancetradeinheirloomgoods,suchasthegreatgongsfromMyanmar(Burma),brassvesselsfromIndia,andothersorts of itemsthatsignifiedatleastanominalclaimuponthegoods of thevaaiplainscountry.Trade.All of thesemoreexpensiveitemsconstitutedthebasis of theprestigeeconomy of thesehillsandpassednotonlybysalebutbycirculation of myriadceremonialpaymentsandfines(especiallymarriage-prices,blood-moneypayments,andcompensationpaymentsfordefamation of status).Pres-tigegoodsandgayals-especiallyimportantfortheiruseinsacrificesassociatedwiththe"meritfeasts"bywhichsocialrankwasattainedorvalidated-werethetraditionalwealth of thesepeople.Furthermore,thedisplayorannouncement of theentirearray of whatonecurrentlyownedorhadownedinlife-symbolicallyindicatedoncarvedmemorialpostserectedforprestigiousdead-wasthedefinitivesign of one'ssocialandceremonialrank.Morespecifically,thepossession of asupposedlyuniqueobjectfromtheoutside world, likelytopossessaunique"personal"name of itsown,wasespeciallyimportant.Theideabehindtheprestigeeconomyisthatprosperityinthis world dependsuponthesacrificialexchange of goodswithinhabitants of theLand of theDead,andonlyifonehadconductedfeasts of meritwouldoneandone'sdescendantshavewealthandwell-being.Thus,too,thecon-tinuity of lineagebetweenthedeadandtbelivingwasimpor-tant;itwasespeciallyimportantforanyonetobememorial-izedafterhisorherdeath.Memorialservicewasdonenotonlybythedisplay of wealthandbyitsfigurationonmemor-ialpostsandstonesbutalsointhecomposition of songs(vahia)commemoratingaman'sgreatnessontheoccasion of one of hisfeasts.Sogreatlywerewealthandpossessionstiedupwithaperson'ssocialpositionthatamongthemosthei-noustraditionaloffencesinthissocietyweretheft,bastardy,andthesupposedpossession of "evileye"(hnam,theuncon-sciousandheritableabilitytocauseharmbylookingenvi-ouslyuponanother'sprosperity,orevensomeone'sconsump-tion of agoodmeal).Allthesesituationsmeantthatpropertyhadfailedtopassbymeans of expectedformalexchanges:ithadpassedinsteadbyarbitraryexpropriation,orthroughachildbornout of wedlockwithoutbenefit of marriage-price,orbymisfortunecausedbymurderousenvy of possessionstowhichonehadnolegitimateclaim.Division of Labor.Thefewclasses of part-timecraftspe-cialistarementionedabove.Womendomore of thedomestictasksandallthetraditionalweaving.Theyarealsoalmostex-clusivelythespiritmediumsbecausemalespiritfamiliarschoosethem.Menalonecutdowntheforestsandworkassmiths.Thereappeartobenofemalehuntersorwarriorsex-ceptinlegends,probablybecausenowomancanholdinherownnameafeast of celebrationforthekilling of amajorani-mal,orafeast of celebration of ahumantrophyheadorthat of atiger.(Inall of thesecasesthepointistotametheangryspirit of thedeceasedanimalorpersonandsendittoserveoneandone'sforebearsintheLand of theDead.)Awomancan,however,holdadomesticfeast of meritinthename of herdeceasedhusband,inwhichdomesticanimalsaresimi-larlysacrificedonbehalf of theLand of theDead.Neverthe-less,onlymencanbevillagepriests,whoaremostlyap-pointedbychiefsandheadmenbecausetheyhavememorizedtherequiredchantsandformulasandknowtheritualse-quences.Priestsserveasmasters of ceremonyatthefeasts of meritandcelebrationandatthevariouskinds of rite of placation-bothcyclicalandsporadic-addressedtothevar-iousspiritowners of theface of theland,greatandsmall.Al-mostallothertasksandactivitiescanbeundertakenbyeithersex;therehaveevenbeenhistoricalinstances of importantfemalechiefs,whoattainedofficethroughbeingwidowed.Therearefewifanyexploitablenaturalresourcesinthesehillsandvirtuallynomodernindustry,atleastnothingmadeforexport.Asidefromthesalaries of teachersandgovern-mentservants of allsortsandtheincomes of merchantsandshopkeepers,themainsource of moneyisthewages of Chinwhoworkontheoutside-preeminentlyinMyanmar,inthearmedforces.LandTenure.Thisaspect of Chincultureishighlyvaria-ble.Avillagehascompleteownership of itstract,andeventherighttohuntinitmustberequestedfromthevillage;however,itispossibletorentlandsinanothervillage'stractonanindividualoracommunalbasis.Villagetractbound-ariesarepreciselyindicatedbylandmarks.Frequentlyagivenhillsidetract,oreventhewholevillagetract,willbeownedbyachieforotherhereditaryaristocrat.Theright of achieftotheduesandservices of hisvillagersinfactderivesfromhisownership of theland,whiletheultimateownershipbyavil-lage of itslandasawholederivesfromtheheritablepactmadebytheancestralfounders of thevillagewiththespiritowners of theland.Theparamountrightisownership,sinceCoorg73tegratedintoKeralasociety,theywereinfluencedbymanyHindupracticesandbeliefs(e.g.,theemphasisuponpurity of descent,theweddingcustomsandcanopy,andthe"asceti-cism"associatedwithPassoverpreparations).Reportedly,theCochinJewshaveneversufferedfromanti-Semitismatthehands of theirHinduneighbors.ReligiousPractitioners.TheCochinJewsneverhadanyrabbis,butseveralmenservedasshochetim(ritualslaugh-terers)andhazanim(cantors)bothfortheirowncommuni-tiesandforanothercommunity of IndianJews,theBeneIs-raelinBombay.Ceremonies.Boththe'White"andthe"Black"Jewsper-formtheirceremoniesseparatelyintheirownsynagoguesandhomes.However,theceremoniesaresimilaranddistinctlyCochini,reflectingbothlocalHinduandChristianinflu-ences.Bothgroupsbuildamanara,oraperion,forthewed-ding,usuallyatthegroom'shouse.Afteraritualbaththebridereceivesatali,anIndianpendant,inimitation of localNayarpractice.Thegroomandbridedressintraditionalwed-dingdress.Thegroomentersthesynagogueonawhitecarpet-acustomapparentlyobservedby'Black"andnot'White"Jews-andsitsnearthepodiumuntilthebride'spro-cessionarrives.Thegroomhimself-andnotarabbi,asinotherJewishcommunities-actuallyannounceshisbetrothalandmarriagetohisbride.Arts.Dailyprayerswerechantedaccordingtotheshinglicustom,auniqueversion of thestandardJewishprayers.Inaddition,theCochinJewshavealargenumber of folksongsthattheysingregularly.Somearesungatweddings,somearelullabies,andsomespecificallyrecallthereturntoZion.In1984theCochinJewsinIsraelstagedahugepageantrelatinginsonganddancethestory of theiremigrationfromIndiaandtheirintegrationintoIsraelisociety.DeathandAfterlife.TheCochinJewsbelieveinanafter-life,influencedbothbyJewishandHindubeliefs.TheirdeadareburiedinJewishcemeteries.SeealsoBeneIsraelBibliographyKatz,Nathan,andEllenGoldberg(1989).'AsceticismandCasteinthePassoverObservances of theCochinJews."Jour-nal of theAmericanAcademy of Religion62:5 3-8 2.Mandelbaum,DavidG.(1975).'SocialStratificationamongtheJews of CochininIndiaandinIsrael."JewishJournal of Sociology17:16 5-2 10.Velayudhan,P.A.,etal.(1971).Commemorative Volume: CochinSynagogue,QuatercentenaryCelebration.Cochin:KeralaHistoricalAssociation.Weil,Shalva J. (1982).'SymmetrybetweenChristianandJewsinIndia:theCnaniteChristianandtheCochinJews of Kerala."ContributionstoIndianSociology16:17 5-1 96.Weil,Shalva J. (1984).FromCochintoEretzIsrael(inHe-brew).Jerusalem:KumuBerina.SHALVA J. WEILCoorgETHNONYMS:Coorgi,KodaraCoorgisatiny,isolated,mountainousdistrictin south- westIndia,boundedontheeastbythehighMysorePlateau,averaginganelevation of 1,000meters,andonthewestbyamountainousfrontier3 0-5 0kilometersfromthewesterncoast.Itsgreatestlength,northto south, isabout100kilome-ters,anditsgreatestbreadth,easttowest,is65kilometers.TheWesternGhatmountainrangerunsfromnorthto south anditsmanyspursstrikeoutinalldirectionsthroughthesmallprovince,nowadistrict of KarnatakaState.Themainrivers,theKveriandLaksmanatirtha,areshallowandunnavigable.TheCoorgyearisdividedintothreeseasons-cold,hot,andrainy-withamarkedvariationinrainfallinthevariousregions.Theaverageyearlytemperaturerangesfrom10'to27'C.Coorgisprimarilyanagriculturalcountrywithcoffeeandricebeingthemainproducts.Coorgcontainsdensefor-ests of bamboo,sandalwood,andcardamom.Faunaincludeselephants,tigers,panthers,boars,anddeer.Theearlyhistory of CoorgcanbetracedbacktotheninthcenturyA.D.andconsists of asuccession of feudalrulersleadinguptothedynasty of theLingayatrajasbeginninginthe1600s.Thelastsurvivors of thedynastywerethebrothers,Doddavirarajendra(died1809)andLingarajendra(died1820).Theheirtothethrone,adaughter,Devammaji,was10atthetime of herfather'sdeathandthethronewasthere-foreusurpedbyanuncle.Theuncle,Lingarajendra,wassuc-ceededbyhissonChikkavirarajendra(ViraRajaII)whowaspoorlyacceptedbyhissubjects.Thisledtotheeventualan-nexation of CoorgbytheBritishin1834.Theannexationledtoanumber of economic,political,andsocialreforms,one of themostprominentbeingtheabolition of slavery.Therearethreelevels of territorialgroup;thevillageisthesmallestandthemostimportant.Villages,whicharemul-ticaste,containanumber of ancestralestates,eachcomprised of amainhouse of stoneandwoodandnearbyservants'huts of mudandbamboo.Thenad,consisting of severalvillages,isthenextlargergroup.Inthe1931census94percent of thepopulation of Coorglivedinsuchvillages.TraditionallyCoorgwasdividedintothirty-fivenadsandtwelvekombus,whichservejudicialpurposes.Everyvillagehasacouncil of eldersthatispresidedoverbyaheadmanwhosepositionishereditary.TherearetwotownsinCoorg:Mercara,(orMadikeri)withapopulation of 7,112;andVirarajpet,with4,106per-sons(as of 1931).Mercaraliesinthenorth-centralportion of theregion.Virarajpetisthemostimportantcommercialcentertoday. Of thetotal1931population of 163,327,89percentwereHindus,8percentMuslims,and2percentChristians.Thenumber of Kodaguspeakerswaslistedas72,085inthe1971census.TheprimarylanguagesspokeninCoorgareKodagu,Kannada(Dravidianlanguage),Hindi,andEnglish.CoorgsconsiderthemselvestobeKshatriyas,whocon-stitutethecaste of rulersandsoldiersinthetraditionalhier-archyandrankbelowonlyBrahmans.TodayCoorgsaresome of theprominentmilitaryleadersinIndia.Therearemore60Chakmadren.TheyaretaughtBuddhistideologyatanearlyage.Re-spectfor...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - D,E,F doc

Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - D,E,F doc

... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H. J. A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H. J. A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... 78Divehidress,haveclaimedthatunliketheotherDivehistheyhadnodivorceorwidowremarriage,andhavesaidtheirancestorswereTamils,thoughtheyhavenoknowledge of suchpeopleandhavenevertraveledoutsidetheiratoll.Theyhavealsoclaimedtobestrictlyendogamous.OtherDivehistradition-allyhavethought of theGirivaruasdirty,whiletheyhavethought of otherDivehisasmorallycorrupt.PoliticalOrganization.Theoldaristocraticfamiliesfromthetime of thesultanatearestilldominantinMale.Sincein-dependencein1965thecountryhasbeencalledarepublic.Itisgovernedbyapresident,whomaintainstightauthoritythroughtheministries of religionandlaw,thesystem of ap-pointedatollandislandchiefs,andfinancesfromthetouristandshippingindustries.Intheory,hegovernsatthewill of thenationalassembly,theMajlis,whichisjustnowbegin-ningtoassumeamodernlegislativerole.SocialControl.Controlisthroughtheislandofficesandatolloffices,inwhichreligiouslawispart of thetightstateap-paratus.Alllargerislandsandatollofficeshaveaqizi,whoperformsmarriages,adjudicatesdisputesandinheritance,ex-aminestheaccused,andenforcesSharialawasinterpretedbytheattorney-general.Theatollcourthasseparatesectionstodealwithreligious,criminal,andpoliticalviolations.Thecourtmaypunishanaccusedbygivinganorderforsocialboy-cottorbybanishmenttosomeislandforayearorforlife.AtollandislandheadmenstudyIslamicreligiouslaw,andthereareafewexpertstrainedinEgypt.Conflict.Divehisareextremelyreticenttoshowaggressionortomakethreats,andthereishardlyanymurder.Butthereareseriousconteststoseizenationalpoliticalpower,andalosermaybebanishedtoanislandformanyyears.Thereisahistorictendencyforthesouthernatollstoclaimautonomy,butthistendencyisnotovertnow,andthereisnootheror-ganizedoropenconflictinthesociety.Divehisonsmallis-landsmayhavehardlyanyknowledge of theoutside world, andtheyoftenfearstrangers.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.AllDivehisareSunniMuslims, of theShafitradition,andwillremainsobecauseanon-Muslimcannotmarryorsettlethere.Everyislandhasitsmosquewiththekatibuincharge,whoispaidbythegovernment.MostmenattendFridayprayersandgivetocharity.Womenper-hapsmorethanmenprayfivetimesadayandreadscripture.Theethos of Islamappearstobeverystrong,butsomefeelittendstoconsistonly of perfunctoryfastingandprayers.Is-lamicmysticismandSufiideasareofficiallydisapproved of asleadingtoemotionalismratherthantoSunnilegalobser-vance.Islamoverliesanearlierreligioussystemhavingmanydeitiesandspirits-originallyHindu,Buddhist,orJaindei-tiesandlocalghosts-butpeoplenowthink of themasjinnisanddealwiththembyIslamicstrategies.Theoutside world isunknownandfearsome,andpeopleareconcernedaboutstrangelightsontheocean.Thereisasystem of religiouspracticecalledfandita,whichisusedtochaseawayjinnisandfearsomelights,catchfish,healdisease,increasefertility,fa-cilitatedivination,makeapersongiveuphisorherspouse,castoutaspirit,orsolveanyprobleminlife.WhenanewboatislaunchedthereisafanditaritualcombinedwithArabicprayersforitsgoodperformance.Fanditaisperformedatsev-eralstagesingrowingataroormilletcrop.Blackmagicisalsoknown,butitisprohibitedbylaw.Fanditahasmanyelementssimilartovillagereligionin south IndiaandSriLanka.Pre-Muslimconcepts of theevileyeandpollutionhavebeenab-sorbedintoIslamicvalues.Menstrualpollutionisstronglyobserved.ReligiousPractitioners.Thekatibu of anislandpreachesFridaysermons,settlesdisputes,reportsbehaviordeviationstotheatolloffice,andalsorunstheislandoffice.Heisas-sistedbyafunctionaryto...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - G pot

Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - G pot

... isnotnecessaryforhimtomarryforcompanionshiporevenforhelpincultivation,astheaverageholding of aGrasiaissmallandheisabletodoallagricul-turalworkevenifhehasasmallfamily.Themainreasonsforamantotakemorethanonewifeareeitherthathisfirstwifecannotbearchildrenorthatshehasonlyfemalechildren.SociopoliticalOrganizationTheGrasiasworkwithinajoint-familysystemwherethesonsstaywiththefamilyuptothetimetheirchildrenbecomeadults.Onlyonrareoccasionsdothesonsliveseparatelyfromtheirparentsduetodomesticquarrels.Separationusu-allyoccurs,however,afterthefather'sdeath.Onlyunmarriedsistersandminorunmarriedbrotherscontinuetolivewiththefamily of one of theolderbrothers.ReligionTheGrasiasbasicallyworshiptheHindugodsandrespectthecowandarethusalmostHinduized,eventhoughtheytendtoholdontotheiroriginalbeliefinspiritsandfearghosts,spirits of thedead,andblackmagic.SeealsoBhilBibliographyDave,P.C.(1960).TheGrasiasalsoCalledDungriGrasias.Delhi:BharatiyaAdimjatiSevakSangh.LeSHONKIMBLEGujarETHNONYMS:Gujareta,Gujjar,GujjaraTheGujarsareahistoricalcastewhohavelenttheirnametotheGujaratDistrictandthetown of GujaranwalainthePunjab,thepeninsulaandstate of Gujarat,andtheareaknownasGujargashinGwalior.Theynumbered56,000per-sonsin1911, of whichthemajoritybelongedtotheHoshan-gabadandNimardistricts.(In1971therewere20,634GujarsenumeratedinHimachalPradeshalone.)InthoseprovincesthecasteisprincipallyfoundintheNarmadaValley.ThecasteisbroadlydividedalongreligiousandgeographiclinesintotheMuslimGujars(whoalsosharemanyHinducustomswiththeirHinduGujarbrethrenandarethusnotfullyac-ceptedintotheMuslimmajority)innorthernIndiaandPaki-Gujarati89stanandtheHindupopulationinthecentralregions of India.GujarsspeakGujari,adialect of Rajasthani,anIndiclanguage of theIndo-IranianSector of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.InHimachalPradeshthelanguageismixedwithWesternPahari.GujarswriteintheUrduscript.Theorigins of theGujarsareunknown;however,severaltheoriesplacethemeitherasabranch of theWhiteHunswhooverranIndiainthefifthandsixthcenturiesorasabranch of theKushandivision of theYueh-Chitribe,whichcontrolledmuch of northwesternIndiaduringtheearlycen-turies of theChristianera.InthepasttheGujarswereconsid-eredmaraudersandvagrants.Todaytheyarelaw-abidingpas-toralistsandcultivators.ManyGujarswereconvertedtoIslamatvarioustimesandindifferentplaces,beginningwiththeattack of Mahmud of GhaznionSomnathinGujaratin1026.TheGujars of OudhandMeerutdatetheirconversiontothetime of Timurin1398,whenhesackedDelhiandforci-blyconvertedthem.By1525,whenBaburinvaded,hediscov-eredthattheGujarinthenorthernPunjabhadalreadybeenconverted.Untilthe1700stheconversionscontinuedundertheMogulrulerAurangzeb,whoconvertedtheGujar of HimachalPradeshatthepoint of asword.ThePathansandBaluchidrovetheGujarconvertsfromtheirland,forcingthemintoanomadicexistence.TheGujarsaredividedintoHinduand ... asbyseveralsupernaturalcausessuchasthedispleasure of agodorgod-dessorspiritpossession.Althoughhomeremediesandcon-coctions of localherbsarestillused,modemmedicinehasbeenincreasinglyacceptedandused.DeathandAfterlife.Normallyacorpseisnotkeptmorethantwelvehours.Itistakeninaprocessionmainly of malestothecremationground.Therethebodyislaiduponthepyrewithitsheadtothenorth.Thechiefmournerlightsthepyre.Theperiod of mourningvariesfromafortnighttoayearac-cordingtotheage of thedeceasedandthecloseness of there-lationship.Acastedinnerisgivenonthetwelfthandthir-teenthdaysafterwardasapart of thedeathrites.CertainreligiousritualsareperformedandBrahmansaregivengiftsaccordingtowhatthemournerscanafford.SeealsoBhil;Bohra;Grasia;Jain;Kanbi;Khoja;Koli;ParsiBibliographyDesai,R.B.Govindbhai(1932).HinduFamiliesinGujarat.Baroda:BarodaStatePress.Gujarat,Government of. Bureau of EconomicsandStatistics(1982).StatisticalAtlas of Gujarat.Vols. 1-2 .Gandhinagar:Government of Gujarat.Majumdar,M.R(1965).CulturalHistory of Gujarat.Bom-bay:PopularPrakashan.Shah,ArvindM.(1973).TheHousehold Dimension of theFamilyinIndia:AFieldStudyinaGujaratVillageandaRe-view of OtherStudies.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress;NewDelhi:OrientLongman.Shah,Ghanshyam(1989)."CasteSentimentsandDomi-nanceinGujarat."InDominanceandStatePowerinModernIndia,editedbyFrancineFrankelandM.S.A.Rao.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress.GHANSHYAMSHAHGurkhaETHNONYM:Gurkhali"Gurkha"isnotthename of anethnicgroupbutratherthenamegiventhoseNepalesenationalswhoserveintheBritisharmy.Gurkhasaredrawnfromanumber of NepaleseethnicgroupsincludingtheGurung(whocontributethe84Garodispute,themattercangobeforethecivilcourt of thedistrictcouncil.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TherearetwofaithsprevalentamongtheGaros:nativeandChristian.Peoplewhofollowthetradi-tionalfaithareknownasSongsarek.Differenceinreligionhasnotbroughtanysplitinthepopulation.Thetraditional world of theGarosincludesanumber of spiritswhobehavelikehumanbeingsbuthavenoshape.TheyareSaljong,thespirit of thesunandfertility;Gaera,thespirit of strengthandthethunderbolt;Susume,thespirit of wealth.Propitiationforeachisfollowedbythesacrifice of ananimalandanoffering of beer.AChristianGaroissupposedtoavoidsuchpractices.Ogresandbitingspirits(mite)alsooccur.ReligiousPractitioners.AGaroreligiouspractitionerisknownaskamal.Thewordisusedtomean'specialist";thusamidwifemaybeakamal.Akamalderivesneitherspecialpriv.ilegenorprestigefromhisorherservicetothesociety.Ceremonies.Alltraditionalannualfestivalswerecon-nectedwiththedifferentstages of shiftingcultivation:Agal-maka,Maimua,Rongchugala,Ahaia,Wangala,etc.WangalaisconsideredtobethenationalfestivalamongtheGaros,takingplaceOctober-December.Whenamember of afamilybecomesChristian,herefusestoparticipateinSongsarekfestivals.Arts.TheGarosusedtomakethefollowingitems:carvedwoodenshields(spee);baskets of differenttypes;differentva.rieties of drums-gambil,kram,andnakik;pipes(adil)made of buffalohorn;flutes of bamboo;gonogina(Sew'sharp)made of bamboo.Medicine.Theyuseavariety of herbalmedicinesforallsorts of ailments,andtheyclaimtohaveherbalmedicineforbirthcontrolalso.DeathandAfterlife.Theybelievethatafterdeathhumanbeingsandanimalsturnintospiritsknownasmemang("ghosts").Thesememangareconsideredcounterparts of humanbeings.BibliographyBurling,Robbins(1956)."GaroKinshipTerminology."ManinIndia36:20 3-2 18.Burling,Robbins(1963).Rengsanggri:FamilyandKinshipinaGaroVillage.Philadelphia:University of PennsylvaniaPress.Dalton,EdwardTuite(1872).DescriptiveEthnology of Ben-gal.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Re-print.1960.Calcutta:IndianStudiesPast&Present.Das,K.N.(1982).SocialDimension of GaroLanguage.Ph.D.dissertation,GauhatiUniversity.Grierson,GeorgeA.,ed.(1903).TheLinguisticSurvey of India.Vol.3,pt.2.Calcutta:Government of India.Reprint.1967.Delhi:Motilal-Banarsidass.Majumdar,D.N.(1980).AStudy of CultureChangeinTwoGaroVillages of Meghalaya.Gauhati:GauhatiUniversityPress.Playfair,Alan.(1909).TheGaros.London:Nutt.Roy,SankarKumar(1977).AStudy of CeramicsfromtheNe-olithictotheMedievalPeriodofAssam:AnEthnoarchaeologicalApproach.Ph.D.dissertation,GauhatiUniversity.Roy,SankarKumar(1981)."Aspects of NeolithicAgricul-tureandShiftingCultivation,GaroHills,Meghalaya."AsianPerspectives24:19 3-2 21.Tayang, J. (1981).Census of India,1981.Series14,Meghalaya,paperno.1.Shillong:Directorate of CensusOp-erations,Meghalaya.SANKARKUMARROYGondETHNONYM:KoiOrientationIdentification.TheGondsareanimportantandnumer-oustribe,residingatthepresenttimemainlyinGondavana,"theLand of theGonds,"theeasternmostdistricts of MadhyaPradesh,formerlytheCentralProvinces of India.Theywerefirstcalled"Gonds"(hillmen)bytheMogulrul-ers.TheycallthemselvesKoiorKoitir;themeaning of thelatternameisunclear.Location.WhiletheGondlivemainlyinMadhyaPradesh,importantclusterslivealsointheadjoiningdistrictstothenorth,west,and south of Gondavana.Many of thesesubsec-tionshaveassumeddifferenttribalnamesso ... Muslimsepts,withthelatterbeingSunniconvertsretainingsome of theirHindupractices.Mostkeepcopies of theQuranintheirhomes;however,likeHindustheyworshipafamilydeity.Brahmanpriestsareconsultedtodeterminealuckytimeforthefirstbathforthemotherafterababyisborn.Id-al-Zuha(Id-al-Adha)andId-al-Fitraretheirtwomostimportantfes-tivals.GujarMuslimsobservesome of theHindufestivals,suchasHoliandNazPanchmi.Theyburytheirdeadaccord-ingtoMuslimcustom;however,theymakefireofferingsandupturnapitcher of waternearthegraveasHindustradition-allydo.GujarsmakeofferingstothedeadonFridays,...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - H pps

Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - H pps

... thehouses of theiraudiences;therefore,maintainingareputationforhonestyisnecessaryfortheirprofession.Becausethehijrahouseholdisbothaneconomicandadomesticgroup,pressurestoconformaregreat.Seriousconflictsareinhibitedbythegeographicalmobilitypermittedwithinthecommunity.Anyhijrawhocannotgetalonginonehouseholdcanmovetoanotherforawhile;apersonwhogetsareputationforquarrelsomeness,however,willbeunwel-comeatanyhijrahouse.Thenationalnetwork of hijrascanworkasablacklistaswellasanoutletfordiffusingthedisrup-tiveeffects of conflict.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thepower of thehijrasasasexuallyam-biguouscategorycanonlybeunderstoodinthereligiouscon-text of Hinduism.InHindumythology,ritual,andart,thepower of thecombinedman/woman,orandrogyne,isafre-quentandsignificanttheme.BahucharaMata,themainob-ject of hijraveneration,isspecificallyassociatedwithtrans-vestismandtransgenderism.Allhijrahouseholdscontainashrinetothegoddessthatisusedindailyprayer.HijrasalsoidentifywithShiva,acentral,sexuallyambivalentfigureinHinduism,whocombinesinhimself,asdothehijras,botheroticismandasceticism.One of themostpopularforms of ShivaisArdhanarisvara,orhalf-man/half-woman,whichrep-resentsShivaunitedwithhisshakti(femalecreativepower).Thehijrasidentifywiththisform of ShivaandoftenworshipatShivatemples.Thereligiousmeaning of thehijraroleisex-pressedinstorieslinkinghijraswiththemajorfigures of theHinduGreatTradition,suchasArjuna(wholivesforayearasaeunuchintheepic,theMahabharata),Shiva,BuhucharaMata(themothergoddess),andKrishna,all of whomareas-sociatedwithsexualambivalence.Ceremonies.Thecentralceremony of hijralife-andtheonethatdefinesthemasagroup-istheemasculationopera-tioninwhichallorpart of themalegenitalsareremoved.Thisoperationisviewedasarebirth;thenewhijracreatedbyit ... isinhernamethattheoperationisrit-uallyperformed.Ahijra,calleda"midwife,"performstheop-erationafterreceivingsanctionfromthegoddess.Theritual of thesurgeryandmany of thepostoperativerestrictionsin-volvingspecialdietandseclusionimitatethose of awomanwhohasjustgivenbirth.Attheend of theforty-dayisolationperiod,thenirvanisdressedasabride,istakeninprocessiontoabody of waterandsubsequentlytoaritualinvolvingfer-tilitysymbolismrelatingtomarriageandchildbirth,becomesahijra,andistheninvestedwiththepower of thegoddess.Inthehijraemasculationritual,wehaveaculmination of theparadoxesandcontradictionscharacteristic of Hinduism:im-potent,emasculatedman,transformedbyfemalegenerativepowerintocreativeascetics,becomesabletoblessotherswithfertilityandfortune.ArtandPerformance.Hijrasareperformersatpointsinthelifecyclerelatedtoreproduction,andthusmuch of theirexpressivecultureemploysfertilitysymbolism.Hijraperfor-mancesareburlesques of femalebehavior.Much of thecom-edy of theirperformancesderivesfromtheincongruitiesbe-tweentheirbehaviorandthat of ordinarywomen,restrainedbynorms of propriety.Hijrasusecoarsespeechandgesturesandmakesexualinnuendos,teasingthemalechildrenpres-entandalsomakingfun of variousfamilymembersandfam-ilyrelationships.Therearesomesongsandcomedicroutinesthatareatraditionalpart of hijraperformances,mostnotablyoneinwhichahijraactsasapregnantwomancommentingonthedifficultiesateachstate of thepregnancy.Inalltheperformancesblessingthenewbornmale,thehijrasinspecttheinfant'sgenitals.Itisbelievedthatanychildbornaher-maphroditewillbeclaimedbythehijrasfortheirown.Inad-ditiontotraditionalelementshijraperformancesalsoincludepopularsongsanddancesfromcurrentfavoritefilms.BibliographyBradford,Nicholas J. (1983)."TransgenderismandtheCult of Yellamma:Heat,Sex,andSicknessin South IndianRit-ual."Journal of AnthropologicalResearch39:30 7-3 22.Freeman,JamesM.(1979)."TransvestitesandProstitutes,196 9-7 2."InUntouchable:AnIndianLifeHistory.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.Nanda,Serena(1990).NeitherMannorWoman:TheHijras of India.Belmont,Calif.:WadsworthPublishers.O'Flaherty,WendyDoniger(1980).Women,Androgynes,andOtherMythicalBeasts.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.SERENANANDAHillPandaramETHNONYMS:MalaiPandaram,Malapa&tiramOrientationIdentification.TheMalapantiram(hereafteranglicizedastheHillPandaram)areaScheduledTribe of thestate of Keralain south Indiaandinhabittheforestedhills of theWesternGhatsbetweenLakePeriyarandthetown of Ten-mali,about9°N.Althoughtheysharethename"Pandaram"withacastecommunity of TamilNadu,thereappeartobenolinksbetweenthetwocommunities.Mala(mountain)referstotheirlongassociationwiththehillforests,theWesternGhats,whichformthebackbone of peninsularIndiaandrangefrom600to2,400meters.Anomadicforagingcommu-nity,theHillPandaramlooselyidentifythemselveswiththeforestandrefertoalloutsiders,whetherlocalcastecommuni-tiesorforestlaborers,asnattuharan(countrypeople).Location.CenteredonthePandalamHills,theHillPan-daramprimarilyoccupytheforestranges of Ranni,Koni,andAchencoil.TheGhatsaresubjecttotwomonsoonseasons;thesouthwestmonsoon,fallingbetweenJuneandAugust,beingresponsibleforthebulk ... isinhernamethattheoperationisrit-uallyperformed.Ahijra,calleda"midwife,"performstheop-erationafterreceivingsanctionfromthegoddess.Theritual of thesurgeryandmany of thepostoperativerestrictionsin-volvingspecialdietandseclusionimitatethose of awomanwhohasjustgivenbirth.Attheend of theforty-dayisolationperiod,thenirvanisdressedasabride,istakeninprocessiontoabody of waterandsubsequentlytoaritualinvolvingfer-tilitysymbolismrelatingtomarriageandchildbirth,becomesahijra,andistheninvestedwiththepower of thegoddess.Inthehijraemasculationritual,wehaveaculmination of theparadoxesandcontradictionscharacteristic of Hinduism:im-potent,emasculatedman,transformedbyfemalegenerativepowerintocreativeascetics,becomesabletoblessotherswithfertilityandfortune.ArtandPerformance.Hijrasareperformersatpointsinthelifecyclerelatedtoreproduction,andthusmuch of theirexpressivecultureemploysfertilitysymbolism.Hijraperfor-mancesareburlesques of femalebehavior.Much of thecom-edy of theirperformancesderivesfromtheincongruitiesbe-tweentheirbehaviorandthat of ordinarywomen,restrainedbynorms of propriety.Hijrasusecoarsespeechandgesturesandmakesexualinnuendos,teasingthemalechildrenpres-entandalsomakingfun of variousfamilymembersandfam-ilyrelationships.Therearesomesongsandcomedicroutinesthatareatraditionalpart of hijraperformances,mostnotablyoneinwhichahijraactsasapregnantwomancommentingonthedifficultiesateachstate of thepregnancy.Inalltheperformancesblessingthenewbornmale,thehijrasinspecttheinfant'sgenitals.Itisbelievedthatanychildbornaher-maphroditewillbeclaimedbythehijrasfortheirown.Inad-ditiontotraditionalelementshijraperformancesalsoincludepopularsongsanddancesfromcurrentfavoritefilms.BibliographyBradford,Nicholas J. (1983)."TransgenderismandtheCult of Yellamma:Heat,Sex,andSicknessin South IndianRit-ual."Journal of AnthropologicalResearch39:30 7-3 22.Freeman,JamesM.(1979)."TransvestitesandProstitutes,196 9-7 2."InUntouchable:AnIndianLifeHistory.Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.Nanda,Serena(1990).NeitherMannorWoman:TheHijras of India.Belmont,Calif.:WadsworthPublishers.O'Flaherty,WendyDoniger(1980).Women,Androgynes,andOtherMythicalBeasts.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.SERENANANDAHillPandaramETHNONYMS:MalaiPandaram,Malapa&tiramOrientationIdentification.TheMalapantiram(hereafteranglicizedastheHillPandaram)areaScheduledTribe of thestate of Keralain south Indiaandinhabittheforestedhills of theWesternGhatsbetweenLakePeriyarandthetown of Ten-mali,about9°N.Althoughtheysharethename"Pandaram"withacastecommunity of TamilNadu,thereappeartobenolinksbetweenthetwocommunities.Mala(mountain)referstotheirlongassociationwiththehillforests,theWesternGhats,whichformthebackbone of peninsularIndiaandrangefrom600to2,400meters.Anomadicforagingcommu-nity,theHillPandaramlooselyidentifythemselveswiththeforestandrefertoalloutsiders,whetherlocalcastecommuni-tiesorforestlaborers,asnattuharan(countrypeople).Location.CenteredonthePandalamHills,theHillPan-daramprimarilyoccupytheforestranges of Ranni,Koni,andAchencoil.TheGhatsaresubjecttotwomonsoonseasons;thesouthwestmonsoon,fallingbetweenJuneandAugust,beingresponsibleforthebulk...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - I ppt

Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - I ppt

... 106forest of itskindinthe world. Post -World WarIIdamproj-ects,includingthat of BhavaniSagar,createdtemporaryworkforothers.ManyIrulahaveenteredthegeneraljobmarketintheCoimbatore-Mettupalaiyam-Ootacamundregionandareemployedinawidearray of jobsinthepublicandprivatesec-tors.Suchjobsincludepositionsinairforceandarmycamps,nationalizedbanks,theincometaxoffice,thePostandTele-graphDepartment,theRailwayDepartment,theSugarcaneBreedingInstituteandPankajaMill,bothinCoimbatore(theonlymillthatemploysIrulas,out of twentysurveyed),thecorditefactoryatAruvankadu,andtheHindustanPhoto-FilmindustrynearOotacamund.TheIrulahavecattle,chick-ens,dogs,goats,andsheep,andafew of themmaykeepbuf-falo,pigeons,orpigs.Pigs,dogs,andchickensserveasscavengersinsomelowlandhamlets.Junglefowl,Nilgirilan-gurs,parrots,peacocks,quail,andassortedsquirrelsappeartobethemostcommonlytamedwildcreatures.IndustrialArts.TheIrulamaketheirowndrumsandwindinstrumentsfortheirmusicalenjoyment.TheKota of theupperNilgirisgenerallynolongersupplymusicastheyoncetraditionallydid,sotheIrulaarenowfrequentlyemployedasmusiciansatBadagaandTodafunerals.Trade.Akind of barteringtradehaspersistedforgenera-tionsbetweentheKina-r.Kota of theupperNilgirisandthenearbyIrula.TheKotaobtainhoney,brooms,winnowersandbasketsmade of bambooandbananasheathstrips,punkusedtolightfires(Kotapriestsmaynotusematchestolightfires)andresinincensefromtheIrulainreturnforironfieldandgardenimplementsmadebyKotablacksmiths.Division of Labor.Womenstillperformallthehouse-hold-relatedtasks.Whilemalesperformthoseagriculturaltasksrequiringmorestrength,suchasplowingorhoeingtheearthinpreparationforthesowing of grain,womenalso ... 106forest of itskindinthe world. Post -World WarIIdamproj-ects,includingthat of BhavaniSagar,createdtemporaryworkforothers.ManyIrulahaveenteredthegeneraljobmarketintheCoimbatore-Mettupalaiyam-Ootacamundregionandareemployedinawidearray of jobsinthepublicandprivatesec-tors.Suchjobsincludepositionsinairforceandarmycamps,nationalizedbanks,theincometaxoffice,thePostandTele-graphDepartment,theRailwayDepartment,theSugarcaneBreedingInstituteandPankajaMill,bothinCoimbatore(theonlymillthatemploysIrulas,out of twentysurveyed),thecorditefactoryatAruvankadu,andtheHindustanPhoto-FilmindustrynearOotacamund.TheIrulahavecattle,chick-ens,dogs,goats,andsheep,andafew of themmaykeepbuf-falo,pigeons,orpigs.Pigs,dogs,andchickensserveasscavengersinsomelowlandhamlets.Junglefowl,Nilgirilan-gurs,parrots,peacocks,quail,andassortedsquirrelsappeartobethemostcommonlytamedwildcreatures.IndustrialArts.TheIrulamaketheirowndrumsandwindinstrumentsfortheirmusicalenjoyment.TheKota of theupperNilgirisgenerallynolongersupplymusicastheyoncetraditionallydid,sotheIrulaarenowfrequentlyemployedasmusiciansatBadagaandTodafunerals.Trade.Akind of barteringtradehaspersistedforgenera-tionsbetweentheKina-r.Kota of theupperNilgirisandthenearbyIrula.TheKotaobtainhoney,brooms,winnowersandbasketsmade of bambooandbananasheathstrips,punkusedtolightfires(Kotapriestsmaynotusematchestolightfires)andresinincensefromtheIrulainreturnforironfieldandgardenimplementsmadebyKotablacksmiths.Division of Labor.Womenstillperformallthehouse-hold-relatedtasks.Whilemalesperformthoseagriculturaltasksrequiringmorestrength,suchasplowingorhoeingtheearthinpreparationforthesowing of grain,womenalso per-formmanyagriculturaltasks.Malestypicallydothesowing,andwomenoftendothemostboring of taskssuchasweed-ing,reaping,andthecarrying of loads of harvestedgardenproduceorgrain.Bothmalesandfemalesarehiredforahost of laboringtasks.Becauseinfantcarethusbecomesaprob-lem,itisnotunusualforwomentotaketheirinfantstowork-places.Olderchildrennotattendingschoolareoftentakencare of bytheelderlyinextendedfamilies.LandTenure.Members of theThengumarahadaCooper-ativeSocietycultivateallottedamounts of land.Afew of theIrulaowntitletoland,sometimesintheform of patta(landownership)documents.GaudasandChettiarsinparticularhavetakenoverIrulalandthroughloanmanipulation,andsometherebynowalsohaveIrulasworkingforthem.ManyIrulaleaselandfromlandowners.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheIrulaformanendogamouscastewithtwelveexogamouspatricians(inSanskritgotras,inTamilkulams)-Devanan(orThevananorDevala),Kal-katti,Koduvan(orKodugar),Kuppan(orKoppilingam),Kurunagan,Ollaga,Peratha,Porigan,Pungan(orPoong-karu),Samban(orChamban),Uppigan(orUppali),andVellagai(orVellai)-andaclanrepresentedbythethudaitree(Ilexdenticulata).Nevertheless,becausemembers of apatriciancannotmarrymembersinoneormore"brother"pa-tricians,thereareexogamouspatricianunitsamongtheIrula.Theoverallsize of theseunitsvariesfromoneareatoanother.Thus,theIrulakinshipsystemissimilartotheonethatdomi-natesinsouthernIndia.Inaddition,theIrulahaveasystemwherebyeachpatricianisaffiliatedwithafriendshippatricianwhosemembershelpwhenanevent,typicallyarite of pas-sage,requirescooperativeeffort.TheidealmarriageamongtheIrulais of afemalewithherfather'ssister'sson(i.e.,amalewiththe ... asthebridesmaid,andthebride'sbrotherwillserveasthebestman.Thebrideisbroughtbyherrelativesandthegroom'spartytothegroom'shouseontheweddingday.Inthehouseorwithinatemporaryshelter(pandal)erectednearthehouse,thegroominthemostpertinentact of themarriageceremonyandinconformitywiththewidespreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,tiesanecklace(tali,providedbyhismaternaluncle)aroundthebride'sneck.Afeastisthenprovidedbythegroom'speople.Milletwouldinpasttimeshavebeenserved,butitisnowfashionabletoservericewithcurry.Thegroomafterwardbowstothefeet of gueststoreceivetheirblessingandisfollowedinthisactbyhiswife.Alongwiththeirbless-ing,theguestsgivemoney(typicallyRs1,2,or5)tothecou-ple.Alllatergotothebride'shouse,andthereisthenan-otherfeast(again,withriceandcurry),whichrunsintothenight.Allfeastingisaccompaniedbythedancing of malesandfemales(usuallyinseparategroupsbutinonecircle).Theconsumption of intoxicatingbeveragesisalsoliabletotakeplace.Theestablishment of aseparatepatrilocalhouse-holdaftermarriageisthenorm.Conformingwiththewide-spreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,thewifeusuallyreturnstoherpaternalhomeinherseventhmonth of pregnancyandre-mainsthereuntilafterherinfantisdelivered.Whileawom-an'sinabilitytobearachildisnotconsideredgroundsfordi-vorce,anIrulamanmaymarryanotherwomanifhisfirstwifecannotconceive.Hethenismarriedtobothwomen.Theusualgroundsfordivorceareunfaithfulnessorahusband'slack of provisionforhiswife.Whenamarriageistroubled,aIndianChristian103BibliographyChaudhuri,NiradC.(1979).Hinduism,aReligiontoLiveBy.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress;London:Chatto&Windus.Zaehner,RC.(1962).Hinduism.London:OxfordUniver-sityPress.PAULHOCKINGSStutley,Margaret,andJamesStutley(1977).Harper'sDic-tionary of Hinduism:ItsMythology,Folklore,Philosophy,Liter-ature,andHistory.NewYork:Harper&Row.IndianChristianETHNONYMS:noneIndianChristiansarebelieversinthedivinity of JesusChrist.Despitethepersistingideain South Asia thatChris-tianityisthe"whiteman'sreligion,"ithasamassivefollowingtodayinthesubcontinent.Still,itisverymuchaminorityfaith,accountingfornearly8percent of theSriLankanpopu-lationbutlessthan3percentineach of theother South Asiancountries.In1991Indiahadanestimated21millionChristians,andtheother South Asiancountriestogetherhadanother3million.TheideathatChristianitywasintroducedbythecolo-nialpowers-RomanCatholicismbythePortugueseandthenAnglicanismbytheEnglish-isnotstrictlytrue.Keralaandsomeotherparts of thewestcoasthadcertainlybeenevangelizedbyNestorianmissionariessincethesixthcentury,andmanyin south IndiabelievethattheapostleThomascametoTamilNaduandwasmartyredandburiedinwhatisnowMadrascity.TheseearlyreligiousconnectionswerewithSyria(cf.SyrianChristians).ThePortuguesebroughtPortu-gueseandItalianpriestswiththem,andin1557Goa,theirmajorIndiancolony,becameanarchbishopric.Withthefounding of theEastIndiaCompanyin1600theEnglishin-troducedtheAnglicanfaith,andastimepassedotherProtes-tantsectsappeared.Theyears185 0-1 900werethehighpoint of Protestantmissionactivityin South Asia, withmin-istersfromAmericaandvirtuallyeverycountryinEuropevyingforconverts,especiallyamongtheUntouchables,tri-bals,anddowntroddenslumdwellers.Insomeareastheyweredramaticallysuccessfulatgainingconverts:theMizos of northeasternIndiaarenearlyallChristianstoday,thankstothesomewhatobscureWelshBaptistmission.Attheotherend of thecountry,though,theBadagasare97percentHinduafterseventyyears of concertedeffortbytheBaselEvangelicalmission,followedbyanotherseventyyears of othermissionaryactivity.TheRomanCatholicmissionarieshavenotfaredanybetteramongtheBadagas;butelsewheretherearelargeCatholiccongregationsinmanytownsandcit-ies.BytheCongregationdePropagandaFide(1622)theCatholicchurchencouragedthetrainingof...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - K doc

Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - K doc

... Conflict.Thereisnosolidevidence of warfareintheNilgirisinvolvingtheKotasandothertribes.Theyclaim,however,thattheritualdrum,e-rtabatk,wasoriginallyusedinbattle.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.KotasconsiderthemselvesHindusandnoKotashavegoneonrecordasconvertingtoanyotherreli-gion,althoughoneortwomarriageshavereportedlyoccurredbetweenKotasandChristians.ThemajorKotadeitiesareA.ypo.r(fathergod)andAmno-r(mothergoddess).A-yWo-r,alsocalledKamati-cvaraorKamatra-yainsomevillages,isidentifiedwiththeHindugodShiva.Somevillageshavea"big"and'small"A-ypio.r(Doda.yno-randKuna-yno-r),butthereisonlyoneversion of thegoddess.Kana.tra-yaisadeityintheform of astoneandisfoundonlyinTicga.r.Generally,Kotadeitieshavenoanthropomorphicrepresentation,al-thoughonceayearfaces of silverornamentsarepastedontothefront of theA-yno-randAmno-rtemples.TodaytemplesfortheHindudeitiesKrishna,Rangarama,Munisvara,Badrakaliamman,andMariammanhavealsobeenerectedbytheKotas,eachinresponsetoaparticularneedorsupernat-uraleventinthevillage.ReligiousPractitioners.ForceremoniesrelatingtotheirindigenousdeitiestheKotashavetwotypes of priest.Themundika-no-n,theprimarypriest,leadstheKotasinallim-portantcommunityactivities.Theotherpriest,thete-rkaran,actsasavehiclethroughwhichgod(soym)communicateswiththepeople.Thete-rka-raneffectssuchcommunicationbybecomingpossessedandrespondingtoquestions,whichareusuallyposedbymaleelders.Possessionoccursinestab-lishedspatiotemporalcontextsforwhichinstrumentalmusi-cians(kolvar)playparticulartunes(kol)andrhythms(dak).Thedeity"chooses"thete.rka-raninitiallythroughcausinghimtobepossessedandspeakingthroughhim.Thenthemundika-no-nisnamedbythedeityviathete-rka-ran.Al-thoughthereisaspecialte-rka-ranfamily(kuyt)insomevil-lages,thete-rka-ranmayalsobelongtoadifferentfamily.Themundika-no-ncanonlycomefromthemundika.no-nfamily.Koli131saur,whicharegenerallyconsideredbenevolentthesacredcentersatAllahabad,Bandakpur,Mata.ForacculturatedKolslivinginmulticasteBrahmanpriestworshipsthedeitiesbelongingtpantheonfortheKolsandofficiatesatritualscoilife-cycleceremonies.TheKolscelebratefERamanavmi,Dassara,Rakhi,Holi,Diwali,Janm,ShabariJayanti.Arts.TheKolshavenoperformingorgraph-ever,theyhavearichrepertory of triballegendDeathandAfterlife.TheKolsusuallycremaburialisforpersonswhohavedied of snakebitecasetheperiod of pollutionendsonthethirteeninthesecondcaseitlaststhreedays.SeealsoBhuiya;Bondo;Kond;MundaBibliographyCrooke,William(1896).TheTribesandCastesWesternProvincesandOudh.Vol.3.Calcutta:IPress.DasGupta,BimanKumar(1978)."TheKolXNow."Paperpresentedatseminar,TribalCust,heldinCalcutta(sponsoredbytheAnthropolc of India.)Griffiths,W.G.(1946).TheKolTribes of CRoyalAsiaticSocietyMonographSeries,vol.RoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal.Guha,B.S.(1946).IntroductiontoTheKolTriaIndia,byW.G.Griffiths.RoyalAsiaticSocietySeries,vol.2.Calcutta:RoyalAsiaticSocietyoHasan,Amir(1972).TheKols of Patha.AllalMahal.Jagannathan,R.(1964).Census of India19Pradesh.DistrictCensusHandbook.Jabalpur.Bemiment of India.Jha, J. C.(1964).TheKolInsurrection of Chotacutta:Thacker,Spink.Risley,HerbertH.(1915).ThePeople of India.2byWilliamCrooke.London:Thacker&Co.ReDelhi:OrientalBooksReprintCorp.,Mamoharlal.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916)."Kol."InTVCastes of theCentralProvinces of India.Vol.3,50don:Macmillan&Co.Reprint.1969.OosterhtpologicalPublications.Lt.KolsvisitandMaiharevillagestheotheHinduinectedwithFstivallikeKoliETHNONYMS:HillKolis,SeaKolis,SonKolissshtami,andThename"Koli"(fromwhichisderivedtheEnglishwordcoolie)isexplainedinadozenways,amongwhichthemostplausibleisthatitcomesfromtheSanskritwordkula,icarts;how-meaning"clan."TheKolinumberedonly336,000personsinS.1911,buttheirnumberswereestimatedat1.5millioninBombayStatealonein1969.TheKoliconstituteatribewithatethedead;manybranchesandtwomainsubdivisions:theHillKolis;l.InthefirstandtheSeaKolisorSonKolis.Themostpopularexplana-thday,whiletionfortheorigin of theterm"Son"isthatturmeric,whichisverysacredtoDhandoba,thefamilygod,isson-"golden"or"yellow"incolor.TheSonKolisrepresentthehighestgroup of themanysubgroups,andtheDhorKoliaregenerallycon-sideredthelowest.TheSonKolistraditionallyinhabittheareainandaroundBombay,whichliesbetween18°and19"Nand72°and730E,onthewestcoast of India.TheHill of theNorth-KolisarefoundinMadhyaPradeshandincludetheSuraivansi,GovernmentMalhar,Bhilaophod,Singade,Magadeo(whoarefurthersub-dividedintotheBhasor"pure"KolisandtheAkaramaseor"impure"Kolis),Dshatreiga,Naiks,Nimar(soldiers),the ... inthepast.Theirtraditionforsorceryremainsbutpersonalfearisnowlittlefeltbyneighboringtribespeople.TodaythequestionariseastowhethertheKurumbasaredescendedfromancientNilgiriancestorswhowereprimarilygatherersorfromfarmorerecentfarmingimmigrants.Theirlanguagebelongstothe South DravidianSubfamily.Ingen-eralthegroupshaveaclanorganizationthatisexogamousandpatrilineal.Thetribespracticeendogamy.Cross-cousinmarriagesfrequentlyoccur.Traditionallythereareanumber of officeswithinthetribeincludingthevillageheadman(maniagara)andpriest(mannugara).Theheadmanandas-sistantheadman'sofficesarehereditaryinthemaleline,whileeitheramaleorafemalemaybeapriestorsorcerer.Traditionalreligiousbeliefsinvolveanancestorcultwithanemphasisonpollutionandpurity,whichparallelsothersuchbeliefsupheldinHinduismgenerally.TodayyoungpeopleareembracingbothHinduismandChristianityinadditiontothetraditionalbeliefs.SeealsoIrula;NayakaBibliographyKapp,DieterB.(1978a)."PiluKurumbaRiddles:Specimens of a South DravidianTribalLanguage."Bulletin of theSchool of OrientalandAfricanStudies41:51 2-5 22.London:Univer-sity of London.Kapp,DeiterB.(1978b)."ChildbirthandName-GivingamongtheAluKurumbas of South India."InAspects of Tri-balLifein South Asia. Vol.1,StrategyandSurvival.Proceed-ings of anInternationalSeminarheldinBeme,1977.EditedbyRupertRMoserandMohanK.Gautam,16 7-1 80.Bern:StudiaEthnologicaBernensia1.Kapp,DieterB.(1978c)."DieKindheits-undjugendritenderAlu-Kurumbas(Siidindien)."ZeitschriftfurEthnologie103:27 9-2 89.KappDieterB.(1980)."DieOrdinationdesPriestersbeidenAlu-Kurumbas(Sfidindien)."Anthropos75:43 3-4 46.Kapp,DieterB.(1982)."TheConcept of YamaintheReli-gion of a South IndianTribe."Journal of theAmericanOrien-talSociety102:51 7-5 21.Kapp,DieterB.(1985)."TheKurumbas'Relationshiptothe'Megalithic'Cult of theNilgiriHills (South India)."Anthro-pos80:49 3-5 34.Kapp,DieterB.,andPaulHockings(1989)."TheKurumbaTribes."InBlueMountains:TheEthnographyandBiogeo-graphy of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulHockings,23 2-2 48.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Misra,Rajalakshmi(1989)."TheMulluKurumbas."InBlueMountains:TheEthnographyandBiogeography of a South In-dianRegion,editedbyPaulHockings,30 4-3 59.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.SARA J. DICK126Khasi.ReligiousPractitioners.Thepropitiation of thespiritsiscarriedoutbythelyngdoh(priest)orbyoldmenknowledge-ableintheart of necromancy.Otherpractitionersincludethesoh-bleiandsoh-blah(malefunctionarieswithlimitedsacer-dotalfunctions),thekasoh-blei,alsocalledka-soh-slaorka-lyngdoh(femalepriestswhomustbepresentattheoffering of allsacrifices),andthenongkhan(diviners).Thelyngdoh-whoisalwaysappointedfromaspecialpriestlyclan,whoholdshisofficeforlife,andwhomaybeone of severalwithinastate-isthechieffunctionary of thecommunalcults.Healsohascertaindutiesinconjunctionwithmaritallawsandhouseholdexorcism.Insomestates,thelyngdohsubsumestheresponsibilities of siem(chief)andruleswiththeassis-tance of acouncil of elders.Theduty of performingfamilyceremoniesisthesoleresponsibility of thehead of thefamilyorclanwhousuallyfulfillsthemthroughtheagency of thekni(maternaluncle).Femalepriestsmustassistatallsacrificesand,infact,aretheonlyfunctionariesinpossession of fullsacerdotalauthority.Thelyngdohexerciseshisdutiesasap-pointedagent of thekasoh-blei(femalepriest).ItisbelievedthatthissystemisanarchaicsurvivalfromaperiodinKhasihistorywhenthefemalepriestactedasherownagentintheoffering of sacrifice.Insomestates(e.g.,Nongkrem),thereisahighpriestesswhofunctionssacerdotallyandashead of state.Shedelegatestemporalresponsibilitiestoasonornephewwhothenexercisesthemasasiem.Theadoption of Christianitybyalargesegment of Khasisocietyhasresultedinimportantchanges.Thesacerdotalfunction of theyoung-estdaughter(responsible,intraditionalKhasiculture,forconductingburialservicesonbehalf of herparentsandforactingaschiefpractitioner of thefamilycult)hasbeenthreatenedbyChristianteachingandpractice(i.e.,theyoungestdaughter,ifaChristian,islesslikelytofulfillherpriestlyresponsibilitiestoherfamily).Ceremonies.Dancingandmusicareimportantparts of Khasiritual,andtheNongkremDance(part of thepom-blangorgoat-killingceremony)isthemajorfestivalontheKhasicalendar.ItisdedicatedtoKaleiSynshar,fortheruling of theKhasi.Itspurposeistoensuresubstantialcropyieldandgoodfortuneforthestate.Itisheldinlatespring(usuallyinMay).Anumber of stateandcommunalritualsarealsoper-formed,inadditiontomanyceremoniesassociatedwiththehumanlifecycle(birth,marriage,death,etc.).Arts.Examples of decorativeartincludemetalgongs(withanimalengravings),implements of warfare(arrows,spears,bows,andshields),andmemorialslabs(withengravings).Toalimitedextentwoodwork,jewelry,andotherindustrialman-ufacturesmaybesoclassified.Musicisanimportantpart of Khasireligiousceremonies(bothcommunalandclan-related),huntingexpeditions,andathleticevents(e.g.,arch-erycontests).Musicalformsincludeextemporaneousversethatissaidtoresemble,informandcontent, ... inthepast.Theirtraditionforsorceryremainsbutpersonalfearisnowlittlefeltbyneighboringtribespeople.TodaythequestionariseastowhethertheKurumbasaredescendedfromancientNilgiriancestorswhowereprimarilygatherersorfromfarmorerecentfarmingimmigrants.Theirlanguagebelongstothe South DravidianSubfamily.Ingen-eralthegroupshaveaclanorganizationthatisexogamousandpatrilineal.Thetribespracticeendogamy.Cross-cousinmarriagesfrequentlyoccur.Traditionallythereareanumber of officeswithinthetribeincludingthevillageheadman(maniagara)andpriest(mannugara).Theheadmanandas-sistantheadman'sofficesarehereditaryinthemaleline,whileeitheramaleorafemalemaybeapriestorsorcerer.Traditionalreligiousbeliefsinvolveanancestorcultwithanemphasisonpollutionandpurity,whichparallelsothersuchbeliefsupheldinHinduismgenerally.TodayyoungpeopleareembracingbothHinduismandChristianityinadditiontothetraditionalbeliefs.SeealsoIrula;NayakaBibliographyKapp,DieterB.(1978a)."PiluKurumbaRiddles:Specimens of a South DravidianTribalLanguage."Bulletin of theSchool of OrientalandAfricanStudies41:51 2-5 22.London:Univer-sity of London.Kapp,DeiterB.(1978b)."ChildbirthandName-GivingamongtheAluKurumbas of South India."InAspects of Tri-balLifein South Asia. Vol.1,StrategyandSurvival.Proceed-ings of anInternationalSeminarheldinBeme,1977.EditedbyRupertRMoserandMohanK.Gautam,16 7-1 80.Bern:StudiaEthnologicaBernensia1.Kapp,DieterB.(1978c)."DieKindheits-undjugendritenderAlu-Kurumbas(Siidindien)."ZeitschriftfurEthnologie103:27 9-2 89.KappDieterB.(1980)."DieOrdinationdesPriestersbeidenAlu-Kurumbas(Sfidindien)."Anthropos75:43 3-4 46.Kapp,DieterB.(1982)."TheConcept of YamaintheReli-gion of a South IndianTribe."Journal of theAmericanOrien-talSociety102:51 7-5 21.Kapp,DieterB.(1985)."TheKurumbas'Relationshiptothe'Megalithic'Cult of theNilgiriHills (South India)."Anthro-pos80:49 3-5 34.Kapp,DieterB.,andPaulHockings(1989)."TheKurumbaTribes."InBlueMountains:TheEthnographyandBiogeo-graphy of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulHockings,23 2-2 48.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Misra,Rajalakshmi(1989)."TheMulluKurumbas."InBlueMountains:TheEthnographyandBiogeography of a South In-dianRegion,editedbyPaulHockings,30 4-3 59.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.SARA J. DICK126Khasi.ReligiousPractitioners.Thepropitiation of thespiritsiscarriedoutbythelyngdoh(priest)orbyoldmenknowledge-ableintheart of necromancy.Otherpractitionersincludethesoh-bleiandsoh-blah(malefunctionarieswithlimitedsacer-dotalfunctions),thekasoh-blei,alsocalledka-soh-slaorka-lyngdoh(femalepriestswhomustbepresentattheoffering of allsacrifices),andthenongkhan(diviners).Thelyngdoh-whoisalwaysappointedfromaspecialpriestlyclan,whoholdshisofficeforlife,andwhomaybeone of severalwithinastate-isthechieffunctionary of thecommunalcults.Healsohascertaindutiesinconjunctionwithmaritallawsandhouseholdexorcism.Insomestates,thelyngdohsubsumestheresponsibilities of siem(chief)andruleswiththeassis-tance of acouncil of elders.Theduty of performingfamilyceremoniesisthesoleresponsibility of thehead of thefamilyorclanwhousuallyfulfillsthemthroughtheagency of thekni(maternaluncle).Femalepriestsmustassistatallsacrificesand,infact,aretheonlyfunctionariesinpossession of fullsacerdotalauthority.Thelyngdohexerciseshisdutiesasap-pointedagent of thekasoh-blei(femalepriest).ItisbelievedthatthissystemisanarchaicsurvivalfromaperiodinKhasihistorywhenthefemalepriestactedasherownagentintheoffering of sacrifice.Insomestates(e.g.,Nongkrem),thereisahighpriestesswhofunctionssacerdotallyandashead of state.Shedelegatestemporalresponsibilitiestoasonornephewwhothenexercisesthemasasiem.Theadoption of Christianitybyalargesegment of Khasisocietyhasresultedinimportantchanges.Thesacerdotalfunction of theyoung-estdaughter(responsible,intraditionalKhasiculture,forconductingburialservicesonbehalf of herparentsandforactingaschiefpractitioner of thefamilycult)hasbeenthreatenedbyChristianteachingandpractice(i.e.,theyoungestdaughter,ifaChristian,islesslikelytofulfillherpriestlyresponsibilitiestoherfamily).Ceremonies.Dancingandmusicareimportantparts of Khasiritual,andtheNongkremDance(part of thepom-blangorgoat-killingceremony)isthemajorfestivalontheKhasicalendar.ItisdedicatedtoKaleiSynshar,fortheruling of theKhasi.Itspurposeistoensuresubstantialcropyieldandgoodfortuneforthestate.Itisheldinlatespring(usuallyinMay).Anumber of stateandcommunalritualsarealsoper-formed,inadditiontomanyceremoniesassociatedwiththehumanlifecycle(birth,marriage,death,etc.).Arts.Examples of decorativeartincludemetalgongs(withanimalengravings),implements of warfare(arrows,spears,bows,andshields),andmemorialslabs(withengravings).Toalimitedextentwoodwork,jewelry,andotherindustrialman-ufacturesmaybesoclassified.Musicisanimportantpart of Khasireligiousceremonies(bothcommunalandclan-related),huntingexpeditions,andathleticevents(e.g.,arch-erycontests).Musicalformsincludeextemporaneousversethatissaidtoresemble,informandcontent,...
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