Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - I ppt

... asthebridesmaid,andthebride'sbrotherwillserveasthebestman.Thebrideisbroughtbyherrelativesandthegroom'spartytothegroom'shouseontheweddingday.Inthehouseorwithinatemporaryshelter(pandal)erectednearthehouse,thegroominthemostpertinentact of themarriageceremonyandinconformitywiththewidespreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,tiesanecklace(tali,providedbyhismaternaluncle)aroundthebride'sneck.Afeastisthenprovidedbythegroom'speople.Milletwouldinpasttimeshavebeenserved,butitisnowfashionabletoservericewithcurry.Thegroomafterwardbowstothefeet of gueststoreceivetheirblessingandisfollowedinthisactbyhiswife.Alongwiththeirbless-ing,theguestsgivemoney(typicallyRs1,2,or5)tothecou-ple.Alllatergotothebride'shouse,andthereisthenan-otherfeast(again,withriceandcurry),whichrunsintothenight.Allfeastingisaccompaniedbythedancing of malesandfemales(usuallyinseparategroupsbutinonecircle).Theconsumption of intoxicatingbeveragesisalsoliabletotakeplace.Theestablishment of aseparatepatrilocalhouse-holdaftermarriageisthenorm.Conformingwiththewide-spreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,thewifeusuallyreturnstoherpaternalhomeinherseventhmonth of pregnancyandre-mainsthereuntilafterherinfantisdelivered.Whileawom-an'sinabilitytobearachildisnotconsideredgroundsfordi-vorce,anIrulamanmaymarryanotherwomanifhisfirstwifecannotconceive.Hethenismarriedtobothwomen.Theusualgroundsfordivorceareunfaithfulnessorahusband'slack of provisionforhiswife.Whenamarriageistroubled,aIndianChristian103BibliographyChaudhuri,NiradC.(1979).Hinduism,aReligiontoLiveBy.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress;London:Chatto&Windus.Zaehner,RC.(1962).Hinduism.London:OxfordUniver-sityPress.PAULHOCKINGSStutley,Margaret,andJamesStutley(1977).Harper'sDic-tionary of Hinduism:ItsMythology,Folklore,Philosophy,Liter-ature,andHistory.NewYork:Harper&Row.IndianChristianETHNONYMS:noneIndianChristiansarebelieversinthedivinity of JesusChrist.Despitethepersistingideain South Asia thatChris-tianityisthe"whiteman'sreligion,"ithasamassivefollowingtodayinthesubcontinent.Still,itisverymuchaminorityfaith,accountingfornearly8percent of theSriLankanpopu-lationbutlessthan3percentineach of theother South Asiancountries.In1991Indiahadanestimated21millionChristians,andtheother South Asiancountriestogetherhadanother3million.TheideathatChristianitywasintroducedbythecolo-nialpowers-RomanCatholicismbythePortugueseandthenAnglicanismbytheEnglish-isnotstrictlytrue.Keralaandsomeotherparts of thewestcoasthadcertainlybeenevangelizedbyNestorianmissionariessincethesixthcentury,andmanyin south IndiabelievethattheapostleThomascametoTamilNaduandwasmartyredandburiedinwhatisnowMadrascity.TheseearlyreligiousconnectionswerewithSyria(cf.SyrianChristians).ThePortuguesebroughtPortu-gueseandItalianpriestswiththem,andin1557Goa,theirmajorIndiancolony,becameanarchbishopric.Withthefounding of theEastIndiaCompanyin1600theEnglishin-troducedtheAnglicanfaith,andastimepassedotherProtes-tantsectsappeared.Theyears185 0-1 900werethehighpoint of Protestantmissionactivityin South Asia, withmin-istersfromAmericaandvirtuallyeverycountryinEuropevyingforconverts,especiallyamongtheUntouchables,tri-bals,anddowntroddenslumdwellers.Insomeareastheyweredramaticallysuccessfulatgainingconverts:theMizos of northeasternIndiaarenearlyallChristianstoday,thankstothesomewhatobscureWelshBaptistmission.Attheotherend of thecountry,though,theBadagasare97percentHinduafterseventyyears of concertedeffortbytheBaselEvangelicalmission,followedbyanotherseventyyears of othermissionaryactivity.TheRomanCatholicmissionarieshavenotfaredanybetteramongtheBadagas;butelsewheretherearelargeCatholiccongregationsinmanytownsandcit-ies.BytheCongregationdePropagandaFide(1622)theCatholicchurchencouragedthetraining of ... per-formmanyagriculturaltasks.Malestypicallydothesowing,andwomenoftendothemostboring of taskssuchasweed-ing,reaping,andthecarrying of loads of harvestedgardenproduceorgrain.Bothmalesandfemalesarehiredforahost of laboringtasks.Becauseinfantcarethusbecomesaprob-lem,itisnotunusualforwomentotaketheirinfantstowork-places.Olderchildrennotattendingschoolareoftentakencare of bytheelderlyinextendedfamilies.LandTenure.Members of theThengumarahadaCooper-ativeSocietycultivateallottedamounts of land.Afew of theIrulaowntitletoland,sometimesintheform of patta(landownership)documents.GaudasandChettiarsinparticularhavetakenoverIrulalandthroughloanmanipulation,andsometherebynowalsohaveIrulasworkingforthem.ManyIrulaleaselandfromlandowners.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheIrulaformanendogamouscastewithtwelveexogamouspatricians(inSanskritgotras,inTamilkulams)-Devanan(orThevananorDevala),Kal-katti,Koduvan(orKodugar),Kuppan(orKoppilingam),Kurunagan,Ollaga,Peratha,Porigan,Pungan(orPoong-karu),Samban(orChamban),Uppigan(orUppali),andVellagai(orVellai)-andaclanrepresentedbythethudaitree(Ilexdenticulata).Nevertheless,becausemembers of apatriciancannotmarrymembersinoneormore"brother"pa-tricians,thereareexogamouspatricianunitsamongtheIrula.Theoverallsize of theseunitsvariesfromoneareatoanother.Thus,theIrulakinshipsystemissimilartotheonethatdomi-natesinsouthernIndia.Inaddition,theIrulahaveasystemwherebyeachpatricianisaffiliatedwithafriendshippatricianwhosemembershelpwhenanevent,typicallyarite of pas-sage,requirescooperativeeffort.TheidealmarriageamongtheIrulais of afemalewithherfather'ssister'sson (i. e.,amalewiththe ... asthebridesmaid,andthebride'sbrotherwillserveasthebestman.Thebrideisbroughtbyherrelativesandthegroom'spartytothegroom'shouseontheweddingday.Inthehouseorwithinatemporaryshelter(pandal)erectednearthehouse,thegroominthemostpertinentact of themarriageceremonyandinconformitywiththewidespreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,tiesanecklace(tali,providedbyhismaternaluncle)aroundthebride'sneck.Afeastisthenprovidedbythegroom'speople.Milletwouldinpasttimeshavebeenserved,butitisnowfashionabletoservericewithcurry.Thegroomafterwardbowstothefeet of gueststoreceivetheirblessingandisfollowedinthisactbyhiswife.Alongwiththeirbless-ing,theguestsgivemoney(typicallyRs1,2,or5)tothecou-ple.Alllatergotothebride'shouse,andthereisthenan-otherfeast(again,withriceandcurry),whichrunsintothenight.Allfeastingisaccompaniedbythedancing of malesandfemales(usuallyinseparategroupsbutinonecircle).Theconsumption of intoxicatingbeveragesisalsoliabletotakeplace.Theestablishment of aseparatepatrilocalhouse-holdaftermarriageisthenorm.Conformingwiththewide-spreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,thewifeusuallyreturnstoherpaternalhomeinherseventhmonth of pregnancyandre-mainsthereuntilafterherinfantisdelivered.Whileawom-an'sinabilitytobearachildisnotconsideredgroundsfordi-vorce,anIrulamanmaymarryanotherwomanifhisfirstwifecannotconceive.Hethenismarriedtobothwomen.Theusualgroundsfordivorceareunfaithfulnessorahusband'slack of provisionforhiswife.Whenamarriageistroubled,aIndianChristian103BibliographyChaudhuri,NiradC.(1979).Hinduism,aReligiontoLiveBy.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress;London:Chatto&Windus.Zaehner,RC.(1962).Hinduism.London:OxfordUniver-sityPress.PAULHOCKINGSStutley,Margaret,andJamesStutley(1977).Harper'sDic-tionary of Hinduism:ItsMythology,Folklore,Philosophy,Liter-ature,andHistory.NewYork:Harper&Row.IndianChristianETHNONYMS:noneIndianChristiansarebelieversinthedivinity of JesusChrist.Despitethepersistingideain South Asia thatChris-tianityisthe"whiteman'sreligion,"ithasamassivefollowingtodayinthesubcontinent.Still,itisverymuchaminorityfaith,accountingfornearly8percent of theSriLankanpopu-lationbutlessthan3percentineach of theother South Asiancountries.In1991Indiahadanestimated21millionChristians,andtheother South Asiancountriestogetherhadanother3million.TheideathatChristianitywasintroducedbythecolo-nialpowers-RomanCatholicismbythePortugueseandthenAnglicanismbytheEnglish-isnotstrictlytrue.Keralaandsomeotherparts of thewestcoasthadcertainlybeenevangelizedbyNestorianmissionariessincethesixthcentury,andmanyin south IndiabelievethattheapostleThomascametoTamilNaduandwasmartyredandburiedinwhatisnowMadrascity.TheseearlyreligiousconnectionswerewithSyria(cf.SyrianChristians).ThePortuguesebroughtPortu-gueseandItalianpriestswiththem,andin1557Goa,theirmajorIndiancolony,becameanarchbishopric.Withthefounding of theEastIndiaCompanyin1600theEnglishin-troducedtheAnglicanfaith,andastimepassedotherProtes-tantsectsappeared.Theyears185 0-1 900werethehighpoint of Protestantmissionactivityin South Asia, withmin-istersfromAmericaandvirtuallyeverycountryinEuropevyingforconverts,especiallyamongtheUntouchables,tri-bals,anddowntroddenslumdwellers.Insomeareastheyweredramaticallysuccessfulatgainingconverts:theMizos of northeasternIndiaarenearlyallChristianstoday,thankstothesomewhatobscureWelshBaptistmission.Attheotherend of thecountry,though,theBadagasare97percentHinduafterseventyyears of concertedeffortbytheBaselEvangelicalmission,followedbyanotherseventyyears of othermissionaryactivity.TheRomanCatholicmissionarieshavenotfaredanybetteramongtheBadagas;butelsewheretherearelargeCatholiccongregationsinmanytownsandcit-ies.BytheCongregationdePropagandaFide(1622)theCatholicchurchencouragedthetrainingof...

... eldersisstressed.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Chakmasocietyishierarchicallyor-ganizedonthebasis of age,sex,occupation,power,religion,wealth,andeducation.Anolderpersonisinvariablyre-spectedbyayoungerperson.Thehusbandismorepowerfulthanthewifeinthefamily;andamanisaffordedmorestatusoutsidethefamily.PowerisunequallydistributedinChakmasociety(seebelow).Thesocietyisalsohierarchicallyor-ganizedonthebasis of religiousknowledgeandpracticeasfollows:monks,novices,religiouslydevotedlaymen,andcommoners.Educatedpersonswhoareengagedinnonagri-culturalworkareespeciallyrespected.Wealthalsoinfluencesbehaviorindifferentaspects of sociallife.PoliticalOrganization.Theentirehillregion of south- easternBangladesh(whichisdividedintothethreepoliticalandadministrativedistricts of Rangamati,Khagrachhari,andBandarban)isalsodividedintothreecircles,eachhavingitsownindigenousname:MongCircle,ChakmaCircle,andBohmangCircle.Eachcircle,withamultiethnicpopulation,isheadedbyarajaorindigenouschief,whoisresponsibleforthecollection of revenueandforregulatingtheinternalaf-fairs of villageswithinhiscircle.TheChakmaCircleisheadedbyaChakmaraja(theMongandBohmongcirclesbyMarmarajas).Unlikethesituationintheothertwocircles,ChakmaCircle'schieftaincyisstrictlyhereditary.Eachcircleissubdividedintonumerousmouzaor"reve-nuevillages"(alsoknownasgram,or'villages"),eachunderaheadman.Heisappointedbythedistrictcommissioneronthebasis of therecommendation of thelocalcirclechief.Thepost of headmanisnotintheoryhereditary,butinpracticeusuallyitis.Theheadmanhas,amongotherthings,tocollectrevenueandmaintainpeaceanddisciplinewithinhismouza.Finally,eachmouzacomprisesaboutfivetotenpara(alsocalledadam).Thesearehamlets,eachwithitsownkarbariorhamletchief.Heisappointedbythecirclechief,inconsulta-tionwiththeconcernedheadman.Thepost of karbarialsoisusuallyhereditary,butnotnecessarilyso.Eachhamletcom-prisesanumber of clusters of households.Thehead of ahouseholdorfamilyisusuallyaseniormalemember,thehus-bandorfather.Inadditiontothesetraditionalpoliticalarrangements(circle,village,andhamlet,eachhavingachieforhead),thelocalgovernmentsystem(imposedbythecentralgovem-ment)hasbeeninoperationsince1960.Fortheconvenience of administration,Bangladeshissplitintofourdivisions,eachunderadivisionalcommissioner.Eachoneisfurthersubdividedintozila,ordistricts.Theadministrativehead of azilaiscalledadeputycommissioner.Eachzilaconsists of sev-eralupazilaorsubdistricts,headedbyanelectedupazilachairman(electedbythepeople).Heisassistedbyagovern-mentofficerknownasupazilanirbahi,theofficerwhoisthechiefexecutivethere.Eachupazilaconsists of severalunionparishadorcouncils.AnelectedChairmanheadsaunionparishad.Severalgrammakeupaunionparishad.Thisad-ministrativesetupisalsofoundinthedistricts of thehillre-gion.TheChakmaandotherethnicminorityhillpeopleareincreasinglyacceptingthislocalgovernmentalsystembe-causethegovernmentundertakesdevelopmentprojectsthroughthisstructure.SocialControl.Traditionallythevillageheadmanwouldsettledisputes.Ifcontendingpartieswerenotsatisfiedwiththearbitration,theymightmakeanappealtotheChakmaraja,thecirclechief.Traditionallyhewasthehighestauthor-itytosettlealldisputes.Todaytheycanmovetothegovem-mentcourtsiftheyarenotsatisfiedwiththeraja'sjudgments.AlthoughChakmawereusuallyexpectedtogettheirdisputessettledeitherbytheheadmanorraja,theyarenowatlibertytogotothesecourts.Inrecenttimes,dependingonthena-tureandseriousness of disputes,theChakmaareincreasinglydoingthisratherthansettlingdisputeslocally.Conflict.Inthepast,theChakmafoughtagainsttheBrit-ishimperialgovernmentseveraltimesbutfailed.Inrecenttimes(since1975),theyhavebecomeaware of theirrights.Theydonotliketheinflux of thenontribalpopulationinthehillregion,andtheyconsideritanimportantcause of theirgrowingeconomichardships.Therefore,since1975,someChakma(andafewfromothertribes)havefoughttobanishnontribalpeoplefromthehillregion.Thegovernmentistry-ingtonegotiatewiththeChakmaandothertribalelitestosettlethismatter.Ithasalreadygivensomepolitical,eco-nomic,andadministrativepowerstoelectedrepresentatives of theChakmaandotherhillpeople.Theserepresentatives(whoaremostlyhillmen)aretryingtonegotiatewiththeChakma(andother)agitatorsonbehalf of thegovernment.Manydevelopmentprojectshavealsobeenundertakenbythegovernmentinthehillregion,sothattheeconomiccondition of theChakmaandotherethnicpeoplesmightimprovegradually.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheChakmaareBuddhists.ThereisaBuddhisttemple(kaang)inalmosteveryChakmavillage.TheygivegiftstothetempleandattendthedifferentBud-dhistfestivals.TheChakmafollowTheravadaBuddhism,theirofficialandformalreligion.Buddhismdominatestheirlife.Indeed,itisnowaunifyingforceinthesoutheasternhillregion of Bangladesh,asBuddhismisthecommonreligion of Chakma,Marma,Chak,andTanchangya.TheseethnicgroupscelebratetogetheratoneannualBuddhistfestivalcalledKathinChibarDan,inwhichtheymakeyam(fromcotton),giveitcolor,drytheyam,weavecloth(formonks),andformallypresentthiscloth(aftersewing)tothemonksinafunction.TheChakmaalsobelieveinmanyspiritbeings,includingafewHindugoddesses.Some of thesearemalevo-lentwhileothersarebenevolent.Theytrytopropitiatemalev-olentspiritsthroughtheexorcistsandspiritdoctors(baidyo).Theyalsobelieveinguardianspiritsthatprotectthem.Themalevolentspiritsarebelievedtocausediseasesanddestroycrops.ReligiousPractitioners.ManyChakmagotothetemplestolistentothesermons of themonksandnovices.Theyalsogivefoodtothemonks,novices,andtheBuddha'saltar.Themonksreadsermonsandparticipateinlife-cyclerituals,buttheydonottakepartinvillagegovernmentaffairs.Inaddi-tiontothemonks,exorcistsandbaidyoarebelievedtomedi-atebetweenhumansandthe world of spiritsthroughincanta-tions,charms,possession,andsympatheticactions.ChitpavanBrahman69ityinmanyChitpavans'speech.Thelasttracesmaybeseeninthepopulardidacticbook of shortsketchesbySaneGuruji(189 9-1 950),ShyamchiAi(Shyam'sMother),publishedin1933andstillreadforenjoyment,moraltales,anditsculturalimportance.HistoryandCulturalRelationsFromthebeginning of theeighteenthcenturytothecontem-poraryperiod,Chitpavanshaveplayedapartinthehistory of Indiafarbeyondtheirnumbers.Unheard of beforethelateseventeenthcentury,theChitpavansbegantheirrisetofamewiththeappointment of BalajiVishwanathBhataspeshwa(primeminister)toShahu,thegrandson of thefounder of theMarathaKingdom,Shivaji.Balajiraisedtheoffice of thepeshwatodefactorule of theMarathaEmpire,andfrom1713untiltheirdefeatbytheBritishin1818,thepeshwasruledone of thelastlargeindependentkingdomsinIndia.Duringthisperiod,ChitpavansfromtheKonkanjoinedthemilitaryandadministrativeranks of theMarathaEmpireinlargenumbers.Chitpavansservednotonlyinthecities of theMarathi-speakingareabutalsointheotherkingdoms of theMarathaexpansion:Gwalior,Baroda,Indore.EvenaftertheBritishvictoryoverthepeshwa,one of theimportantChitpavanadministrativefamilies,that of thePatwardhans,waslefttorulesevensmallprincelystatesinsouthernMarathaterritory.Thepeshwahimselfwasexiledtothenorthlestheformanucleus of rebellion,andtheBritishruledwhatthenbecamepart of BombayPresidency.NanaSaheb,theheir of thepeshwa,becamefromhisexilenearKanpur(Cawnpore)one of theimportantfiguresinthe1857rebel-lionagainsttheBritish.UnderBritishrule,theChitpavansquicklytooktoEng-lisheducation,andmost of thefamousnames of Marathahistoryfromthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesarefromthiscaste:theearlyreformerandessayistHariGopalDeshmukh(Lokahitawadi)(182 3-1 892);reformersandna-tionalistsonanall-IndiascaleMahadeoGovindRanade(184 2-1 901)andGopalKrishnaGokhale(186 6-1 915),whomGandhicalledone of hisgurus;themostfamousMaharashtrianwoman of thenineteenthcentury,educatorandChristianconvertPanditaRamabai(185 8-1 922);theradicalpatriotBalGangadhar(Lokamanya)Tilak(185 6- 1920);theHindurevivalistVinayakDamodarSavarkar(189 3-1 966);orientalistsPandurangVamanKane(188 0- 1972)andRamchandraNarayanDandekar(b.1909);econ-omistD.R.Gadgil(190 1-1 971);MahatmaGandhi's"spiri-tualsuccessor,"VinobaBhave(189 5-1 982);anthropologistIravatiKarve(190 5-1 970);cricketerD.B.Deodhar(b.1891);andmanyothers.EvenMaharashtra's"terrorists"wereChitpavan,fromthenineteenth-centuryrebelWasudeoBalwantPhadke,throughtheChapekarbrothersinthe1890s,toNathuramVinayakGodse,Gandhi'sassassinin1948.Thenationalistactivities of theChitpavans,bothradi-calandmoderate,causedconsiderablehatredandfearonthepart of someBritons,andtherearemanyreferencestothear-rogantand"untrustworthy"ChitpavansintheRajliterature.Maharashtrianstodayarejustifiablyproud of themanycon-tributionstoIndiannationalismmadebyChitpavans.Withtherise of Gandhiafter1920,theMaharashtraareaceasedtobeamaincenter of Indianpoliticallife,andsuchChitpavanpoliticalfiguresasTilak'ssuccessor,N.C.Kelkar,hadlittlepoweronthenationalscene.Thenon-Brahmanpoliticalmovementbroughtthelargecaste of theMarathastothefore,anditisclaimedthatChitpavanN.R.Gadgilbroughtthenon-BrahmanleadershipintotheIndianNationalCongresstostrengthenthat ... herandprobablyfaithfultoher.Also,marriagealli-ancesareusuallyavoidedbecausetheensuingobligationsoftencausementobedominatedbytheirwivesorbythebrothers of theirwives.KinshipTerminology.Theterminologyisbifurcate-merging,withanOmahacousinterminology,consistentwithasymmetricalliancemarriage.Themen of allgenerationsinwife-takinglineagesareclassedwithgrandfathers,butinthewife-takinglineagesonlythoseagnaticallydescendedfromtheoriginalunionlinkingthelineagesareclassedwithgrand-children.Members of lineagesotherthanone'sown,whoarenoteitherwifegiversorwifetakers,areclassedwithone'sownlineageagnatesaccordingtosexandgeneration.Thereareseparatetermsforyoungersiblings of thesamesexasthespeakerandforyoungersiblings of theoppositesex.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Withtheexceptionmainly of theMizo(Lushai),theChinpeoplespracticeasymmetricalalliancemarriage.Thereisnoobligationtomarryintoalineagetowhichoneisalreadyallied;indeed,saveinthedemographi-callyrelictKukigroups of Manipur,diversification of mar-riageconnectionsisaleadingstrategicprinciple.Butitispro-scribedunderseverepenalties-occasionallyamountingtotemporaryexilefromthecommunity-toreversethedirec-tion of marriagealliance(e.g.,tomarryawomanfromawife-takinglineage).WiththeMizotherapidity of segmentationmeansthataffinalallianceslapsealmostassoonastheyareformed,andsotherecanbenoquestion of theirreversal.Also,inasmuchaswifegiversareatleastrituallydominantoverwifetakers,itisoftennecessarytocementandrenewanalliancebyfurthermarriages,bothbecauseaparticularwife-givinglineagemayprovideausefulumbrella ... theplateaubelongstotheMahbubnagarDistrict,butafewscatteredChenchusliveontheotherside of theDindiRiverinthedistrict of Nalgonda.Inthenorththepla-teaurisessteeplyabout200metersovertheplainsandinthe south andeastdropsprecipitouslyintothevalley of theKistnaRiver.TheAmrabadPlateaufallsnaturallyintotwodefiniteparts:thelowerledgetothenortheast,withaneleva-tion of about600meters,thatslopeseastwardstotheDindiRiver,andthehigherrangestothesouthwest,averaging700meters.Onthelowerledge,wheretherearelargecultivatedareas,lieAmrabad,Manamur,andothervillagesinhabitedbyChenchusandothers.ThehigherrangesareapureforestareaandarealmostexclusivelyinhabitedbyChenchus.In1971therewere24,415Chenchus.TheAmrabadPlateauhasthreeseasons:thehotseason,whichlastsfromthemiddle of Februarytotheend of May,withtemperaturesrisingto390C;therainyseason,earlyinJuneuntiltheend of September,andthewinterfromOctobertoFebruary.Theupperplateauisadenseforestjungle of bambooandclimbers,withheavyrainfallintherainyseasonbutanaridsun-bakedlandinthehotweather.Thereisagreatvariety of an-imals,suchasbears,panthers,hyenas,wildcats,tigers,antelope,monkey,peacocks,junglefowl,andsnakes.In1941theupperplateauwasdeclaredagamesanctuary.Theeconomicsystem of theChenchusisprimarilyone of huntingandgathering.TheChenchusdependonnaturefornine-tenths of theirfoodsupply.TraditionallyChenchusroamedthejungles,livingundertreesandinrockshelters.Thecommonfoodwashoney,theroots of trees,plants,andtheflesh of animalscaughtinhunting.Atypicaldaywasspentingatheringthefruitsandrootstobeeatenthatday.Gatheringmaybedoneinsmallgroupsbutisstilltodayasol-itaryactivitywithoutcooperationfromothers.Huntingisalsoasolitaryratherthancooperativeeffortthatrarelypro-ducesmuchgame.Huntingisdonewithbowandarrow,oc-casionallywithagun.Notrappingorsnaringisdone.Veryfewthingsarecultivated-mostlytobacco,corn,andsomemillet-andlittleprovisionismadefor"arainyday" (i. e.,thereisnostoring of grain).Thereisdivision of laborbe-tweenthesexes:menhunt,gatherhoney,andmakebaskets;womenpreparemost of thefood.Gatheringisdonebybothsexesalthoughthemenmaygofurtherafield,evenspendingtwotothreedaysawayfromthecommunity.Afewbuffalocowsmaybekeptinavillageformilkbutarenoteaten.Recently(ca.1943)mostChenchuslivedinhouses of bambooandthatch.Apart of thepopulationremainsdepen-dentonfoodcollectedintheforest(1943).Thisforcesthemtofollowthetrain of theseasonsandatcertaintimes of theyeartoleavethevillagesforplaceswithmorewaterandin-creasedprobabilitiesforcollection of edibleplants.Perma-nentvillagesitesareoccupiedfortentofifteenyearsunlessdiseaseravagesacommunityandmanydeathsoccur.Thesizevariesfromthreetothirteenhouses,withanaveragenumber of sixorseven.Thepermanenthouse(gadaiUlu)issolidlybuiltwithacircularwattlewallandconicalthatchedroofandbambooroofbeams.Temporarydwellingsmaybelowgrasshutsorsheltersconstructed of leafybranches.Theprincipalunits of socialorganizationaretheclan,thelocalgroup,andthefamily.Thereisapronouncedlack of tribalfeelingwithfewtraditions.Thetribepracticeclanexog-amy.Theclansarepatrilineal.Therearefourprincipalclan62Chenchugroupsontheupperplateau:(1)MenlurandDaserolu;(2)SigarluandUrtalu;(3)Tokal,Nallapoteru,andKatraj;and(4)Nimal,Eravalu,andPulsaru.Villagesareusuallymixedclans.Individualsmayjoinatwillanylocalgroupwithwhichtheyhaverelations;however,theyalwaysremain"linked"totheirhomevillagewheretheirparentslivedandwheretheygrewup.Theretheyarecoheirstotheland,whereasamanlivinginhiswife'svillageisonlya"guest."Thefamilyconsists of thehusband,wife,andunmarriedchildren.Thehusbandandwifearepartnerswithequalrightsandpropertyjointlyowned.Thereisaconcurrence of patrilocalandmatrilocalmarriage.Inthekingroupthereisaspirit of cooperationandmutualloyaltythatisnotseenatthetribeandclanlevels.TheChenchusspeakadialect of Teluguinterspersedwithanumber of Urduwords,asdomostpeople of AndhraPradesh.IncreasingexposuretotheplainspeopleshasledtheChenchustoadoptthecult of variousdeities of theTelugu'sHindureligion.BibliographyFiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1943).TheAboriginalTribes of Hyderabad.Vol.1,TheChenchus.London:Macmillan.SARAJ.DICKChinETHNONYMS:'kKxouandrelatedwords;Mizo(sameasLushai),Zo,Zomi.Alsoregionalanddialectgroupnames:Chinbok,Chinbon,Dai,Kuku,Lai(sameasHaka),Laizo(sameasFalam),Mara(sameasLakher),Ngala(sameasMatu),n'Men,etc.OrientationIdentification.TheChinliveinthemountains of theMyanmar(Burma)-Indiaborderandinneighboringareas of MyanmarandIndia."Chin"isanEnglishversion of theBur-mesenameforthesepeople(cognatewithasouthernChinword,'kKxang,"apeople")whocallthemselvesZo(orrelatedwords),meaning"marginalpeople.""Chin"appliesstrictlytotheinhabitants of Myanmar'sChinState.OntheIndianside of theborderthemajorrelatedpeoplearetheMizo,orLushai, of MizoramState.TheKukiandHmararetheirrela-tivesinManipurState.ThePlainsChin,orAsho,liveinMyanmarproperjusteast of ChinState.Location.TheChinlivebetween92°and95°E,and20°and26°N.Forthemostpartthisishighmountaincountry(thehighestpeakis3,000meters)withalmostnolandlevelenoughforplowcultivation;villagesarefoundatelevationsbetweenabout1,000and2,000meters.Thisregionisnotdrainedbyanymajorornavigablerivers.Ithasamonsoonclimate,withamarkedwetanddryseason.Annualrainfallislocallyasmuchas230centimetersormoreayear.Inthehotseason(MarchtoJune)thetemperaturecanreachabout320C,whileinthecoldseason(November-February),afterthemonsoonrains,early-morningtemperaturesatthehigherelevationscansinktoafewdegrees of frost.Demography.Therehavebeennousefulcensuses of theBurmaChininacouple of decades,butreasonableprojec-tionsfromthefigures of the1950sindicateapopulationthere of perhaps200,000,while...

... careforjhumfieldsandgirlsaretaughthowtoweave.Magicoreligiousritesare,forthemostpart,masteredbymeans of observation.ThesoleexceptiontothisnormistheKhazangpinachant(whichac-Limbu149orNepalidishes.Riceisthemostpopularstaple of theLepchadiet;wheat,maize,andbuckwheatarealsoeatenbutarenotnearlyaspopular.Milletisgrownforfermentingasanalcoholicbeverage;thisgrainisnevereatenbypeople.TheLepchadietisroundedoutwithfreshfruitsandvegetables;fishisoccasionallycaughtbutnotoften.Thetraditionalspartannature of Lepchalifedoesnotlenditselftosecularartorpainting,which(exceptforspe-ciallytrainedlamas)arecompletelyalientothem.Theyare,however,outstandingcarpenters,andmanydofindemploy-mentinthistrade;theyarealsonotedfortheirweavingandspinningabilities.TheMarwari,anIndianmerchantcaste,arechieflyresponsibleforsettingupshopsandactingasmoneylenderstotheLepcha.Theprinciplecashcrop of theLepchaiscardamom,theirmainexport.Thereisnorigiddivision of laborbasedonsex;women,however,arestrictlyforbiddentokillanyanimals.Groups of womenandmenworksidebysideinthefields,andalthoughmengenerallyweavethebasketsandmats,andwomenspinyam,ifone of thesexesweretotryoneortheotheractivity,nostigmawouldbeattachedtoit.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyTheLepchasaredividedintogroupsbasedonbirthandmar-riage;thesearethepatrilinealclanandtheimmediatenuclearandextendedfamily.TheLepchascountdescentforninegenerationsonthefather'ssideandaminimum of fouronthemother's.Theyhaveaverysmallnumber of kinshiptermsandexcludethewholecategory of cousins;and,exceptforthemother'sbrothers,theymakenodistinctionbetweenthepa-ternalandmaternallines.Forpeopleyoungerthanthespeaker,theydonotmakeanydistinctionbasedongender.Onlychildren'sspouseshavedifferenttermsforson-in-lawanddaughter-in-law.Anysexualconnectionwithbloodrelationsforninegen-erationsonthefather'ssideandfouronthemother'ssideisconsideredincestuous.Lepchatraditionallymarryveryyoung,girlsusuallybeforeage14andboysbyage16.TherearetwostagesinLepchamarriage:betrothalandbringinghomethebride.Thebetrothalphaseisavalidatingceremonyatwhichthefamily of thegroompresentsthebride'sfamilywithgifts,called"theprice of thebride,"andoncetheseareacceptedthemarriageiscompletedandthegroommayhavefullaccesstohisbride.SociopoliticalOrganizationEachLepchavillageistraditionallyheadedbyavillageleader,whoisresponsibleforkeepingorderandcollectingtaxes.CrimeisaveryrareoccurrenceinaLepchavillage;murderisalmostunheard of, althoughtherehavebeenaccusations of poisoning.TheftishighlyunusualbecausetheLepchaecon-omyisfoundedonthebeliefthatpeopledonotsteal,andwhenthisdoeshappenitisverydisquieting.Anyoutbreak of aquarrelishandledimmediatelybyneutralpersons.TheLepchaattitudetowardaggressionisthatitisnotnaturalandthatitisdestructivetothecommunityatlarge.ReligionTheLepchapracticetwomutuallycontradictoryreligionssi-multaneously,withoutanyambivalentfeeling.TheolderMunreligion,namedafterthetitle of thepriests,involvesaspecialrelationshipwithafamilyspirit.Thisspiritisappeasedbyanimalsacrificesandbydirectcommunication,aspart of anefforttowardoffevilspiritswhocauseillnessanddisaster.Itisinterestingtonotethat,amongthemanymythsandleg-ends of theLepcha,therearemanyaccounts of theAbomina-bleSnowman(Yeti)intheglacialregions of theHimalayas,andheisworshipedasthegod of thehunt,theowner of allmountaingame,andthelord of allforestcreatures.TibetanLamaismwasintroducedintheseventeenthcenturyandisrootedinapriesthoodandinsanctitygainedbylearning,notbyinspiration;thesacrifice of animalsisconsideredaterriblesinbymembers of thisreligion.SeealsoSikkimeseBibliographyGorer,Geoffrey(1938).HimalayanVillage:AnAccount of theLepchas of Sikkim.London:MichaelJoseph.2nded.NewYork:BasicBooks,1967.Hooker,JosephD.(1891).HimalayanJournals.London:Ward,Lock,Bowden&Co.[Numerousearliereditions.]Jest,Corneille(1960).'ReligiousBeliefs of theLepchasintheKalimpongDistrict(WestBengal)."Journal of theRoyalAsiaticSociety1960:12 4-1 34.Morris,John(1938).LivingwithLepchas:ABookabouttheSikkimHimalayas.London:WilliamHeinemann.Siiger,Halfdan,andJorgenRischel(1967).TheLepchas:CultureandReligion of aHimalayanPeople.EthnographicalSeries2.Copenhagen:NationalMuseum of Denmark.Tobias,Michael(1967).MountainPeople.Norman:Univer-sity of OklahomaPress.2nded.1986.NewYork:BasicBooks.JAYDiMAGGIOLimbuETHNONYMS:noneOrientationTheLimbu,one of thelargesttribalaggregatesinNepal,liveinthemosteasterlypart of NepalbetweentheArunRiverandtheborder of SikkimDistrict,India.TheLimbuare of MongoliandescentandspeakaTibeto-Burmandialect.In1970,thepopulationwasestimatedat245,000.HistoryandCulturalRelationsInthelatterpart of theeighteenthcenturyNepalwasformedbyunitingvariousethnicgroupsandnumerousprincipalitiesunderahigh-casteHindudynasty.Thisconquestresultedinanumber of migrations of high-casteHindugroupsintoeast-152Lingayattionisaporchwitharaisedplatform,usuallyopenbutsome-timesclosed,whichisusedforvisitorsandresting.Athresh-oldandadoorframewithcarvedfigures of Basavaleadtothesecondsection,whichconsists of unitsusedforhousingthecattleandfordomesticpurposes,includingakitchen,astore-room,andapuja(worship)room.Thethirdsection of thehouse,thebackyard,isusedforstoringhay,fuel,etc.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theeconomy of aLingayatvillage,whichispredominantlyagricultural,re-flectstheLingayatculture.Theirsocialstructureispopulistic,withbirthandoccupationintertwined.Lingayatsareengagedinanentirerange of occupationalactivities-agriculture,commerceandtrade,teachingandscholarship,blacksmith-ing,carpentry,weaving,oilpressing,hairdressing,etc.Tradi-tionally,Lingayatfarmersproducedpartlyforlocalconsump-tionandpartlyforamarketeconomy,andplowedtheirlandwithmetal-shodwoodenplowspoweredbypairs of bullocks.Much of economiclifewasregulatedbytheayasystem,inwhichexchange of goodsandservicestookplace.Thelocalartisangroupsandlabordependeduponthefarmersfortheirsurvival.Withindependencein1947andthelaunching of five-yearplansandcommunitydevelopmentprojects,thetra-ditionalmode of cultivationisbeinggraduallymodernizedbytheuse of chemicals,fertilizers,liftpumps,irrigation,etc.Rurallife,oncecharacterizedbyexchangerelationships,isgivingwaytocompetitiveinterestsrevolvingaroundtheeco-nomicrealities of supplyanddemand.Forexample,thearti-sancommunityinthevillagehasnearlycloseditsdoorstolocalcustomers,asitnowseeksnewopportunitiesinthenearbycitymarketinitstraditionalspecialities.Andthevil-lagewasherman'sfamilyalsoisinvolvedinthecityelectriclaunderingestablishment,thecobblerinitsshoestores,theblacksmithintool-makingjobs,andthegoldsmithinthejew-elrystore.Sotraditionalworkisbecomingmodemwork,andtraditionalskillsarebecomingmodernizedintheprocess.Thevillagefarmers,whoonceproducedprimarilyfordomes-ticandlocalpurposes,nowprefercashcropssuchassugar-cane,cotton,chilies,fruits,andvegetablesforexport.Butsuchconcernsdonotseemtohaveerodedtraditionalvaluesasindicatedbytheincreasingnumber of cooperativesocietiesinLingayatvillages.UrbanLingayatsarefoundequallyinalloccupationsanddominatesmalltrade,commerce,andthetextileindustryinKarnataka.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thekinshipuniverse of theLingayatscanbedescribedinterms of twocategories:effec-tiveandnoneffective.Relationshipsamongeffectivekinareclose,intimate,obligatory,andreciprocal,whereasthoseamongnoneffectivekinarelessintimateandfunctionallyin-significant.Effectivekinarethosecloselyrelatedbydescentandmarriage,andmateselectionamongsuchkinispreferen-tial.Noneffectivekinareremotelyrelatedandrarelyremem-bered,andmeaningfulinteractionbetweenthemisabsent.Ideally,Lingayatkinshipemphasizesthepatrimonialprinci-ple,butinrealitymatrilinealorientationsprevailbothinsen-timentsandobligations.KingroupsamongruralLingayatsmaintainandreinforcetheirkinshiprelationsthroughuncle-niece,cross-cousin,andexchangemarriages.Affinalrelation-shipsarerecognizedonlyiftheyareinvolvedinpreferentialmarriages.KinshipTerminology.Lingayatkinshipmaybedescribedasmultilateralwithpartlydescriptiveandpartlygenerickinterms.Father'sbrothersandsisters,forexample,arede-scribedas"big"or"little""fathers"and"mothers"dependingonrelativeage;termsforpaternalandmaternalgrandfathersandgrandmothersaretreatedinthesameway.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.AcommonpracticeamongLingayatparentsistoarrangetheirchildren'smarriages.Aboutfivedecadesago,abrideandbridegroomcouldseeeachother'sfaceonlyatthemarriagepedestal,butincreasingeducationandwidespreadurbanizationhavecreptintothevillagesandslowlyaffectedtheways of traditionalmatchmaking.Thesedays'love"mar-riagesareheard of eveninthecountryside.IneducatedLingayatfamilies,youngergenerationsenjoysomefreedominthechoice of partners,apracticeunheard of halfacenturyago.Theuse of horoscopesisconspicuouslyabsentamongthe_Lingayats.Divorceandseparationareuncommonandmaritalbreakdownsarefrownedupon.Precautionsagainstpossibledisintegrationaretakenbyarranginginterkinmar-riages,whichhelptostrengthenthemaritalbonds.Intheevent of abreakdown,however,Lingayatattitudestowarddi-vorce,especiallyincomparisonwithsomeotherreligiousgroups,areliberalandtolerant.Theyareequallyliberalinen-couragingwidowremarriages,whicharecondemnedbytheHindu-Brahmanicsociety.ResidenceispatrilocalamongruralLingayats.Uponmarriage,thebridegoestolivewiththegroom'shousehold.Amongurbanitestheyareexpectedtoliveindependently.ForaneducatedLingayatcouple,neo-localresidenceisthenorm.DomesticUnit.TheextendedfamilyisregardedastheidealarrangementamongruralLingayats,althoughthenu-clearfamilyisactuallymorecommonandthereareocca-sionalinstances of conjugalfamilyarrangements.Nuclearorconjugal,thefamilydoesnotliveinisolation,asitisalwaysembeddedinthelargerkingroup.Sincethecollectivesolidar-ity of thekingroupistheprimevalueinthecommunity,fam-ilyautonomyandprivacyareneveritsconcerns.Allrelatedfamiliesareheldtogetherbyasense of mutualityandcomple-mentarity.Suchinterdependenceisseenonoccasions of births,weddings,fairs,andfestivals.TheurbanLingayatfam-ilyisprimarilynuclearbutittoomaintainsitstieswithitsruralkinbyprovidingshelter,hospitality,andemploymentopportunities,whenneeded.Inheritance.Traditionally,legalrightsfavoredthepatri-lineage.Uponmarriage,agirltookherhusband'ssurnameandallthelegalclaimsthatwentwithit.Herloss of ashareinherparentalfamilyproperty,however,wasmetthroughade-quategifts of jewelryandgoldduringhermarriageandonsuccessivevisitstothenatalfamily.Herparentsandsiblingsfulfilledtheirmoralobligationstoher,especiallyintimes of crisis.Suchcustomsandconventionsgenerallycreatedanen-vironmentinwhichbrother-sisterrelationscontinuedevenaftertheparents'deaths.TheSuccessionAct of 1956thatgaveguaranteedequalrightstosurvivingchildren of deceasedparentsalteredthebondsthatonceunitedtheconjugalandnatalfamiliesandbrother-sisterrelationships.Itisnotun-150Limbu.emNepal,causinganethnicandculturalsplitwiththeLimbus.Limbusareconsideredthefirstsettlers of eastNepalandarethoughttobedescendants of theKiratis.Limbusbe-cameknowntohistoryintheeighteenthcentury,atatimewhenanumber of smallchiefdomsinLimbuanwereundertheauthority of thekingdom of Bijayapur.TheLimbuswereexpectedtograntlandtotheimmigrantsfortheirsupport.TheNepalesegovernmentbroughtalltriballands(withtheexception of certainLimbus)underraikar,"asystem of land-lordismunderwhichtherights of anindividualtoutilizationandtransfer of thelandarerecognizedbythestateaslongastaxesarepaid."BeforethissystemwasenforcedallLimbugroupsheldlandunderthesystem of kipat,inwhich"anindi-vidualobtainsrightstolandbyvirtue of hismembershipinaseries of nestingkingroups."Thischange of landtenurecausedLimbustoloselandstotheHinduimmigrants,whoweremostly of Brahmancaste.Thereweretworeasonsforthischange.First,ashortage of landswasbeginningtobefelt,andthereforethegovernmentdissolvedalltheLimbuanrightstotheirkipatlands.Asecondfactorwastheabsence of ownershipdocuments,whichledtolegalconflictsoverown-ershipandrent.Surrenderedkipatlandshelpedtofinancerevenuesettlements,postalservices,andthearmy.TheLimbuswereleftonlywiththelandtheywerelivingonandcultivating.TheBrahmanshadsomeadvantagesoverLim-bus:theywereskilledandhadlaborresourcesthattheLimbuslackedandneeded.Theywerealsoabletoreadandwrite,whichqualifiedthemforadministrativejobsandforcedtheabolition of thekipatsystem.Intheeyes of theLimbus,Brahmanswere"ungratefulservants"whoweretrustedwiththeirlandbut"stole"itinstead.TheLimbusarenowdeter-minedtosalvagetheirlandunderthekipatsystemandrefrainfrompassingitontomembers of othergroups.Brahmans,atacosttotheLimbus,havebecomethemostauthoritarianethnicgroupineastNepal.ResentmentisalsofeltbytheBrahmanstowardtheLimbus;BrahmansregardtheLimbusas"simple"and"concernedonlyforthepresent."BrahmansfeelthatifLimbushadlookedtothefuture,theywouldnothavegrantedtheirlands.TheLimbuanstruggleforlandisanongoingprocessthatcontinuestoaffectsocialandpoliticalconditionsintheregion.EconomyAgricultureisthemainsource of income.Theabundance of landhasmadethecultivation of newagriculturallandspossi-ble,butinsufficientknowledge of technologyhaslimitedtheirproductivity.Limbugrowwheat,rice,andmaize,andtheytradesome of thecropsforgoodsthatcannotbegrownormadeintheirregion.Asexualdivision of laboroccursinagriculture.Menplowthefields,womenplanttheseeds,andattheharvestingperiodbothsexesjointocompletethejob.Duringcultivationfamiliesbringfriendstohelpwiththefields.Thesegroups of peoplesharelaborwithoneanotherduringespeciallybusytimes.Anothersource of incomeforLimbusismilitaryservice.EconomichardshiphasmadeitworthwhiletojointhearmybothinNepalandinIndiainre-turnforasmallamount of cash.Associatedwithmilitaryserviceisrespectandhonor,especiallyforthose of highermil-itaryrank.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMarriageisdefinedasalegitimateunionbetweenamanandawomansothattheymayproducelegitimatechildren.Inthepast,marriageswerearrangedbyfamilieswithneitherthebridenorthegroomhavingmuchcommentonthemarriagepaymentsorceremonies.Aftertheweddingthegirlwouldgiveupherlastnameforherhusband's,inreturnforabride-price.Modemtimeshavechangedthisandnowbothpartieshaveachancetochooseanddecideonthematter.Thegiftgivingcontinuesaftertheweddingandmarriagepaymentsex-tendovermanyyears.Womenplayagreatandveryactivepartinthemarriage,inpartbecauseinmanyhouseholdsthemanservesinthearmyformanyyearsandthewomanisthedecisionmakerconcerningthehouse,children,marriage,andbusiness.Womenalsoinfluencethestability of amarriage.Themother-in-lawphobiaisstronglyfelt,andinmostcasesthemother-in-lawistheprimereasonforabride'sdeparture.Languageisalsoabarrierifthebrideisfromadifferentre-gion.TheLimbus,likemanyNepalese,arehesitanttoad-dressoneanotherdirectly.Callingoutanameinpublicistabooandcreatesembarrassment;thereforethenewbrideiscalled"you"or"thewife of so-and-so"(teknonymy)andshedoesnothavefullstatusasawomanuntilshebearsachild.Untilfullacceptancebythemother-in-law,themarriageisuncertain,asthewifecanreturntohernatalhomeifsheismadetofeeluncomfortable.Polygamyisnotwidelyprac-ticed;itispracticedonlyifthewifeisbarrenorhasfailedtoproducesons.Kinshipisveryimportantinamarriage.Aunionwithkinisconsideredsuccessfulandideal.FortheLimbustherearethreetypes of marriages:adultery,arrange-ment,and"theft."Allthreearelegal.Incase of adulterousmarriageabride-priceisnotrequired.Somecompensationispaidtotheformerhusbandbythenewhusband.Also,ifthewomanissingle,thenewhusbandvisitsthewoman'snatalhomewithofferingstoformacloserbondwithherfamily."Theft"marriagesarecommon.Theterm"theft"meansthatshehasagreedtobetakenwithoutnegotiations.Suchelope-mentisonewaytoavoidthehighcost of abride-price.Thewomeninthesemarriagesareconsideredasweaksubjects,laborresources,andchildbearers.FortheLimbustheseun-desirablemarriages,especiallytheft of marriedwomen,areusuallyinitiatedatdances.Familiesrelated"bythebone"makeuppatrilineallineagesandclans.Death of amemberbringspollutiononthelocalagnaticdescentgroup.Duringthistimeadultsrefrainfromeat-ingmealscookedwithsaltandoil.Wiveswhohavetakentheirhusband'sfamilynamealsotaketheirimpuritiesbyeatingleft-oversfromtheirmeals.Lineageandclangroupsareexogamous,somenandwomenwiththesameclannameareforbiddentomarryorhavesexualrelations.Today,lineagesdonothaveagreatinfluenceonmarriage,thoughpaymentsaremadetothechief of theclan.IngeneralLimbufamiliesareeconomicallyandrituallyindependent of eachother.ReligionandExpressiveCultureOnearea of differencebetweenLimbusandBrahmansisreli-gious.LimbusrecognizeandparticipateinmanypopularHindufestivalsbutalsohaveanumber of theirownpracti-tioners.Theyworshipbymeans of bloodsacrifice.Theybe-lievethatlineagedivinitiesarenottransmittedpatrilineally.Lakher145LinguisticAffiliation.TheLakherspeakMaraChin(BurmicFamily,Tibeto-BurmanStock),alanguagebelong-ingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheseparategroupsthatmakeuptheLakherareallbelievedtohaveoriginatedsomewherenorth of theirpresentlocation,intheChinHills.Theadvancement of thesepeoplescanbetracedwithsomedegree of certainty,andtheoriginalhome-land of atleastthree of thesegroups(Tlongsai,Hawthai,andSabeu)canbeposited.TheTlongsaimigrationbeganinLeisai(betweenLeitakandZaphai).Theoriginalhomeland of theHawthaiisbelievedtohavebeenChira(inHaka).TheSabeuarefoundinChapi,butitisbelievedthattheymigratedtothatlocationfromThiatla,whichisnearHaka.Beforetheadvent of Britishimperialdomination,intervillageconflictwastheLakhernorm.IndividualLakhervillagesfoughtagainstoneanotherandagainstneighboringpeoples(e.g.,theKhumis ... careforjhumfieldsandgirlsaretaughthowtoweave.Magicoreligiousritesare,forthemostpart,masteredbymeans of observation.ThesoleexceptiontothisnormistheKhazangpinachant(whichac-Limbu149orNepalidishes.Riceisthemostpopularstaple of theLepchadiet;wheat,maize,andbuckwheatarealsoeatenbutarenotnearlyaspopular.Milletisgrownforfermentingasanalcoholicbeverage;thisgrainisnevereatenbypeople.TheLepchadietisroundedoutwithfreshfruitsandvegetables;fishisoccasionallycaughtbutnotoften.Thetraditionalspartannature of Lepchalifedoesnotlenditselftosecularartorpainting,which(exceptforspe-ciallytrainedlamas)arecompletelyalientothem.Theyare,however,outstandingcarpenters,andmanydofindemploy-mentinthistrade;theyarealsonotedfortheirweavingandspinningabilities.TheMarwari,anIndianmerchantcaste,arechieflyresponsibleforsettingupshopsandactingasmoneylenderstotheLepcha.Theprinciplecashcrop of theLepchaiscardamom,theirmainexport.Thereisnorigiddivision of laborbasedonsex;women,however,arestrictlyforbiddentokillanyanimals.Groups of womenandmenworksidebysideinthefields,andalthoughmengenerallyweavethebasketsandmats,andwomenspinyam,ifone of thesexesweretotryoneortheotheractivity,nostigmawouldbeattachedtoit.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyTheLepchasaredividedintogroupsbasedonbirthandmar-riage;thesearethepatrilinealclanandtheimmediatenuclearandextendedfamily.TheLepchascountdescentforninegenerationsonthefather'ssideandaminimum of fouronthemother's.Theyhaveaverysmallnumber of kinshiptermsandexcludethewholecategory of cousins;and,exceptforthemother'sbrothers,theymakenodistinctionbetweenthepa-ternalandmaternallines.Forpeopleyoungerthanthespeaker,theydonotmakeanydistinctionbasedongender.Onlychildren'sspouseshavedifferenttermsforson-in-lawanddaughter-in-law.Anysexualconnectionwithbloodrelationsforninegen-erationsonthefather'ssideandfouronthemother'ssideisconsideredincestuous.Lepchatraditionallymarryveryyoung,girlsusuallybeforeage14andboysbyage16.TherearetwostagesinLepchamarriage:betrothalandbringinghomethebride.Thebetrothalphaseisavalidatingceremonyatwhichthefamily of thegroompresentsthebride'sfamilywithgifts,called"theprice of thebride,"andoncetheseareacceptedthemarriageiscompletedandthegroommayhavefullaccesstohisbride.SociopoliticalOrganizationEachLepchavillageistraditionallyheadedbyavillageleader,whoisresponsibleforkeepingorderandcollectingtaxes.CrimeisaveryrareoccurrenceinaLepchavillage;murderisalmostunheard of, althoughtherehavebeenaccusations of poisoning.TheftishighlyunusualbecausetheLepchaecon-omyisfoundedonthebeliefthatpeopledonotsteal,andwhenthisdoeshappenitisverydisquieting.Anyoutbreak of aquarrelishandledimmediatelybyneutralpersons.TheLepchaattitudetowardaggressionisthatitisnotnaturalandthatitisdestructivetothecommunityatlarge.ReligionTheLepchapracticetwomutuallycontradictoryreligionssi-multaneously,withoutanyambivalentfeeling.TheolderMunreligion,namedafterthetitle of thepriests,involvesaspecialrelationshipwithafamilyspirit.Thisspiritisappeasedbyanimalsacrificesandbydirectcommunication,aspart of anefforttowardoffevilspiritswhocauseillnessanddisaster.Itisinterestingtonotethat,amongthemanymythsandleg-ends of theLepcha,therearemanyaccounts of theAbomina-bleSnowman(Yeti)intheglacialregions of theHimalayas,andheisworshipedasthegod of thehunt,theowner of allmountaingame,andthelord of allforestcreatures.TibetanLamaismwasintroducedintheseventeenthcenturyandisrootedinapriesthoodandinsanctitygainedbylearning,notbyinspiration;thesacrifice of animalsisconsideredaterriblesinbymembers of thisreligion.SeealsoSikkimeseBibliographyGorer,Geoffrey(1938).HimalayanVillage:AnAccount of theLepchas of Sikkim.London:MichaelJoseph.2nded.NewYork:BasicBooks,1967.Hooker,JosephD.(1891).HimalayanJournals.London:Ward,Lock,Bowden&Co.[Numerousearliereditions.]Jest,Corneille(1960).'ReligiousBeliefs of theLepchasintheKalimpongDistrict(WestBengal)."Journal of theRoyalAsiaticSociety1960:12 4-1 34.Morris,John(1938).LivingwithLepchas:ABookabouttheSikkimHimalayas.London:WilliamHeinemann.Siiger,Halfdan,andJorgenRischel(1967).TheLepchas:CultureandReligion of aHimalayanPeople.EthnographicalSeries2.Copenhagen:NationalMuseum of Denmark.Tobias,Michael(1967).MountainPeople.Norman:Univer-sity of OklahomaPress.2nded.1986.NewYork:BasicBooks.JAYDiMAGGIOLimbuETHNONYMS:noneOrientationTheLimbu,one of thelargesttribalaggregatesinNepal,liveinthemosteasterlypart of NepalbetweentheArunRiverandtheborder of SikkimDistrict,India.TheLimbuare of MongoliandescentandspeakaTibeto-Burmandialect.In1970,thepopulationwasestimatedat245,000.HistoryandCulturalRelationsInthelatterpart of theeighteenthcenturyNepalwasformedbyunitingvariousethnicgroupsandnumerousprincipalitiesunderahigh-casteHindudynasty.Thisconquestresultedinanumber of migrations of high-casteHindugroupsintoeast-152Lingayattionisaporchwitharaisedplatform,usuallyopenbutsome-timesclosed,whichisusedforvisitorsandresting.Athresh-oldandadoorframewithcarvedfigures of Basavaleadtothesecondsection,whichconsists of unitsusedforhousingthecattleandfordomesticpurposes,includingakitchen,astore-room,andapuja(worship)room.Thethirdsection of thehouse,thebackyard,isusedforstoringhay,fuel,etc.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theeconomy of aLingayatvillage,whichispredominantlyagricultural,re-flectstheLingayatculture.Theirsocialstructureispopulistic,withbirthandoccupationintertwined.Lingayatsareengagedinanentirerange of occupationalactivities-agriculture,commerceandtrade,teachingandscholarship,blacksmith-ing,carpentry,weaving,oilpressing,hairdressing,etc.Tradi-tionally,Lingayatfarmersproducedpartlyforlocalconsump-tionandpartlyforamarketeconomy,andplowedtheirlandwithmetal-shodwoodenplowspoweredbypairs of bullocks.Much of economiclifewasregulatedbytheayasystem,inwhichexchange of goodsandservicestookplace.Thelocalartisangroupsandlabordependeduponthefarmersfortheirsurvival.Withindependencein1947andthelaunching of five-yearplansandcommunitydevelopmentprojects,thetra-ditionalmode of cultivationisbeinggraduallymodernizedbytheuse of chemicals,fertilizers,liftpumps,irrigation,etc.Rurallife,oncecharacterizedbyexchangerelationships,isgivingwaytocompetitiveinterestsrevolvingaroundtheeco-nomicrealities of supplyanddemand.Forexample,thearti-sancommunityinthevillagehasnearlycloseditsdoorstolocalcustomers,asitnowseeksnewopportunitiesinthenearbycitymarketinitstraditionalspecialities.Andthevil-lagewasherman'sfamilyalsoisinvolvedinthecityelectriclaunderingestablishment,thecobblerinitsshoestores,theblacksmithintool-makingjobs,andthegoldsmithinthejew-elrystore.Sotraditionalworkisbecomingmodemwork,andtraditionalskillsarebecomingmodernizedintheprocess.Thevillagefarmers,whoonceproducedprimarilyfordomes-ticandlocalpurposes,nowprefercashcropssuchassugar-cane,cotton,chilies,fruits,andvegetablesforexport.Butsuchconcernsdonotseemtohaveerodedtraditionalvaluesasindicatedbytheincreasingnumber of cooperativesocietiesinLingayatvillages.UrbanLingayatsarefoundequallyinalloccupationsanddominatesmalltrade,commerce,andthetextileindustryinKarnataka.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thekinshipuniverse of theLingayatscanbedescribedinterms of twocategories:effec-tiveandnoneffective.Relationshipsamongeffectivekinareclose,intimate,obligatory,andreciprocal,whereasthoseamongnoneffectivekinarelessintimateandfunctionallyin-significant.Effectivekinarethosecloselyrelatedbydescentandmarriage,andmateselectionamongsuchkinispreferen-tial.Noneffectivekinareremotelyrelatedandrarelyremem-bered,andmeaningfulinteractionbetweenthemisabsent.Ideally,Lingayatkinshipemphasizesthepatrimonialprinci-ple,butinrealitymatrilinealorientationsprevailbothinsen-timentsandobligations.KingroupsamongruralLingayatsmaintainandreinforcetheirkinshiprelationsthroughuncle-niece,cross-cousin,andexchangemarriages.Affinalrelation-shipsarerecognizedonlyiftheyareinvolvedinpreferentialmarriages.KinshipTerminology.Lingayatkinshipmaybedescribedasmultilateralwithpartlydescriptiveandpartlygenerickinterms.Father'sbrothersandsisters,forexample,arede-scribedas"big"or"little""fathers"and"mothers"dependingonrelativeage;termsforpaternalandmaternalgrandfathersandgrandmothersaretreatedinthesameway.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.AcommonpracticeamongLingayatparentsistoarrangetheirchildren'smarriages.Aboutfivedecadesago,abrideandbridegroomcouldseeeachother'sfaceonlyatthemarriagepedestal,butincreasingeducationandwidespreadurbanizationhavecreptintothevillagesandslowlyaffectedtheways of traditionalmatchmaking.Thesedays'love"mar-riagesareheard of eveninthecountryside.IneducatedLingayatfamilies,youngergenerationsenjoysomefreedominthechoice of partners,apracticeunheard of halfacenturyago.Theuse of horoscopesisconspicuouslyabsentamongthe_Lingayats.Divorceandseparationareuncommonandmaritalbreakdownsarefrownedupon.Precautionsagainstpossibledisintegrationaretakenbyarranginginterkinmar-riages,whichhelptostrengthenthemaritalbonds.Intheevent of abreakdown,however,Lingayatattitudestowarddi-vorce,especiallyincomparisonwithsomeotherreligiousgroups,areliberalandtolerant.Theyareequallyliberalinen-couragingwidowremarriages,whicharecondemnedbytheHindu-Brahmanicsociety.ResidenceispatrilocalamongruralLingayats.Uponmarriage,thebridegoestolivewiththegroom'shousehold.Amongurbanitestheyareexpectedtoliveindependently.ForaneducatedLingayatcouple,neo-localresidenceisthenorm.DomesticUnit.TheextendedfamilyisregardedastheidealarrangementamongruralLingayats,althoughthenu-clearfamilyisactuallymorecommonandthereareocca-sionalinstances of conjugalfamilyarrangements.Nuclearorconjugal,thefamilydoesnotliveinisolation,asitisalwaysembeddedinthelargerkingroup.Sincethecollectivesolidar-ity of thekingroupistheprimevalueinthecommunity,fam-ilyautonomyandprivacyareneveritsconcerns.Allrelatedfamiliesareheldtogetherbyasense of mutualityandcomple-mentarity.Suchinterdependenceisseenonoccasions of births,weddings,fairs,andfestivals.TheurbanLingayatfam-ilyisprimarilynuclearbutittoomaintainsitstieswithitsruralkinbyprovidingshelter,hospitality,andemploymentopportunities,whenneeded.Inheritance.Traditionally,legalrightsfavoredthepatri-lineage.Uponmarriage,agirltookherhusband'ssurnameandallthelegalclaimsthatwentwithit.Herloss of ashareinherparentalfamilyproperty,however,wasmetthroughade-quategifts of jewelryandgoldduringhermarriageandonsuccessivevisitstothenatalfamily.Herparentsandsiblingsfulfilledtheirmoralobligationstoher,especiallyintimes of crisis.Suchcustomsandconventionsgenerallycreatedanen-vironmentinwhichbrother-sisterrelationscontinuedevenaftertheparents'deaths.TheSuccessionAct of 1956thatgaveguaranteedequalrightstosurvivingchildren of deceasedparentsalteredthebondsthatonceunitedtheconjugalandnatalfamiliesandbrother-sisterrelationships.Itisnotun-150Limbu.emNepal,causinganethnicandculturalsplitwiththeLimbus.Limbusareconsideredthefirstsettlers of eastNepalandarethoughttobedescendants of theKiratis.Limbusbe-cameknowntohistoryintheeighteenthcentury,atatimewhenanumber of smallchiefdomsinLimbuanwereundertheauthority of thekingdom of Bijayapur.TheLimbuswereexpectedtograntlandtotheimmigrantsfortheirsupport.TheNepalesegovernmentbroughtalltriballands(withtheexception of certainLimbus)underraikar,"asystem of land-lordismunderwhichtherights of anindividualtoutilizationandtransfer of thelandarerecognizedbythestateaslongastaxesarepaid."BeforethissystemwasenforcedallLimbugroupsheldlandunderthesystem of kipat,inwhich"anindi-vidualobtainsrightstolandbyvirtue of hismembershipinaseries of nestingkingroups."Thischange of landtenurecausedLimbustoloselandstotheHinduimmigrants,whoweremostly of Brahmancaste.Thereweretworeasonsforthischange.First,ashortage of landswasbeginningtobefelt,andthereforethegovernmentdissolvedalltheLimbuanrightstotheirkipatlands.Asecondfactorwastheabsence of ownershipdocuments,whichledtolegalconflictsoverown-ershipandrent.Surrenderedkipatlandshelpedtofinancerevenuesettlements,postalservices,andthearmy.TheLimbuswereleftonlywiththelandtheywerelivingonandcultivating.TheBrahmanshadsomeadvantagesoverLim-bus:theywereskilledandhadlaborresourcesthattheLimbuslackedandneeded.Theywerealsoabletoreadandwrite,whichqualifiedthemforadministrativejobsandforcedtheabolition of thekipatsystem.Intheeyes of theLimbus,Brahmanswere"ungratefulservants"whoweretrustedwiththeirlandbut"stole"itinstead.TheLimbusarenowdeter-minedtosalvagetheirlandunderthekipatsystemandrefrainfrompassingitontomembers of othergroups.Brahmans,atacosttotheLimbus,havebecomethemostauthoritarianethnicgroupineastNepal.ResentmentisalsofeltbytheBrahmanstowardtheLimbus;BrahmansregardtheLimbusas"simple"and"concernedonlyforthepresent."BrahmansfeelthatifLimbushadlookedtothefuture,theywouldnothavegrantedtheirlands.TheLimbuanstruggleforlandisanongoingprocessthatcontinuestoaffectsocialandpoliticalconditionsintheregion.EconomyAgricultureisthemainsource of income.Theabundance of landhasmadethecultivation of newagriculturallandspossi-ble,butinsufficientknowledge of technologyhaslimitedtheirproductivity.Limbugrowwheat,rice,andmaize,andtheytradesome of thecropsforgoodsthatcannotbegrownormadeintheirregion.Asexualdivision of laboroccursinagriculture.Menplowthefields,womenplanttheseeds,andattheharvestingperiodbothsexesjointocompletethejob.Duringcultivationfamiliesbringfriendstohelpwiththefields.Thesegroups of peoplesharelaborwithoneanotherduringespeciallybusytimes.Anothersource of incomeforLimbusismilitaryservice.EconomichardshiphasmadeitworthwhiletojointhearmybothinNepalandinIndiainre-turnforasmallamount of cash.Associatedwithmilitaryserviceisrespectandhonor,especiallyforthose of highermil-itaryrank.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMarriageisdefinedasalegitimateunionbetweenamanandawomansothattheymayproducelegitimatechildren.Inthepast,marriageswerearrangedbyfamilieswithneitherthebridenorthegroomhavingmuchcommentonthemarriagepaymentsorceremonies.Aftertheweddingthegirlwouldgiveupherlastnameforherhusband's,inreturnforabride-price.Modemtimeshavechangedthisandnowbothpartieshaveachancetochooseanddecideonthematter.Thegiftgivingcontinuesaftertheweddingandmarriagepaymentsex-tendovermanyyears.Womenplayagreatandveryactivepartinthemarriage,inpartbecauseinmanyhouseholdsthemanservesinthearmyformanyyearsandthewomanisthedecisionmakerconcerningthehouse,children,marriage,andbusiness.Womenalsoinfluencethestability of amarriage.Themother-in-lawphobiaisstronglyfelt,andinmostcasesthemother-in-lawistheprimereasonforabride'sdeparture.Languageisalsoabarrierifthebrideisfromadifferentre-gion.TheLimbus,likemanyNepalese,arehesitanttoad-dressoneanotherdirectly.Callingoutanameinpublicistabooandcreatesembarrassment;thereforethenewbrideiscalled"you"or"thewife of so-and-so"(teknonymy)andshedoesnothavefullstatusasawomanuntilshebearsachild.Untilfullacceptancebythemother-in-law,themarriageisuncertain,asthewifecanreturntohernatalhomeifsheismadetofeeluncomfortable.Polygamyisnotwidelyprac-ticed;itispracticedonlyifthewifeisbarrenorhasfailedtoproducesons.Kinshipisveryimportantinamarriage.Aunionwithkinisconsideredsuccessfulandideal.FortheLimbustherearethreetypes of marriages:adultery,arrange-ment,and"theft."Allthreearelegal.Incase of adulterousmarriageabride-priceisnotrequired.Somecompensationispaidtotheformerhusbandbythenewhusband.Also,ifthewomanissingle,thenewhusbandvisitsthewoman'snatalhomewithofferingstoformacloserbondwithherfamily."Theft"marriagesarecommon.Theterm"theft"meansthatshehasagreedtobetakenwithoutnegotiations.Suchelope-mentisonewaytoavoidthehighcost of abride-price.Thewomeninthesemarriagesareconsideredasweaksubjects,laborresources,andchildbearers.FortheLimbustheseun-desirablemarriages,especiallytheft of marriedwomen,areusuallyinitiatedatdances.Familiesrelated"bythebone"makeuppatrilineallineagesandclans.Death of amemberbringspollutiononthelocalagnaticdescentgroup.Duringthistimeadultsrefrainfromeat-ingmealscookedwithsaltandoil.Wiveswhohavetakentheirhusband'sfamilynamealsotaketheirimpuritiesbyeatingleft-oversfromtheirmeals.Lineageandclangroupsareexogamous,somenandwomenwiththesameclannameareforbiddentomarryorhavesexualrelations.Today,lineagesdonothaveagreatinfluenceonmarriage,thoughpaymentsaremadetothechief of theclan.IngeneralLimbufamiliesareeconomicallyandrituallyindependent of eachother.ReligionandExpressiveCultureOnearea of differencebetweenLimbusandBrahmansisreli-gious.LimbusrecognizeandparticipateinmanypopularHindufestivalsbutalsohaveanumber of theirownpracti-tioners.Theyworshipbymeans of bloodsacrifice.Theybe-lievethatlineagedivinitiesarenottransmittedpatrilineally.Lakher145LinguisticAffiliation.TheLakherspeakMaraChin(BurmicFamily,Tibeto-BurmanStock),alanguagebelong-ingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheseparategroupsthatmakeuptheLakherareallbelievedtohaveoriginatedsomewherenorth of theirpresentlocation,intheChinHills.Theadvancement of thesepeoplescanbetracedwithsomedegree of certainty,andtheoriginalhome-land of atleastthree of thesegroups(Tlongsai,Hawthai,andSabeu)canbeposited.TheTlongsaimigrationbeganinLeisai(betweenLeitakandZaphai).Theoriginalhomeland of theHawthaiisbelievedtohavebeenChira(inHaka).TheSabeuarefoundinChapi,butitisbelievedthattheymigratedtothatlocationfromThiatla,whichisnearHaka.Beforetheadvent of Britishimperialdomination,intervillageconflictwastheLakhernorm.IndividualLakhervillagesfoughtagainstoneanotherandagainstneighboringpeoples(e.g.,theKhumis ... intheirchildren.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.TheLingayatsystem of socialstrati-ficationisbuiltlargelyaroundwealth,power,andprestigeinbothsecularandreligiousspheres.Occupationalandsocialmobilityareopentoeveryone.Lingayatsarethereforein-volvedinallsectors of theeconomy.Theirworkethicflowsdirectlyfromtheirethic of kayaka(ritesandobservancesper-formedwiththebody,hencethespiritualvalue of labor);theirroleincommunitybuildingcomesfromtheirpractice of dashoha(communitysharing of one'sownlabor),andtheiridentificationwithsocietyatlargefromtheirnotion of aikya(beingwiththelingaisbeingwithsociety).Lingayateco-nomicbehaviorthereforestemsfromthevaluesenshrinedintheirideology.PoliticalOrganization.Lingayatsareactivelyinvolvedpo-liticallythroughparticipationinthedemocraticestablish-mentinKarnataka.Itspoliticalhistoryrecordsthesuccessfulmobilization of Lingayatsinachievingpoweratthevillagelevel,inunifyingasingleunitedKarnatakathatwasdividedamongseveraladjoiningstatespriorto1956,andinpromot-ingvillagelinkswiththecenter.Incarryingthisout,theyhavelongbeenawarethatsocialmobilizationcouldnotbeachievedwithoutapoliticalorientation.Thehundreds of bi-ographies of successfulLingayats(publishedbytheGadagTontadaryamonastery)provideampleevidence of thisaware-ness.Thesecularandreligiousleaderssteertheircommunity,mediatedbyitsmiddle-andlower-middle-classcore,wellbe-yondcommunalpolitiesintotheuniversalpolity,andfrompremodernpolitiestoamodem,liberalone.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheLingayatreligionisthelargestes-tablishedreligioninKarnataka.OtherestablishedreligionsincludeBrahmanism,Jainism,andIslam.LingayatsdonotlabelthemselvesHindusandclaimanindependentstatusfortheirfaith.TheLingayattheologicaldoctrine of sakti-visistadvaita(aqualifiedmonisticphilosophycharacterizedbySakti,thespiritualpower of Shiva);itssocializationagents,theguruandthejangama(monk);anditsnotion of istalingaaredistinctivelyLingayatincharacter.Itssystemin-volvingastavarnas(eightsupportivesystems),pancaacaras(fiveprinciples of conduct),andsatstalas(sixstagesrelatedtosocialandreligiousprogress)hashelpedtotransformLin-gayatismintoadistinctframework.Theirethicalandbehav-ioralnormshavegiventhemacapacitytocoexistwithothersocioculturalgroupsandatthesametimepreservetheirreli-giousandculturalhomogeneityandidentity.Thebeliefsandbehavioralpatterns of Lingayatsareexpoundedinthecom-positions of Basava,whomtheyregardastheirfoundingfa-theraswellasadominantinfluenceintheworks of hiscol-leagues.Thesecompositions,collectivelyknownastheVacanas,havethestatus of sacredliterature,aretaughttoLingayatsfromchildhood,andareinternalizedbythem.Lin-gayatsbelieveinaone-and-onlyGodandworshiphimintheform of istalinga,whichresemblestheshape of aglobe.Lin-gayatsareantimagicandantisupernaturalintheirreligiousorientation.Theydonotworshipstoneimagesandthedei-ties of thedesitradition.TheybelievethatdevotiontoBasavaandtheotherLingayatsaintswillbringthemtheirblessingsandguardtheirlives.ReligiousPractitioners.Theyhavetheirownpriestswhoofficiateatthevariouslife-cyclerites, of whichtheprominentonesarethosedealingwithbirth,marriage,anddeath.Priest-hoodamongLingayatsisnotascriptiveandisopentoallirre-spective of sex.Lingayatsdonotconsiderthe world asmaya,anillusion,andrejecttheHindunotions of karma,rebirth,purity,andpollution.Ceremonies.TheLingayatritualcalendargivespromi-nencetothebirthdays of theirsaints,thefirstinimportancebeingthebirthday of Basava.Inaddition,theycelebrateHindufestivalssuchasDipavali,Yugadi,andSankramana.Theircenters of pilgrimageareatKalyan,Ulive,andSrisaila,theplaceswhereBasava,hisnephewCennabasava,AllamaPrabhu,andAkkaMahadeviarelaidtoeternalrest.Arts.AlthoughLingayatsinpastcenturieswerenotedfortheirreligiouspoetryandphilosophicalwritings,todaythechiefartsarethesingingandplaying of hymns.Thereisnomarkedabilityshowninthevisualarts.Medicine.Lingayatpriests(calledayyaorswami)arealsoastrologersandmedicinemen,oftendispensingherbalreme-diestosickvillagers.Thisisausefulcraftforthemtopossess,ratherthanalearnedprofession.DeathandAfterlife.ForLingayatsthereisnolifeafterdeath.TheybelievethatthereisoneandonlyonelifeandthataLingayatcan,byhisorherdeeds,makethislifeahellorheaven.Atdeath,heorsheisbelievedtohavereturnedtoGodandtobeunitedwithhim.Theycallthisstateaikya(unitywithlinga).Sincethedeadpersonisbelievedtohaveattainedthestatus of Shiva,thebodyiswashed,clothed,deckedwithflowers,worshiped,andcarried...

... anewarenaforverbalconflict.Toda295tongue.LiterateTodamostlywriteinTamil;afewuseEnglish.HistoryandCulturalRelationsDespitemuchamateurishspeculationaboutTodaoriginsinGreece,Rome,theDanubeBasin,ancientIsrael,Sumeria,andotherunlikelyplaces,thelinguisticevidencepointsclearlytothepeople's South Indianroots.ButbecauseTodaemergedfromthemotherlanguagebeforeTamilandMalay-alamseparated,wecannotbecertainwhetherthecommuni-ty'sancestorsascendedtheNilgirisfromeastorwest,al-thoughwestseemsthebetterguess.(TodasaytheywerecreatedontheNilgiris.)Artifacts,seeminglyunrelatedtotheToda,fromstone-circleburialsitesinthehighlandssuggestthatTodawerenottherebeforethebeginning of theChris-tianera.ThefirstwrittenevidenceforTodainorneartheNilgiris,aninscriptiononstonedated1117,relatesinKan-nadahowaHoysalageneral"conqueredtheToda"beforededicatingtheNilgiripeak"totheLakshmi of Victory.'In1799themountainsbecameaBritishpossession,thoughun-administereduntilafter1819.Beforethattime,Todamayhavepaidagrazingtaxtooverlordsintheplains,buttheirphysicalisolationatopthehighNilgirispermittedaway of lifemostlyuntrammeledbyoutsideinterference.Aftertheas-sertion of Britishrule,Todawereneveragaintobequitefree of statebureaucracy.Linguistically,culturally,andeconomicallydistinct,theTodaarenonethelessanintegralpart of atraditionalNilgirisocietywhoseaffiliations-despitemodificationsduetophysicalisolation-areclearlywiththewidercivilization of south India.TheToda'straditionalNilgirineighborsin-cluded:anartisancaste of potters,blacksmiths,andleatherworkers,theKota;animmigrantgroup of Kannada-speakingcasteswiththecommonname of Badaga,whobecamethedominantfoodproducers,hencepoliticaloverlords, of theNilgiris;andtwoforest-dwellingcommunities,KurumbaandIrula.TheseNilgiripeoplesmaintainedaninterfamilialsys-tem of economic,ritual,andsocialinterdependenceverymuchwithinthetradition of multicasteruralcommunitiesthroughoutIndia.IntypicallyIndicmanneralso,theyrecog-nizedamongthemselvesasocialhierarchybasedpreemi-nentlyonconsiderations of relativeritualpurity.Intheearlynineteenthcenturytheisolation of theTodahomelandwasshatteredwiththecoming of theBritishadministration.Theresultantgrowth of animmigrantpopulation,markets,andacash-crop-andplantation-basedeconomydisruptedtheoldeconomicinterdependence of theNilgiripeoples,whilein-tensifiedcontactwithmainstream South IndianHinduismerodedthefoundations of thetraditionalritualinterdepen-dence.Onlyvestiges of the ... alsoapart of Thadoucosmology.ThesearetheThailhas.Earthquakes,accordingtoonemyth,arebe-lievedtobecausedbyChongja(elderbrother of Chongthu,primordialancestor of theThadou),whofailedtoleadhispartyfromtheUnderworldalongwiththat of ChongthuinordertoestablishlifeonEarth.ChongjashakestheEarthfromhisUnderworldhomeinordertomakecertainthattheparty of Chongthuisstillalive.ReligiousPractitioners.Thethempu(medicineman/priest)isthechiefreligiouspractitioner of theThadou.Thisindividualfunctionsinavariety of capacitiesandinanumber of settings.Hepreparescharms,manufactureshouseholdgods,offerssacrifices,administersoaths,andparticipatesinceremoniesassociatedwithcertainlifecrises(e.g.,birthanddeath).Ceremonies.Avariety of Thadoumagicoreligiouscere-moniesmaybenoted.Amongthemoreimportantindividu-allysponsoredceremoniesarethefollowing:ChangAi (of. feredonlybywomenandintendedtosecureapreferentialplaceinMithikho,theafterworld,afterdeath);ShaAi(afeastofferedbymenwhohavekilledall,oratleastsome, of thevariousdangerousanimalsknowntotheThadou);andChon(averyimportantfeastthatmaybeofferedonlybythosewhohaveofferedtheShaAifeastthreetimes;iten-suresthesponsoreternalhappinessinMithikho).Additionalvillageceremoniesareperformedbythethempuforavariety of reasons(e.g.,tosecurethevillagefromdiseaseandtopro-tectitfromtheincursion of evilspirits).Otherceremoniesareassociatedwiththeagriculturalcycle(e.g.,theDaiphuceremonythataccompaniestheburning of ... asingledwellingusuallycompriseanuclearfamily:husband,wife,andtheirunmarriedchildren.Exceptinthecase of awidowwithsmallchildren,thehouseholdheadisalwaysanadultmale.Inthepast,withbothpolyandrousandpolygy-nousmarriages,householdswereoftenmorecomplex.Inheritance.Thehouseholdheadiscustodian of thehousehold'sproperty:thehouseitself,domesticequipment,familyheirlooms(personaljewelry,andornamentsandbellsforbuffalo),thebuffalo,and,inrecenttimes,aportion of thepatricIan'spattalandsaswell.Some of thisproperty,espe-ciallybuffalo,maybedistributedtoaman'ssonswhenhere-tiresfromactiveherding.Onhisdeath,allthatremainsisdi-videdequallyamonghissons.Daughtersreceivenothingexceptadowry.Awidowwithyoungsonsismerelytheguard-ian of thehouseholdpropertyuntilhereldestsonreachesmanhood.Socialization.Childrenaremuchdesiredandinfantstreatedwithindulgencebyparentsandeldersiblings.Breast-fedforuptothreeyears,theymayhavetobeweanedbythemotherapplyingthejuice of anastringentplanttohernip-pIes.Swaddledinpieces of oldcloth,theinfantsareslowlytoilet-trained.Afterayearorso,iftheymisbehavetheywillbereprimandedandperhapsstungontheirbuttockswithanet-tle.Forgoodbehaviortheyarerewardedwithcandyandbis-cuits.Fromveryyoungagesboysbegintoplayatbeingbuf-faloherdersandgirlsatbeingmothersandhousewives;slowlyplaymergesintotherealthing.MoreandmoreTodachildrennowattendschool,buteducationisnotcompulsory.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Todasocietyisdividedintotwoen-dogamousandhierarchicallyorderedsubcastes,withdiffer-ingrelationshipstothecommunity'ssacreddairycult:onerituallyhighersubcasteownsthemostsacred of thedairies276Tamiltwoplaces,nearthemountaintowns of OotacamundandKodaikanal.Therest of thestateistropicalandmoderatelyhot,withvirtuallynowinter.Most of theraincomeswiththenortheastmonsoonbeginninginOctober,whilethe south- westmonsoonbeginsinJune.Rainfallisroughly75centime-tersperyear,butwiththehighevaporationandrunoff,much of thestateissemiarid,withlargestretches of thom-treewasteland.Thereisnoapparentsource of morewaterforthestate'sagriculture,industry,andcities-noristhereenoughwatertosupportfurtherpopulationgrowth-andshortagesarealreadyoccurring.Demography.Thereareabout60millionIndianTamils.The1991censuscounted55.6millionpersonsinTamilNaduand8millioninPondicherry,andithadanundercount of about4percent.Thereareperhaps5millionTamilsaroundBangaloreandelsewhereinIndia,andalessernum-ber of TelugusandotherethnicgroupsinTamilNadu.Thestatehas1,024malesper1,000females,amarginalsurpluscomparedwithall of India.Thedensityis461personspersquarekilometer,comparedwith267forIndiaasawhole.Literacy of personsaboveage7is64percent.Annualpopula-tiongrowthhascomedownto1.3percent.Tamilsareabout38percenturban,thehighestsuchpercentage of anymajorethnicgroupinIndia.LinguisticAffiliation.TamilbelongstotheDravidianLanguageStock,whichincludesatleast21languagesmostlyin south andcentralIndiaandisaltogetherdifferentfromtheIndo-Aryanlanguages of northIndia.ThefourlargestDravidianlanguagesarespokeninthefourlinguisticstatescomprising south India.Thelanguageandscript of modernTamilaredirectlydescendedfromtheTamil of morethan2,000yearsago,andbecause of highconsciousnessaboutthepurity of thelanguagetherehasbeensometendencytoresistincorporation of SanskritorHindiwords.Themodernre-gionalspokendialects of Tamil,includingtheTamil of SriLanka,donotdifferwidely,butstandardliteraryTamilastaughtinschoolsdoesdiffergrammatically.Malayalam,thelanguage of Kerala,wasconsideredintheancientliteratureasTamil,butinmedievalcenturiesitgainedstatusasaseparatelanguage.HistoryandCulturalRelations.Tamilsconsidertheirlanguagetobethe'mostpure" of themajorDravidianlan-guages.ItsrootsarefromwesternIndia,Pakistan,andfurtherwestward.DravidianmusthavebeenspokenintheIndusCivilizationaround2500B.C.,diffusingthroughMaharashtratothe south, especiallyafter1000B.C.withadoption of thehorseandironandwiththeblack-and-redpotterydatingfromafewcenturiesB.C.Thereisnohint of theearlierlan-guagesthatmighthavebeenspokenin south Indiabycattle-keeping cultures orthehunters.Theancientliteraturede.finesTamilNaduasreachingfromTirupati(asacredhillnorthwest of Madras)toCapeComorin.Writing,urbaniza-tion,classicalkingship,andotheraspects of complexIndiancivilizationcametoTamilNaduaboutthefifthtosecondcenturiesB.C.bysea,appearingonthesoutherncoastinapro.gressionparalleltodiffusion of thosefeaturesfromGujarattoSriLanka.Therearealsolegends of earlycities,includinganancientcity of Maduraionthecoast.TheearliestTamilin-scriptionsareinBuddhistandJaincaves of aboutthesecondcenturyB.C.ThepresentMadurai,capital of theenduringPian.diyakingdom,hadanacademythatproducedtheTamilSangamliterature,acorpus of uniquepoeticalbooksfromthefirsttothirdcenturiesA.D.thatmentionseatradewithEuro-peans.OtherTamilkingdomsweretheColasintheKaveriBasin,theCEras of Kerala,andfromtheseventhtoninthcenturiesthePallavasatKanchipuramnearMadras.TheC6lasdevelopedamagnificentcivilizationinthetenthtothirteenthcenturies,andforatimetheyruledSriLanka,theMaldives,andlargeparts of Indonesia.Tamilswereneverab-sorbedbyanorthIndiankingdom,butfromthesixteenthcenturythelandwasruledbyTelugu.speakingdynastiesfromtheVijayanagarEmpire.TheBritishbuiltatradingcenter,FortSaintGeorge,inMadrasin1639andruledallTamilNadufrom1801to1947.TheFrench,havinglosttotheBritishin south India,heldPondicherryandKarikal,nowad-ministeredasaseparateUnionTerritorywithinIndia.Theprocess of Sanskritization,partialassimilationintotheover-archingIndianpattern of civilization,progressedinlatemedi.evalcenturies.ButinthetwentiethcenturythetendencyhasbeentorejectfeaturesascribedtonorthIndiaandtoreem-phasizeTamilidentityinlanguage,deities,foods,andstatepolitics.SettlementsThepredominantsettlementpatternisone of nucleatedunwalledvillages,oftenhaving2,000personsorevenmorethan5,000,whiletraditionallyretainingavillagecharacter.Thelayoutusuallyhaswell-definedstreets,withsectionsforseparatecastes,eachmarkedbyoneormorelittletemplesfortheirrespectivedeities.Housetypesrangefromone-roomhuts of mudandcoconut-leafthatch of thelaboringandlowcastestolargerhouseswithcourtyardsandtwo-storybrickandtilehouses of thehighercastesorlandowningfamilies.Tamilvillageslookrelativelyneat,withmosthouseswhite-washed.Earlyeachmorningthewomen of ahouseapplycow-dung...

... Kerala,andwesternTamilNadu.ThereisalsoacultivatingcastenamedKadarinsoutherndistricts of WestBengal.Total:1,926in1971.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3: 6-2 9;AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,1: 1-2 7;Ehrenfels1952;Sarkar1959;Luiz1962,5 9-6 4;Thundy1983)KaderAtribefoundinKozhikodeandCannanoredis-tricts,innorthernKerala.Theycultivatepepper,coffee,andrice.(GopalanNair1911,8 0-8 2;Luiz1962,6 5-6 7)Kadera(Kandera,Kadhera,Golandaz,Bandar,Hawaidar)Asmallcaste of fireworkmakers,foundmainlyinNar-simhapurDistrict,centralMadhyaPradesh.TheyareHindus,buttheyworshiptheMuslimLukmanHakim,believedbythemtobetheinventor of gunpowder.Kadheraisalsore-portedasacaste of cultivatorsandboatmeninUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,3:9 0-9 1;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:28 8-2 91)Kadia(Kadiya,Chunara)AHinduandMuslimcaste of bricklayers,foundinGujarat.(Campbell1899,74;1901,186)KaduGolta(Yadavakuladavaru,Krishnakuladavaru)AcastefoundinsouthernKarnataka,whosenamemeans'wildcowherds."TheyareVaishnavites,whorearanimalsandfarm.(NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,3:21 9-2 42)KaduKurubaAgeneraltermforthetwotribes of BettaKurubaandJenuKurubainsouthernKarnataka.Partialtotal:14,848in1971.SeealsoKuruba.(NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,4:6 8-7 3)KadupattanAcaste of teachers,astrologers,andmagi-ciansfoundinErnakulamDistrict,incentralKerala.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:3 0-3 1;AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,2:10 3-1 15)KafirAgenericnameforthetribes of Kafiristan,intheHinduKush.Theyarewarriorsandcultivators.Thename358EthnonymIndextoAppendixMinaMinyong-AdiMir-MirasiMirasiMiriMirshikar-PardhiMisao-KukiMi-shing-MiriMishmiMistri-BarhaiMithGavada-GavadaMithiya-HalwaiMiyadar-BasorMizel-KukiMochavaru-MochiMochiMochigar-MochiModak-MayaraModaliyar-MudahyarModi-Raj-MutrasiMogerMogh-MarmaMogha-RabariMoghia-PardhiMohmandMoili-SuppaligMolesalamMominMomin-JulahaMomna-MominMondaruMondi-MondaruMondiwadu-MondaruMorasu-MorasuOkkaluMorasuOkkaluMorung-TripuraMotcare-GonsaviMowarMoyili-SuppaligMro-TripuraMru-TripuraMrung-TripuraMuamin-KachiMemanMuchi-MochiMudaijyarMudi-BagdiMudugaMudugar-MudugaMudukkan-MudugaMuduvan-MudugaMuduvar-MudugaMug-MarrnaMuhialMujawar-ChhalapdarMukaDora-KondaDoraMukeri-BanjaraMukkava-MukkuvanMukkuvanMukriMullaKuruman-MuliukurunmbaMullakurumber-MullukurumbaMullukururnbaMultani-MochiMunnudKapu-MunurMunnur-MunurMunnurwad-MunurMunurMunurwar-BeldarMunurwar-MunurMurao-KoiriMurhaMuriariMurli-WaghyaMurliJoshi-WaghyaMusabir-MochiMusaharMusalli-BhangiMusalmanBrahman-HusainiBrahimanMushahar-MusaharMushera-MusaharMussadMustigar-KhetriMuthrasi-MutrasiMuthuvan-MudugaMuthuwan-MudugaMutracha-MutrasiMut-Raj-MutrasiMutrasa-MutrasiMutrasiMutratcha-MutrasiMuttanMuttaracha-MutrasiMuttarasan-MutrasiMuttatu-AmbalavasiMuttatu-MussadMutfirajulu-MutrasiMuttiriyan-MutrasiMyadar-BasorMyam-ma-MarmaMyasaBedaMyasaNayakar-MyasaBedaMyatari-DevangaNaddaf-DhuniyaNadi-UlladanNadig-NaiNadorNaduGauda-NadorNagarakulam-NagarthaNagarata-NagarthaNagarattar-NagarthaNagarBrabrmanNagarthaNagasiaNagbansiNagesar-NagasiaNagesia-NagasiaNagoriNahalNahema-NaiNahul-NahalNaiNaidu-BaljaNaik-BhavinNaik-MutrasiNaik-RamosiNaikin-BhavinNaiklok-RamosiNakashMaistri-JingarNakkalvandlu-KuruvikkaranNaksia-NagasiaNalakeyava-NalkeNalkeNama-ChandalNama-Sudra-ChandalNambiar-AmbalavasiNambidi-AmbalavasiNaambiyar-ArnbalavasiNambiyassan-AmbalavasiNampati-AmbalavasiNamte-KukiNanakpanthiNanakputra-UdasiNanakshahi-NanakpanthiNanchinadVellalaNankuParisha-KammalanNao-NaiNaodaNapik-NaiNapit-NaiNaqqal-BhandariNaruNatNattukottaiChettiNattuMalasar-MalasarNattuMalayan-MalasarNattuvanNau-NaiNaua-NaiNaumuslimNavandannaNavayat-QuraishiNavdigar-NatNaya-MaulikNayadaru-NaiNayadiNayadi-UlladanNayady-NayadiNayinda-NaiNeyigeyavaru-ThakarNhavi-NaiNihal-NahalNihang-AkaliNikumbhNilari-ChhipaNilbandhu-GunloduNilgar-ChhipaNirali-ChhipaNishad-ChandalNishi-DaflaNoniar-NuniaNoniyan-NuniaNuniaNuniya-NuniaNut-NatOcchanOd-BeldarOdde-BeldarOdden-BeldarOde-BeldarOdewandlu-BeldarOdeya-VaderOdh-BeldarOja-KondaDoraOjhaOko-JuwoiOlee-OliOlgana-BhangiOUOliya-OUOllares-AllarOmaito-OmanaitoOmanaitoAppendix347Bengal:AStudy of aHinduSocialGroup.Calcutta:AsiaticSociety of Bengal.Sarkar,Jayanta(1987).Society,Culture,andEcologicalAdap-tationamongThreeTribes of ArunachalPradesh.Anthropo-logicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.68.Calcutta.Sarkar,Jayanta(1990).TheJarawa.Calcutta:SeagullBooks;AnthropologicalSurvey of India.Sarkar,S.S.,etal.(1959).APhysicalSurvey of theKadar of Kerala.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.6.Calcutta.Save,KhanderaoJagannath(1945).TheWarlis.Bombay:PadmaPublications.Saxena,RanvirPrakash(1964).TribalEconomyinCentralIndia.Calcutta:FirmaK.L.Mukhopadhyay.Sengupta,SyamalKanti(1970).TheSocialProfiles of theMahalis,theTribalBasketmakers of Midnapur.Calcutta:FirmaKL.Mukhopadhyay.Shah,Ghanshyam(1984).EconomicDifferentiationsandTribalIdentity.Delhi:AjantaPublications.Shah,P.G.(1958).Dublas of Gujarat.NewDelhi:BharatiyaAdimjatiSevakSangh.Shakespear,John(1912).TheLusheiKukiClans.London:Macmillan.Sharma,RR.P.(1961).TheSherdukpens.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Shukla,BrahmaKumar(1959).TheDaflas of theSubansiriRegion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Siegel,Lee(1991).Net of Magic:WondersandDeceptionsinIndia.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Singh,Pradip(1981)."Nature-Man-SpiritComplex of aHillTribe:ARestudy."InNature-Man-SpiritComplexinTribalIndia,editedbyRS.MannandVijoyS.Sahay, 9-4 0.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Singh,SheetalPrasad(1974)."TheVanishing'Shompen'Tribe of GreatNicobarCurrentProblemsandRemediesforSurvival."Vanyajati22(2):5 0-5 8.Sinha,Dikshit(1984).TheHillKharia of Purulia:AStudyontheImpact of PovertyonaHuntingandGatheringTribe.An-thropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.59.Calcutta.Sinha,R.K(1981)."ANoteontheNature-Man-SpiritComplex of aTribe(Pando)."InNature-Man-SpiritComplexinTribalIndia,editedbyRS.MannandVijoyS.Sahay,6 9- 115.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Sinha,Raghuvir(1962).TheAkas.Shillong:Adviser'sSecretariat.SirajulHassan,Syed(1920).CastesandTribes of theNizam'sDominions.2vols.Bombay:TimesPress.Reprint.1990.Gurgaon:VintageBooks.Srinivas,MysoreNarasimhachar(1952).ReligionandSocietyamongtheCoorgs of South India.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Reprint.1965.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Srivastava,L.RN.(1962).TheGallongs.Shillong:Adviser'sSecretariat.Srivastava,RamP.(1966)."Tribe-CasteMobilityinIndiaandtheCase of KumaonBhotias."InCasteandKininNepal,India,andCeylon:AnthropologicalStudiesinHindu-BuddhistContactZones,editedbyChristophvonFiirer-Haimendorf,16 1-2 12.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Stevenson,MargaretSinclair(1930).WithoutthePale:TheLifeStory of anOutcaste.Calcutta:AssociationPress.Syamchoudhuri,N.K,andM.M.Das(1973).TheLalungSociety:AThemeforAnalyticalEthnography.AnthropologicalSurvey of India.Calcutta.Thundy,ZachariasP.(1983). South IndianFolktales of Kadar.Meerut:ArchanaPublications.Thurston,Edgar,andKadamkiRangachari,eds.(1909).CastesandTribes of SouthernIndia.7vols.Madras:Govern-mentPress.[Numerousreprints.1Thusu,KidarNath(1965).TheDhurwa of Bastar.Anthropo-logicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.16.Calcutta.Thusu,KidarNath(1977).ThePengoPorajas of Koraput:AnEthnographicSurvey.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Mem-oirno.39.Calcutta.Thusu,KidarNath,andMakhanJha(1969).OllarGadba of Koraput.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.27.Calcutta.Trivedi,HarshadR(1986).TheMers of SaurashtraRevisitedandStudiedintheLight of Socio-CulturalChangeandCross-CousinMarriage.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Vidyarthi,LalitaPrasad(1963).TheMaler:AStudyinNature-Man-SpiritComplex of aHillTribeinBihar.Calcutta:Bookland.Vidyarthi,LalitaPrasad,andV.S.Upadhyay(1980).TheKharia:ThenandNow,aComparativeStudy of Hill,Dhelki,andDudhKharia of theCentral-EasternRegion of India.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Appendix313Ambig,Ambiga,Ambekar,Barkar,Barekari,Bhillakabberu,)ad,Sungar,SunnakalluBestha,DurgaMurgi,Parkitiwaru,Parivara,Toreya,Torea,Gangimakkalu,Gangemakkalu)AHinducastegroup,foundinMaharashtra,AndhraPradesh,TamilNadu,andKarnataka.Manyworkasdomes-ticservantsorporters,thoughtheywereformerlyfishermenandpalanquinbearers.Thename"Toreya"comesfromtore,"riverbank,"andisalsousedforthelowestphratry of BadagasintheNilgirisDistrict of TamilNadu.InMaharashtratheyareaKannada-speakingcaste of fishers,ferrymen,andformerpalanquinbearers,nowsometimesbeg-garsorfarmers.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,1:21 8-2 22;3: 1-6 ;7:17 6-1 82;RussellandHiraLal1916,1:348;Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:11 0-1 18;SirajulHassan1920,1:7 7-8 2;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,2:23 9-2 58;4:63 7-6 39)BhabraAJaincaste,mainlytraders,foundinthePunjab.SeealsoBAN'A.(Rose1911,1:8 0-8 2)BhadauriyaAsection of theRajputs,foundinwesternUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,1:25 0-2 52)Bhagat(Bhakat)Aclass of Vaishnavitedevoteesinnorth-ernIndia.Thetermseemstobeappliedratherloosely:asec-tion of theOraontribeisknownasBhakat.Atribe of easternUttarPradeshisalsocalledBhagatorRadha.(Risley1891,1:9 1-9 2;Crooke1896,1:25 2-2 53;4:19 5-1 96)BhainaAtribefoundinthewildforestlands of BilaspurDistrict,inMadhyaPradesh.Theyworshipa"noselessgod-dess"andareessentiallyHindus.TheymaysharesomeearlyancestrywiththeBaigas.Total:24,740in1971.(RussellandHiraLal1916,2:22 4-2 33)BhaleSultanAsection of Rajputs,foundinmuch of UttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,1:25 3-2 56)Bhamta(Bhamtya,Uchla,Uchlia,Takari,Ghantichor,Ganthachor)AsmallHinducaste of ... andspeakaDravidianlanguage.Remarkably,iftheirgirlswerenotmarriedbytheadvent of puberty,theywereweddedtoaspearstuckinthegroundandthengivenawaytoanybody.Total:104,390in1971.(Risley1891,2:15 5-1 59;Crooke1896,4:11 3-1 18;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:1 4- 17;4:32 4-3 29)Gandhabanik(Gandhabania,Putuli)Acaste of drug-gists,spicesellers,andgrocers,foundinBangladeshandWestBengal.Most of themareVaishnavites.(Risley1891,1:26 5-2 67)GandhariaOriginallyacaste of sailors,thesepeople of theKathiawarPeninsulainGujaratarenowtilemakers.Somemakeropes,weave,paint,orworkascarpenters;theyareatinyHinducaste.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,1:35 5-3 56)Gandharv(Gandharb)Acaste of singers,dancers,andprostitutes,foundinthreedistricts of UttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,2:37 9-3 83)Gandhmal(Thanapati)Asmallcaste of villagepriestsinOrissa."Thanapati"means"master of thesacredplace."TheyarerelatedtotheMalisorgardeners.(RussellandHiraLal1916,3:1 7-1 9)GangariAcaste of BrahmanswhoarefoundinUttarPradeshonthebanks of theGangesandwhoworkaspriestsandfarmers.(Crooke1896,2:38 9-3 91)Gangeddu(Gangeddulu,Erudandi,PerumalMadukkaran)Acaste of Vaishnavitemendicantswhowanderaroundex-hibitingbullsinAndhraPradesh.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,2:25 8-2 63)Gangota(Gangauta)AcultivatingcastefoundinBihar,neartheGanges.TheyareHindus.(Risley1891,1:26 8-2 69)Ganiga(Gandla)AKannada-speakingcaste of oilpressers,foundinKarnataka.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,2:26 3- 268;NanjundayaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,3:18 6-1 96)GanrarAboating,trading,andfishingcaste of Bangla-desh.TheyareHindus.(Risley1891,1:270)GarpagariAcaste of villageservantsemployedtoaverthaildamagemagically.TheyarefoundmainlyineasternMaharashtraandwesternMadhyaPradesh.(RussellandHiraLal1916,3:1 9-2 4)Gauda(Gaudo,Gauddes,Gowder)Averylargecaste of Hinducultivators,foundthroughoutKarnatakaandGoa,andcloselyrelatedtotheOkkaligas;someareLingayats.Thetermisalsoappliedtothemajorityphratry of theBadagas,whoareintheNilgirisDistrict of TamilNadu.SeealsoOkkaliga.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,2:26 9-2 72;KrishnaIyer1948,7 1-7 4;Srinivas1952;Feio1979,7 6-8 5)GaudoAherdingcastefoundinGanjamDistrict, south- ernOrissa.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,2:27 3-2 76)Gaur(Gauda)One of thefivedivisions of BrahmansfoundinnorthIndia.(Crooke1896,2:39 3-3 99)Gauria(Ghara)Asmallcaste of snakecharmersandjug-glers,relatedtotheGonds.TheyareonlyfoundintheChhat-tisgarharea of easternMadhyaPradeshandOrissa.Butthename"Gauriya"isalsoappliedtoaVaishnavitesect of Bengaliorigin,otherwiseknownas'BangaliGusain."(Crooke1896,2:40 3-4 04;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:2 4-2 6)GaurRajput(ChamarGaur)ARajputcastefoundinUttarPradeshandMadhyaPradesh.(Crooke1896,2:39 9- 402;RussellandHiraLal1916,4:44 8-4 50)Gavada(MithGavada)AMarathacasteoriginally of saltmakers,whoarenowmostlyfarmers,laborers,pettytraders,orcarters.TheyarefoundinthecoastaldistrictsaroundGoa,fromNorthRatnagiritoUttarKannad.SeealsoMARATHA.(Enthoven192 0-1 922,1:35 9-3 63)Gavli(Gouli,Gauliga,Dongore)Aherdingcastefoundinparts of Karnataka,Goa,Maharashtra,andcentralIndia;theynowselldairyproduce,thoughafewfarm.TheyareEthnonymIndextoAppendix353Gangeddulu-GangedduGangemakkalu-BestaGangimakkalu-BestaGangotaGangte-KukiGanig-TeUiGanigaGaniga-TeliGanigaru-TeliGanikan-KanqyanGanrarGanreriya-GadariaGanthachor-BhamtaGaraba-GadbaGarariya-GadariaGareri-GadariaGarpagariGarudi-NatGaudaGauda-GaurGauda-NadorGaudaChitrakara-GudikaraGauddes-GaudaGaudoGaudo-GaudaGauliga-GavliGauliga-GoilaGaurGauriaGaurRajputGavadaGavada-GollaGavali-GollaGavandi-GamadiGavara-KomatGavit-GamitGavliGhache-BasorGhadiGhadshiGhaijo-NaiGhanche-BasorGhanchi-BasorGhanchi-TeliGhantichor-BhamtaGhantra-LoharGhara-GauriaGhardera-BabriaGhasi-GhasiaGhasaGhasiya-GhasiaGhermediGherwalRajput-GaharwarRaiputGhirthGhisadiGhisari-LoharGhor-BartjaraGhosiGhumar-KumharGhumiar-KumharGibidki-JoehiGirhasthBrahman-BabhanGoaChetti-KudumiChettiGoanGoanese-GoanGoharHerkeri-BanjaraGokulashtaGusain-VaUabacharyaGol-GollaGolaGola-GollaGola-KhavaGolakBrahmanGolalare-AlkariGolandaz-KaderaGolapurabGolar-GoilaGolkar-GoilaGollaGollakulam-PichakuntalaGollam-GoiaGollarajulu-GoUaGollewar-GoilaGondaliga-GondhaliGond-GowariGondhaliGondMajhwar-MajhwarGoneGoniga-GoneGonr-BharbhunjaGonsaviGopalGoraitGorakhnathi-KanphataGorpalwad-TelagaGosainGosangi-MadigaGosayi-GosainGoswami-GosainGouda-GourmdalaGouli-GavliGoundalaGourhi-MaflahGovardhan-GolakBrahmanGowariGowder-GaudaGoyipmaGrihastha-DeshasthaBrahmanGrihasthBrahman-BabhanGudigar-GudikaraGudigara-GudikaraGudikaraGuite-KukiGujaratiBrahmanGujratiBrahman-GujaratiBrahmanGulguliaGulla-GoilaGullar-GollaGunloduGunrhi-MailahGuraoGurav-GuraoGuravaGuriya-Ma~lahGurjarBrahman-GujaratiBrahmanGurjaraBrahman-GujaratiBrabmanGurukkal-AmbalavasiGurusthulu-BalijaGusain-GosainHabashi-SidiHabshi-SidiHaburaHaddiHadi-HaddiHaiga-HavikBrahmanHaihaivansi-HaihayaRajputHaihayaRajputHajam-NaiHajango-KukiHajjam-NaiHajuri-KhavaHakhipikhi-HalePaikaHakuru-VahumpuraHalaba-PentiyaHalagama-SalagamaHalbaHalba-PentiyaHalbi-HalbaHalepaik-HalePaikaHalePaikaHalia-Das-KewatHalleer-HallirHaffikarHallikararu-HaflikarHallikarOkkaliga-HaflikarHaffirHalpati-DublaHalvakkiVakkalHalwaiHanbar-GoiaHandeKuruba-KurubaHandeVazir-KurubaHandichikka-HandiJogiHandiJogiHannaliHanneng-KukiHaokip-KukiHaolai-KukiHarakantraHarbola-BasdewaHardas-CkitrakathiHariHari-BhangiHarniHar-Santan-HariHasala-HasalarHasalarHasalaru-HasalarHaslar-HasalarHasula-HasalarHatgar-HadtarHadHatkarHatkar-DevangaHaupit-KukiHavig-HavikBrahmanHavika-HavikBrabmanHavikBrahmanHawaidar-KaderaHebbe-Gauda-MukriHelav-HelavaHelavaHenaHenaya-HenaHengna-KukiHeri-AharHillMiri-MiriHillPulaya-PuUuvanHinnaHoHolar-HoleyaHolaya-HoleyaHoleyaHolia324Appendixmeans'infidel,"althoughsomeareconvertstoIslam.(Robertson1896;Rose1911,1:42 0-4 35;Jones1967)KaghziAcaste of Muslimpapermakers,foundaroundAhmedabad,inGujaratState.(Campbell1899,7 3-7 4)KahutAnagriculturalcaste,perhapsRajput,foundinPunjabProvince,Pakistan.(Rose1911,1:43 5-4 36)Kaikolan(Kaikkoolar,SenguntharMudaliyar)Acaste of Tamil-speakingweavers,foundinmuch of TamilNaduandincentralKerala.Theymakemats,practicepalmistry,andareoftenperipatetics.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:3 1-4 4;AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,3:37 4-3 84;Mines1984)Kakkalan(Kakkan,KakkaKuravan)AperipateticcastefoundinsouthernKerala.Theyengageinbegging,tattooing,palmistry,andotheroccupations.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:4 4-4 6)KalanadyAHindutribefoundinKozhikodeDistrict,inKerala.Theyarefarmlaborers.(Luiz1962,6 8-7 1)Kalanga(Kalingi,Kalinji,Kalingulu)Asmallcultivatingcaste of northernAndhraPradeshandeasternMadhyaPradesh.Theyaredividedintoalargenumber of exogamoustotemicgroups.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:4 7-5 2;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:30 2-3 05)Kalar(Kalal,Kalwar)Averylargecaste of distillers,liquorsellers,andtradersfoundinnorthernandcentralIndia.ThearticlebyRussellandHiraLalgivesanoutlinehistory of alco-holandopiumconsumptioninIndia.(Risley1891,1:38 5- 387;Crooke1896,3:10 6-1 17;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:30 6-3 22;SirajulHassan1920,2:30 3-3 05)Kallar(Kallan,PramalaiKallar)Formercattlethieves,foundinMaduraiDistrict,TamilNadu,wheretheynowfarm.Theypracticecircumcision.Whenhuntingdeerinthelastcentury,theyusedtouseboomerangs.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:5 3-9 1;Dumont1986;Dirks1987)Kamar(Karmakar)Ametal-workingtribefoundfromMadhyaPradeshtoBangladesh.Theyworkinallkinds of metal,includinggold.Partialtotal:19,758in1971.(Risley1891,1:38 8-3 92)KamarAsmallDravidian-speakingtribefoundineasternMadhyaPradesh.TheyareHindus,whoformerlypracticedswiddenagriculturebutmorerecentlytookupbasketweavingorfarmlabor.Somewerelivingincavesinthenineteenthcentury.(RussellandHiraLal1916,3:32 3-3 30;Dube1951)KambohAcultivatingcastefoundfromPunjabProvince,Pakistan,towesternUttarPradesh.TheyareHindu.(Crooke1896,3:11 8-1 22;Rose1911,1:44 7-4 46;2:524)Kami(Kamia)AHinducaste of blacksmithsfoundinNepalandWestBengal.(Risley1891,1:39 3-3 95)KammaAnagriculturalcastefoundinAndhraPradesh.TheyareHindus,alliedtotheReddis.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:9 4-1 05)Kammalan(Kammala,Kammara,Kamsale,Kamsala,Panchal,Panchala,Panchalan,NankuParisha,Panchadayi,Punyavachan,VishvaBrahman,Acharji,Achari)Awide-spreadtribe of blacksmiths,carpenters,stonemasons,brasssmiths,andgoldsmithsfoundincentral,western,and south- ernIndia,fromnorthernAndhraPradeshtoKerala;butinMaharashtra,atleast,thesefiveoccupationalcategoriesformfiveendogamousgroups.TheyareHindus.Partialtotal:36,376in1971.(AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,1:34 2- 353;ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:10 6-1 49;RussellandHiraLal1916,1:373;Enthoven192 0-1 922,3:15 6-1 59;SirajulHassan1920,2:54 4-5 54;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,4:45 2-4 70)KanadaBrahman(KarnaticBrahman)Alandowningcaste of Karnatakaandadjoiningstates.(SirajulHassan1920,1:11 8-1 19)KanakkanATamil-speakingcaste of accountants,foundthroughoutnorthernTamilNadu.Aclan of thisnameandtraditionaloccupationisalsofoundamongtheBadagas of theNilgirisDistrict.SeealsoBADAGA.(ThurstonandRanga-chari1909,3:15 0-1 59)KanaladiAtinytribe of ErnadTalukinMalappuramDis-trict,northernKerala,whoearntheirlivingasoracles,firewalkers,and"devildancers."(GopalanNair1911,9 5-9 6)Kandha(KandhaGanda)AnagriculturaltribefoundinKoraputDistrict,southernOrissa.Total:7,185in1971.(Banerjee1968)Kanet(Kanaura,Kinner,Kinnara,Kanaurese,Kunawara,Kinnaurese)Anagriculturaltribe of Kinnaurandelse-whereinnorthwesternIndia.Insomeareastheyarepolyan-drous;elsewheretheyclaimdescentfromRajputs.Partialtotal:35,120in1971.(Crooke1896,3:13 3-1 34;Rose1911,1:45 6-4 72;2:525;Rosser1960;Chandra1981)KangraBrahmanABrahmancaste,foundinnorthernPunjabState.(Rose1911,1:12 7-1 30)Kankkar(Kanikar,Kanikaran,Kanikkaran,Kani,Kanakkan,Malayarayan)AHindutribe of southernKeralaandsouthernTamilNadu,whospeakadialect of Malayalamandfarm.Thoseonthecoastarefishermen.TheyseemtoberelatedtotheMalaVedan.Total:14,292in1971.(AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,1:13 8-1 44;ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:16 2-1 77;KrishnaIyer193 7-1 941,1: 1- 79,22 6-2 65;Luiz1962,7 2-7 7)Kaniyan(Kanyan,KalariPanikkan,Panikkan,Ganikan,Kanisan,Kurup,Asan)Atribe of astrologersfoundinmuch of KeralaandwesternTamilNadu,whowerealsoteachers of martialartsandumbrellamakers.Polyandryiscommon.Total:1,265in1971.(AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9- 1912,1:18 5-2 30;ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:17 8- 200;Srinivas1952)KannadiyanAcaste of cattlebreedersandfarmersfoundinnorthernTamilNadu,whowereoriginallyfromKarnataka.Most of themareLingayats.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:20 0-2 14)Kanphata(Gorakhnathi,Darshani)Aclass of religiousmendicants,wholivebybeggingandsellingamulets.SeealsoSADHU.(Crooke1896,3:15 3-1 59)YKanyaklubjaBrahman(Kanaujiya,KanaujiaBrahman)Acaste of BrahmansoriginatinginKanauj(ancientKan-332AppendixVaishnavites.Manyarenowfarmersorcivilservants.(Risley1891,2:8 4-8 6)Mech(Mechi)APaleo-Mongoloidtribe of shiftingculti-vators,foundinthehills of westernAssamandnorthernWestBengal.Total:13,432in1971.(Dalton1872,8 7-8 8;Risley1891,2:8 6-9 1)Megival(Menghwal,Meghwal,Menghvar,Meng,Megh,Mihngh,Ganeshia,Rishia,Rikhia,Rakhia,Dhedha,Dheda)AHinducastefoundfromnorthernGujarattothePunjab.Theyareweavers,tanners,andfarmers.(Rose1911,2:7 7-7 9;Enthoven192 0-1 922,3:4 3-5 2)MeidthiAPaleo-MongoloidtribefoundinManipur.TheyspeakManipuri.(Hodson1908)MelakdaranTwocastes of musicians,onespeakingTamil,theotherTelugu.TheyareHindus,foundinTamilNaduandAndhraPradesh.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,5:5 9-6 0)Mer(Mhed,Mand,Mher)AsmallcastefoundintheKathiawarPeninsula,inGujarat.Theyarefarmers,andtheywereonceafeudalmilitia.(Campbell1901,28 5-2 86;Enthoven192 0-1 922,3:55;Trivedi1986)MianAcaste of Rajputsfound ... Kerala,andwesternTamilNadu.ThereisalsoacultivatingcastenamedKadarinsoutherndistricts of WestBengal.Total:1,926in1971.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3: 6-2 9;AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,1: 1-2 7;Ehrenfels1952;Sarkar1959;Luiz1962,5 9-6 4;Thundy1983)KaderAtribefoundinKozhikodeandCannanoredis-tricts,innorthernKerala.Theycultivatepepper,coffee,andrice.(GopalanNair1911,8 0-8 2;Luiz1962,6 5-6 7)Kadera(Kandera,Kadhera,Golandaz,Bandar,Hawaidar)Asmallcaste of fireworkmakers,foundmainlyinNar-simhapurDistrict,centralMadhyaPradesh.TheyareHindus,buttheyworshiptheMuslimLukmanHakim,believedbythemtobetheinventor of gunpowder.Kadheraisalsore-portedasacaste of cultivatorsandboatmeninUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,3:9 0-9 1;RussellandHiraLal1916,3:28 8-2 91)Kadia(Kadiya,Chunara)AHinduandMuslimcaste of bricklayers,foundinGujarat.(Campbell1899,74;1901,186)KaduGolta(Yadavakuladavaru,Krishnakuladavaru)AcastefoundinsouthernKarnataka,whosenamemeans'wildcowherds."TheyareVaishnavites,whorearanimalsandfarm.(NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,3:21 9-2 42)KaduKurubaAgeneraltermforthetwotribes of BettaKurubaandJenuKurubainsouthernKarnataka.Partialtotal:14,848in1971.SeealsoKuruba.(NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,4:6 8-7 3)KadupattanAcaste of teachers,astrologers,andmagi-ciansfoundinErnakulamDistrict,incentralKerala.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,3:3 0-3 1;AnanthakrishnaIyer190 9-1 912,2:10 3-1 15)KafirAgenericnameforthetribes of Kafiristan,intheHinduKush.Theyarewarriorsandcultivators.Thename358EthnonymIndextoAppendixMinaMinyong-AdiMir-MirasiMirasiMiriMirshikar-PardhiMisao-KukiMi-shing-MiriMishmiMistri-BarhaiMithGavada-GavadaMithiya-HalwaiMiyadar-BasorMizel-KukiMochavaru-MochiMochiMochigar-MochiModak-MayaraModaliyar-MudahyarModi-Raj-MutrasiMogerMogh-MarmaMogha-RabariMoghia-PardhiMohmandMoili-SuppaligMolesalamMominMomin-JulahaMomna-MominMondaruMondi-MondaruMondiwadu-MondaruMorasu-MorasuOkkaluMorasuOkkaluMorung-TripuraMotcare-GonsaviMowarMoyili-SuppaligMro-TripuraMru-TripuraMrung-TripuraMuamin-KachiMemanMuchi-MochiMudaijyarMudi-BagdiMudugaMudugar-MudugaMudukkan-MudugaMuduvan-MudugaMuduvar-MudugaMug-MarrnaMuhialMujawar-ChhalapdarMukaDora-KondaDoraMukeri-BanjaraMukkava-MukkuvanMukkuvanMukriMullaKuruman-MuliukurunmbaMullakurumber-MullukurumbaMullukururnbaMultani-MochiMunnudKapu-MunurMunnur-MunurMunnurwad-MunurMunurMunurwar-BeldarMunurwar-MunurMurao-KoiriMurhaMuriariMurli-WaghyaMurliJoshi-WaghyaMusabir-MochiMusaharMusalli-BhangiMusalmanBrahman-HusainiBrahimanMushahar-MusaharMushera-MusaharMussadMustigar-KhetriMuthrasi-MutrasiMuthuvan-MudugaMuthuwan-MudugaMutracha-MutrasiMut-Raj-MutrasiMutrasa-MutrasiMutrasiMutratcha-MutrasiMuttanMuttaracha-MutrasiMuttarasan-MutrasiMuttatu-AmbalavasiMuttatu-MussadMutfirajulu-MutrasiMuttiriyan-MutrasiMyadar-BasorMyam-ma-MarmaMyasaBedaMyasaNayakar-MyasaBedaMyatari-DevangaNaddaf-DhuniyaNadi-UlladanNadig-NaiNadorNaduGauda-NadorNagarakulam-NagarthaNagarata-NagarthaNagarattar-NagarthaNagarBrabrmanNagarthaNagasiaNagbansiNagesar-NagasiaNagesia-NagasiaNagoriNahalNahema-NaiNahul-NahalNaiNaidu-BaljaNaik-BhavinNaik-MutrasiNaik-RamosiNaikin-BhavinNaiklok-RamosiNakashMaistri-JingarNakkalvandlu-KuruvikkaranNaksia-NagasiaNalakeyava-NalkeNalkeNama-ChandalNama-Sudra-ChandalNambiar-AmbalavasiNambidi-AmbalavasiNaambiyar-ArnbalavasiNambiyassan-AmbalavasiNampati-AmbalavasiNamte-KukiNanakpanthiNanakputra-UdasiNanakshahi-NanakpanthiNanchinadVellalaNankuParisha-KammalanNao-NaiNaodaNapik-NaiNapit-NaiNaqqal-BhandariNaruNatNattukottaiChettiNattuMalasar-MalasarNattuMalayan-MalasarNattuvanNau-NaiNaua-NaiNaumuslimNavandannaNavayat-QuraishiNavdigar-NatNaya-MaulikNayadaru-NaiNayadiNayadi-UlladanNayady-NayadiNayinda-NaiNeyigeyavaru-ThakarNhavi-NaiNihal-NahalNihang-AkaliNikumbhNilari-ChhipaNilbandhu-GunloduNilgar-ChhipaNirali-ChhipaNishad-ChandalNishi-DaflaNoniar-NuniaNoniyan-NuniaNuniaNuniya-NuniaNut-NatOcchanOd-BeldarOdde-BeldarOdden-BeldarOde-BeldarOdewandlu-BeldarOdeya-VaderOdh-BeldarOja-KondaDoraOjhaOko-JuwoiOlee-OliOlgana-BhangiOUOliya-OUOllares-AllarOmaito-OmanaitoOmanaitoAppendix347Bengal:AStudy of aHinduSocialGroup.Calcutta:AsiaticSociety of Bengal.Sarkar,Jayanta(1987).Society,Culture,andEcologicalAdap-tationamongThreeTribes of ArunachalPradesh.Anthropo-logicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.68.Calcutta.Sarkar,Jayanta(1990).TheJarawa.Calcutta:SeagullBooks;AnthropologicalSurvey of India.Sarkar,S.S.,etal.(1959).APhysicalSurvey of theKadar of Kerala.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.6.Calcutta.Save,KhanderaoJagannath(1945).TheWarlis.Bombay:PadmaPublications.Saxena,RanvirPrakash(1964).TribalEconomyinCentralIndia.Calcutta:FirmaK.L.Mukhopadhyay.Sengupta,SyamalKanti(1970).TheSocialProfiles of theMahalis,theTribalBasketmakers of Midnapur.Calcutta:FirmaKL.Mukhopadhyay.Shah,Ghanshyam(1984).EconomicDifferentiationsandTribalIdentity.Delhi:AjantaPublications.Shah,P.G.(1958).Dublas of Gujarat.NewDelhi:BharatiyaAdimjatiSevakSangh.Shakespear,John(1912).TheLusheiKukiClans.London:Macmillan.Sharma,RR.P.(1961).TheSherdukpens.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Shukla,BrahmaKumar(1959).TheDaflas of theSubansiriRegion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Siegel,Lee(1991).Net of Magic:WondersandDeceptionsinIndia.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Singh,Pradip(1981)."Nature-Man-SpiritComplex of aHillTribe:ARestudy."InNature-Man-SpiritComplexinTribalIndia,editedbyRS.MannandVijoyS.Sahay, 9-4 0.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Singh,SheetalPrasad(1974)."TheVanishing'Shompen'Tribe of GreatNicobarCurrentProblemsandRemediesforSurvival."Vanyajati22(2):5 0-5 8.Sinha,Dikshit(1984).TheHillKharia of Purulia:AStudyontheImpact of PovertyonaHuntingandGatheringTribe.An-thropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.59.Calcutta.Sinha,R.K(1981)."ANoteontheNature-Man-SpiritComplex of aTribe(Pando)."InNature-Man-SpiritComplexinTribalIndia,editedbyRS.MannandVijoyS.Sahay,6 9- 115.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Sinha,Raghuvir(1962).TheAkas.Shillong:Adviser'sSecretariat.SirajulHassan,Syed(1920).CastesandTribes of theNizam'sDominions.2vols.Bombay:TimesPress.Reprint.1990.Gurgaon:VintageBooks.Srinivas,MysoreNarasimhachar(1952).ReligionandSocietyamongtheCoorgs of South India.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Reprint.1965.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Srivastava,L.RN.(1962).TheGallongs.Shillong:Adviser'sSecretariat.Srivastava,RamP.(1966)."Tribe-CasteMobilityinIndiaandtheCase of KumaonBhotias."InCasteandKininNepal,India,andCeylon:AnthropologicalStudiesinHindu-BuddhistContactZones,editedbyChristophvonFiirer-Haimendorf,16 1-2 12.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Stevenson,MargaretSinclair(1930).WithoutthePale:TheLifeStory of anOutcaste.Calcutta:AssociationPress.Syamchoudhuri,N.K,andM.M.Das(1973).TheLalungSociety:AThemeforAnalyticalEthnography.AnthropologicalSurvey of India.Calcutta.Thundy,ZachariasP.(1983). South IndianFolktales of Kadar.Meerut:ArchanaPublications.Thurston,Edgar,andKadamkiRangachari,eds.(1909).CastesandTribes of SouthernIndia.7vols.Madras:Govern-mentPress.[Numerousreprints.1Thusu,KidarNath(1965).TheDhurwa of Bastar.Anthropo-logicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.16.Calcutta.Thusu,KidarNath(1977).ThePengoPorajas of Koraput:AnEthnographicSurvey.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Mem-oirno.39.Calcutta.Thusu,KidarNath,andMakhanJha(1969).OllarGadba of Koraput.AnthropologicalSurvey of India,Memoirno.27.Calcutta.Trivedi,HarshadR(1986).TheMers of SaurashtraRevisitedandStudiedintheLight of Socio-CulturalChangeandCross-CousinMarriage.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Vidyarthi,LalitaPrasad(1963).TheMaler:AStudyinNature-Man-SpiritComplex of aHillTribeinBihar.Calcutta:Bookland.Vidyarthi,LalitaPrasad,andV.S.Upadhyay(1980).TheKharia:ThenandNow,aComparativeStudy of Hill,Dhelki,andDudhKharia of theCentral-EasternRegion of India.NewDelhi:ConceptPublishingCo.Appendix313Ambig,Ambiga,Ambekar,Barkar,Barekari,Bhillakabberu,)ad,Sungar,SunnakalluBestha,DurgaMurgi,Parkitiwaru,Parivara,Toreya,Torea,Gangimakkalu,Gangemakkalu)AHinducastegroup,foundinMaharashtra,AndhraPradesh,TamilNadu,andKarnataka.Manyworkasdomes-ticservantsorporters,thoughtheywereformerlyfishermenandpalanquinbearers.Thename"Toreya"comesfromtore,"riverbank,"andisalsousedforthelowestphratry of BadagasintheNilgirisDistrict of TamilNadu.InMaharashtratheyareaKannada-speakingcaste of fishers,ferrymen,andformerpalanquinbearers,nowsometimesbeg-garsorfarmers.(ThurstonandRangachari1909,1:21 8-2 22;3: 1-6 ;7:17 6-1 82;RussellandHiraLal1916,1:348;Enthoven192 0-1 922,2:11 0-1 18;SirajulHassan1920,1:7 7-8 2;NanjundayyaandAnanthakrishnaIyer192 8-1 936,2:23 9-2 58;4:63 7-6 39)BhabraAJaincaste,mainlytraders,foundinthePunjab.SeealsoBAN'A.(Rose1911,1:8 0-8 2)BhadauriyaAsection of theRajputs,foundinwesternUttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,1:25 0-2 52)Bhagat(Bhakat)Aclass of Vaishnavitedevoteesinnorth-ernIndia.Thetermseemstobeappliedratherloosely:asec-tion of theOraontribeisknownasBhakat.Atribe of easternUttarPradeshisalsocalledBhagatorRadha.(Risley1891,1:9 1-9 2;Crooke1896,1:25 2-2 53;4:19 5-1 96)BhainaAtribefoundinthewildforestlands of BilaspurDistrict,inMadhyaPradesh.Theyworshipa"noselessgod-dess"andareessentiallyHindus.TheymaysharesomeearlyancestrywiththeBaigas.Total:24,740in1971.(RussellandHiraLal1916,2:22 4-2 33)BhaleSultanAsection of Rajputs,foundinmuch of UttarPradesh.(Crooke1896,1:25 3-2 56)Bhamta(Bhamtya,Uchla,Uchlia,Takari,Ghantichor,Ganthachor)AsmallHinducasteof...

... ContentsProjectStaffviContributorsviiPrefacexiiiIntroductionxixMaps1. South Asia xxviii2.CulturalRegions of South Asia xxix3.MajorLanguages of South Asia xxx4.DominantReligiousGroups of South Asia xxxi5.CulturalGroups of South Asia xxxii Cultures of South Asia 1Appendix:AdditionalCastes,CasteClusters,andTribes309Bibliography342EthnonymIndextoAppendix349Glossary363Filmography367Index372Bibliography373Directory of Distributors373EthnonymIndex375Introductionxxipopulationin1990 ... highmountainsinthenorth,valleysinthecenter,andforestsinthe south. Anindependentnationanddemo-craticmonarchysince1949,itsaffairsarecloselymanagedbyIndia.In1990thepopulationwasestimatedat1,500,000.Dzongkaistheofficiallanguage,withNepaliandEnglishalsowidelyspoken.ThecapitalisThimphu.Seventy-fivepercent of thepeopleareBuddhistandBuddhismistheofficialstatereligion.India(Republic of India)isthelargestandmostpopu-lous of thenations of South Asia. The1991census of Indialists844millioninhabitants(probablyanundercount)or16percent of the world& apos;spopulation.Indiaoccupiessome3,166,000squarekilometers.Itbecameademocraticrepublicin1950andiscomprised of twenty-fourstatesandsevenunionterritories.Itisamember of theBritishCommon-wealth of Nations.Thepopulation of Indiaiscomposed of anincrediblydiversemix of differentreligions,languagegroups, cultures, andsocialcategories.NewDelhiisthecapital.Maldives(Republic of Maldives)isanislandnationcomposed of over2,000islands(201inhabited)locatedintheIndianOcean640kilometerssouthwest of SriLanka.Thelandareacovers300squarekilometers,withnoislandhavinganareagreaterthan13squarekilometersandnonerisingover2metersabovesealevel.Thepopulationin1991was228,000with57,000livinginthecapitalcity of Male.ThenationallanguageisDivehiandthestatereligionisIslam.Mauritiusisanislandnationlocated1,280kilometersofftheeastcoast of MadagascarintheIndianOcean.Itiscomposed of themainislands of MauritiusandRodriguesandthesmallerislands of AgalegaandSaintBrandon.The11tL1VU"ULW1txxviIntroductionandCulturePublishedinWesternLanguagesfromtheSixteenthCenturytothePresentDay.2vols.BibliothecaAsiatica,no.5.Zug:InterDocumentation.Hawkins,R.E.,ed.(1986). Encyclopedia of IndianNaturalHistory.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress;Bombay:BombayNaturalHistorySociety.Hutton,JohnH.(1963).CasteinIndia:ItsNature,Function,andOrigins.4thed.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Johnson,Gordon,etal.,eds.(198 7-) .TheNewCambridgeHistory of India.4pts.innumerousvolumes.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Kulke,Hermann,andDietmarRothermund(1986).AHis-tory of India.Totowa,N.J.:Barnes&Noble.Kumar,Dharma,TapanRaychaudhuri,etal.,eds.(1982).TheCambridgeEconomicHistory of India.2vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Lannoy,Richard(1971).TheSpeakingTree:AStudy of In-dianCultureandSociety.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1974.Majumdar,RC.,etal.,eds.(195 1-1 969).TheHistoryandCulture of theIndianPeople.11vols.Bombay:BharatiyaVidyaBhavan.2nded.197 0-1 988.Majumdar,R.C.,H.C.Raychaudhuri,andKalikinkarDatta(1961).AnAdvancedHistory of India.London:Macmillan.Maloney,Clarence(1974).Peoples of South Asia. NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma.dras:OrientLongman.Mandelbaum,DavidG.(1970).SocietyinIndia.2vols.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Masica,ColinP.(1976).DefiningaLinguisticArea: South Asia. Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Michell,George,andPhilipDavies(1989).ThePenguinGuidetotheMonuments of India.2vols.NewYork:VikingPenguin;London:Penguin.Muthiah,S.,etal.,eds.(1987).ASocialandEconomicAtlas of India.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Patterson,MaureenL.P.(1981). South AsianCivilizations:ABibliographicSynthesis.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Radhakrishnan,Sarvepalli,andCharlesA.Moore,eds.(1957).ASourceBookinIndianPhilosophy.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.Numerousreprints.Raheja,GloriaG.(1988)."India:Caste,Kingship,andDom-inanceReconsidered."AnnualReview of Anthropology17:49 7-5 22.Rapson,E.J.,etal.,eds.(192 2-1 937).TheCambridgeHis-tory of India.5vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Robinson,Francis,ed.(1989).TheCambridge Encyclopedia of India,Pakistan,Bangladesh,SriLanka,Nepal,Bhutan,andtheMaldives.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Schwartzberg,JosephE.,ed.(1978).AHistoricalAtlas of South Asia. Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Sebeok,ThomasA.,etal.,eds.(1969).CurrentTrendsinLinguistics.Vol.5,Linguisticsin South Asia. TheHagueandParis:Mouton.Shapiro,MichaelC.,andHaroldF.Schiffman(1981).Lan-guageandSocietyin South Asia. Delhi:MotilalBanarsidass.Singh,R.D.(1971).India:ARegionalGeography.Varanasi:BenaresHinduUniversity.Smith,VincentA.(1958).TheOxfordHistory of India.RevisedbyPercivalSpearetal.Oxford.ClarendonPress;numerousreissues.Spate,0.H.K.,etal.(1972)IndianandPakistan.3rded.London:Methuen.Srinivas,M.N.,etal.,eds.(197 2-1 974).ASurvey of ResearchinSociologyandSocialAnthropology.3vols.Bombay:PopularPrakashan.Stutley,Margaret,andJamesStutley(1977).Harper'sDictio-nary of Hinduism:ItsMythology,Folklore,Philosophy,Litera-ture,andHistory.NewYork:Harper&Row.Thapar,Romila,andPercivalSpear(196 5-1 966).AHistory of India.2vols.Harmondsworth:Penguin.Toussaint,Auguste(1966).History of theIndianOcean.Chi-cago:University of ChicagoPress.Tyler,StephenA.(1973).India:AnAnthropologicalPerspec-tive.PacificPalisades:Goodyear.Vidyarthi,L.P.(1979).Rise of AnthropologyinIndia:ASocialScienceOrientation.AtlanticHighlands,N.J.:HumanitiesPress.Watt,George(188 5-1 893).ADictionary of theEconomicProducts of India.London:W.H.Allen.Reprint.188 9-1 896.6vols.in10.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrint-ing.Reprint.1972.Delhi:PeriodicalPublications.Watt,George(1908).TheCommercialProducts of India,BeinganAbridgement of 'TheDictionary of theEconomicProd-ucts of India."London:Dutton.Reprint.1966.NewDelhi:Today&Tomorrow'sPrinters&Publishers.TheWealth of India:ADictionary of IndianRawMaterialsandIndustrialProducts.(194 8-1 990)Delhi:Council of ScientificandIndustrialResearch.-ofnlTIVULOTiSShigerulijimaThakaliDepartment of HumanitiesandSocialSciencesTokyoInstitute of TechnologyTokyoJapanHiroshiIshiiNewarInstitutefortheStudy of Languagesand Cultures of Asia andAfricaTokyoUniversity of ForeignStudiesTokyoJapanK.IshwaranLingayatDepartment of SociologyYorkUniversityNorthYork,OntarioCanadaGeorgeKurianSyrianChristian of KeralaDepartment of SociologyUniversity of CalgaryCalgary,AlbertaCanadaMurrayLeafPunjabiUniversity of TexasatDallasDallas,TexasUnitedStatesFredericK.LehmanChinDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of IllinoisatUrbana-ChampaignUrbana,IllinoisUnitedStatesNancyE.LevineNyinbaDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of CaliforniaatLosAngelesLosAngeles,CaliforniaUnitedStatesOwenM.LynchJata,Department of AnthropologyNewYorkUniversityNewYork,NewYorkUnitedStatesJuneMcDanielBaul;BengaliShakta;BengaliVaishnawaDepartment of ReligiousStudiesCollege of CharlestonCharleston, South CarolinaUnitedStatesEmestineMcHughGurungDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of CaliforniaatSanDiegoLaJolla,CaliforniaUnitedStatesLX...

... Thus,"Abor"suggestsonewhodoesnotsubmitallegiance (i. e.,onewhoishostile,barbarous,orsavage).ThealternativeviewconnectsthewordwithAbo,theprimordialmaninAbormythology.Thefinal-ristakentobesimilartofinal-rrintribaldesignationssuchasAorr,Simirr,andYim-chungrr,whichmeans"man."Inthe1960s,theAborbegancallingthemselvesAdisbecause of thenegativeconnotations of theirformername(seeAdiintheAppendix).Location.AborcommunitiesinIndiaareconcentratedonthebanks of theSiangandYamnerivers.Theirterritory,totalingsome20,000squarekilometers,hastheIndia-Tibetborderasitsnorthernboundary,Pasighatasitssouthernboundary,andGallongcountryandtheSiyomriverasitswesternboundary.Theregion'sgeographiccoordinatesare28°and29°N,by95°and96"E.Demography.Accordingtothe1971censustherewere4,733Abor.AUnitedBibleSocietiessurveysuggestsatotalAdi-speakingpopulation of 84,026in1982.LinguisticAffiliation.TheAborspeakAdi(alsocalledMiri,Abor,Arbor,orMishing),alanguage of theTibeto-BurmanStockbelongingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAborsimmigratedtotheirIndianhomelandfromthenorthcrossingtheHimalayasintotheAssamValley.Eventu-allytheyretreatedintothehighlandregionsthattheycur-rentlyoccupy.Thecause of thismigrationisunknown,al-thoughnaturalcausesandpoliticalupheavalhavebeensug.gestedaspossiblecatalysts.Itisalsonotknownwhethertheymigratedasasolidbodyatasinglepointinhistory,orinsmallersubgroupsoveraperiod of severalhundredyears.Be-tween1847and1862,theBritishgovernmenttriedunsuc-cessfullytoconquerall of Aborterritory.Followingthefailure of severalmilitaryendeavors,atreatywasreachedthatguar-anteedlimitedBritishhegemonyanduninhibitedtradeandcommunicationonthefrontier.Inspite of occasionaltreatyviolations,anuneasypeacewasmaintained.AfterthefinalBritishmilitaryactionagainsttheAbor(inresponsetothemurder of theassistantpoliticalofficerandacompanion)in1912,thehillsnorth of Assamweredividedintowestern,central,andeasternsectionsforadministrativepurposes.Thelast of thesewerecollectivelygiventhename of SadiyaFron-tierTract.In1948,theTirapFrontierTractwasdividedintotheMishmiHillsDistrictandtheAborHillsDistrict.Finally,in1954,thename of theAborHillsDistrictwaschangedtotheSiangFrontierDivision.Sincethistime,theAborhaveundergoneconsiderableacculturation,whichhasresultedinanumber of changesinthenature of villagelife,thelocaleconomy,socialstructure,andpoliticalorganization.SettlementsVillagesareusuallybuiltonhilltops(thoughintheplains,Abortendtofollowthelocalpractice of buildingvillagesonlevelland).Preferenceisgiventothoselocationsthataffordaccesstoariverbyaslopinginclineononesideandthepro-tection of averysteepdeclineontheotherside.Housesarebuiltonelevatedplatforms.Theyarearrangedinrowsex-tendingfromthetoptothebottom of thehill,andarecon-structedsothattherearside of thehousefacesthehillitself.Publicbuildingsinatypicalvillageincludethemoshup(bach-elors'dormitory),therasheng(singlefemales'dormitory),andgranaries.Inoldervillages,stonewallswithwoodenrein-forcementsarefound.Majorbuildingmaterialsarebamboo,wood,thatchinggrass,andcane.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themajorsub-sistenceactivitiesarehunting,fishing,gathering,agriculture,andbarter of surpluscropsforbasicnecessitiesandluxuries.Slash-and-burn(orjhum)agricultureisthenorm.Forestandundergrowtharecut,dried,andburned,afterwhichseedsareplanted.Soilfertilityismaintainedforaperiod of onetothreeyearsusingthismethod.Agriculturallandisgradedac-cordingtolatentfertility,andcropsareassignedaccordingly.36AborFiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1962).TheApaTanisandTheirNeighbours.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Lal,Parmanand,andBimanKumarDasGupta(1979).LowerSiangPeople.Calcutta:Government of India.Roy,Sachin(1960).Aspects of Padam-MinyongCulture.Shillong:Notth-EastFrontierAgency.Simoons,FrederickJ.,andElizabethS.Simoons(1968).ACeremonialOx of India:TheMithaninNature,Culture,andHistory.Madison:University of WisconsinPress.Srivastava,L.R.N.(1962).TheGallongs.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.HUGHRPAGE,JRAgariaETHNONYMS:Agariya,AghariaAlthoughtheAgariaarenotahomogeneousgroup,itisbelievedtheywereoriginallyaDravidian-speakingbranch of theGondtribe.Asaseparatecaste,however,theydodistin-guishthemselvesfromothersbytheirprofessionasironsmelters.Theirpopulationwas17,548in1971,andtheywerewidelydispersedacrosscentralIndiaontheMaikalrangeinMandla,Raipur,andBilaspurdistricts of MadhyaPradesh.Thereareothercastes of AgariasamongtheLoharsaswell.TheAgaria'snamecomesfromeithertheHindugod of fireAgni,ortheirtribaldemonwhowasborninflame,Agyasur.TheAgarialiveintheirownsection of avillageortown,orsometimestheyhavetheirownhamletoutside of atown.Sometravelfromtowntotownworkingtheirtradeaswell.Asalreadyindicated,thetraditionaloccupation of theAgariaisironsmelting.TheygettheirorefromtheMaikalrange,pre.ferringstones of adarkreddishcolor.Oreandcharcoalareplacedinfurnacesthatareblastedbyapair of bellowsworkedbythesmelters'feetandchanneledtothefurnacethroughbambootubes,aprocessthatiskeptupforhours.Theclayin-sulation of thekilnisbrokenupandthemoltenslagandcharcoalaretakenandhammered.Theyproduceplowshares,mattocks,axes,andsickles.Traditionallybothmenandwomen(inBilaspurmenonly)collecttheoreandmakethecharcoalforthefurnaces.Atduskthewomencleanandpreparethekilnsforthenextday'swork,bycleaningandbreakingupthepieces of oreandroastingtheminanordinaryfire;thetuyeres(cylindricalclayventsfordeliveringairtoafurnace)arerolledbyhandandmadebythewomenaswell.Duringsmeltingoperationsthewomenworkthebellows,andthemenhammerandfashiontheoreonanvils.Theconstruction of anewfurnaceisanim-portanteventinvolvingthewholefamily:themendigtheholesforthepostsanddotheheavywork,thewomenplasterthewalls,andthechildrenbringwaterandclayfromtheriver;uponcompletion,amantra(prayer)isrecitedoverthefur-nacetoensureitsproductiveness.TherearetwoendogamoussubcastesamongtheAgaria,thePathariaandtheKhuntias.Thesetwosubgroupsdonotevensharewaterwitheachother.TheexogamousdivisionsusuallyhavethesamenamesastheGonds,suchasSonureni,Dhurua,Tekam,Markam,Uika,Purtai,Marai,tonameafew.SomenamessuchasAhindwar,Ranchirai,andRattoriaare of HindioriginandareanindicationthatsomenorthernHinduspossiblyhavebeenincorporatedintothetribe.Indi-vidualsbelongingtoasectionarebelievedtoconstitutealineagewithacommonancestorandarethereforeexoga-mous.Descentistracedpatrilineally.Marriagesareusuallyar-rangedbythefather.Whenaboy'sfatherdecidestoarrangeamarriage,emissariesaresenttothegirl'sfatherandifac-ceptedpresentswillfollow.ContrarytoHindumarriagecus-toms,marriageispermittedduringthemonsoonswhenironsmeltingispostponedandthereisnowork.Abride-priceisgenerallypaidafewdaysbeforetheceremony.AswiththeGonds,firstcousinsarepermittedtomarry.Widowmarriageisacceptedandisexpectedwithone'slatehusband'syoungerbrother,particularlyifheisabachelor.Divorceisallowedforeitherpartyincases of adultery,extravagance,ormistreat-ment.Ifawomanleavesherhusbandwithoutbeingdivorced,theothermanbycustomisobligatedtopayapricetothehusband.Evenamongthewidelydispersedsubgroups of theAgariatheretraditionallyhasbeendiscrimination:amongtheAsur,marriagewassanctionedbycustomwiththeChokh,althoughbothgroupsrefusedtomarrywiththeHinduLoharsubgroup,owingtotheirlowerstatus.ThefamilygodisDulhaDeo,towhomofferings of goats,fowl,coconuts,andcakesaremade.TheyalsosharetheGonddeity of theforest,BuraDeo.Lohasur,theirondemon,istheirprofessionaldeity,whomtheybelieveinhabitsthesmeltingkilns.DuringPhagunandontheday of DasahiatheAgariamakeofferings of fowlasasign of devotiontotheirsmeltingimplements.Traditionally,villagesorcererswerere-cruitedduringtimes of sicknesstodeterminethedeitywhohadbeenoffended,towhomanatonementwouldthenbeoffered.BibliographyElwin,Verrier(1942).TheAgaria.Oxford:HumphreyMil-ford,OxfordUniversityPress.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916)."Agaria."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India,byR.V.RussellandHiraLal.Vol.2, 3-8 .Nagpur:GovernmentPrintingPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.JAYDiMAGGIOAbor5SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Theprimaryallegiance of anindivid-ualistohisorherfamily.Thecohesion of largergroupswithinthesociety,suchassubclans,clans,andmoieties,canalsobeoccasionedbydisputesandconflictsthatthreatenoneormore of theconstituentmembers of theselargergroups.AmongtheAbor'sprimaryinstitutionsmustbein-cludedjhumagriculture,thenuclearfamily,themoshup,andtherasheng.Theanticipatedsecondaryinstitutions (i. e.,corereligiousbeliefs,ritualcults,andfolklorecorpus)alsoobtainamongtheAbor.Traditionally,socialstatuswasachievedthroughtheaccumulation of wealth.Today,educationandoccupationarealsoviewedassigns of status.PoliticalOrganization.Eachvillageisanautonomousunitwhoseaffairsareadministeredbyacouncil(kebang).Councilmembershipconsists of clanrepresentativesandin-dividualvillagemembers.Everyaspect of villagelifeisgov-ernedbythekebang.Thisincludesthemediation of localdis-putes.Groups of villagesareorganizedintobangos,whicharegovernedbyabangocouncil.Disputesbetweenbangosaremediatedbyabogumbokang(atemporaryinterbangocouncilmadeup of bangoeldersfromthesamegroup).SocialControl.Sources of conflictwithinAborsocietyin-cludemaritalandfamilialdisputes,divorce,theft,assault,andinheritancedisputes.Theresolution of conflictandtheregulation of behaviorwithin ... thevariousAborgroups)andexternal (i. e.,withneighboringpeoples)warfarewereeffectivelyelimi-natedaftertheinitiation of Britishrule.Conflictbetweenvil-lagesishandledbythebangocouncilandtheresolution of interbangoconflictistheresponsibility of thebogumbokang.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief&.Aborreligionischaracterizedbyabeliefinahost of spirits(uyu),bothbeneficentandmalevolent. Of these,theEpom(offspring of Robo,father of evilspirits)fig-ureprominently.Theyaretheadversaries of humanbeings(whoarebelievedtobetheoffspring of Robo'sprimordialbrother,Nibo)andaresaidtoinduceaccidents.Thesouls of thosewhohavenotbeenproperlyburiedorwhodiedunnat-uraldeathsbecomerams(evilspiritswhojointheEpomincombatagainsthumanity).Othernotableevilspiritsincludethenipong(spirit of awomanwhodiesduringpregnancy)andtheayinguyu(lowlandevilspiritswhoseassaultsaredirectedagainstmenandwomen of allages).Amongthemoreimpor-tantbenevolentspirits,BenjiBama(controller of humandes-tiny)mustbenoted,andeachnaturalforceisbelievedtopos-sessaspiritthatmustbeheldincheckthroughproperpersonalconductandtheperformance of certainrituals.Inaddition,theAborbelieveinseveraleternalbeings(e.g.,Seti,theearth,andMelo,thesky)whowereinexistencebeforecreationandareremovedfromtheaffairs of humanity.Thesebeingsbelongtoahigherorderthanthespirits,andtheyfig-ureprominentlyinAborcreationmyths.ReligiousPractitioners.TheAborhavetwocategories of religiouspractitioners:theepakmiri(diviner)andthenyibo(medicineman).Throughtheuse of incantations,herbs,div-ination,andspiritualdiscernment,theydeterminewhichspiritsareresponsiblefortheirmisfortuneandappeasethesemalevolentforcesthroughtheinvocation of afamiliarspirit.Thisspiritpossessesthebody of thepractitionerandassiststhesoul of theepakmiriornyiboinlocatingthespiritthatmustbeappeasedandinarrangingforasuitablepropitiatoryact of theindividualwhohasbeenafflicted.Thenyiboestab-lishescontactwiththe world of spiritsbyrecountingcreationstories,whiletheepakmiriutilizesdanceandsong.Nospe-cialsocialsignificanceisattachedtoeitheroffice,thoughtheepakmiriisallowedtowearspecialbeadsonceremonialoccasions.Ceremonies.Ceremonialactivityaccompaniesthemajoreventsinthehumanlifecycleandisalsoassociatedwithaf-fairs of state,thelife of themoshupandrasheng,subsistenceactivities,warfare,andhealthcare.Songanddanceare of greatimportanceontheseoccasions.Theepakmiri,whoisalsotheguardian of tribalmyths,histories,genealogies,andothertraditionallore,isthecentralfigureduringtheseritualobservances.Arts.InadditiontothoseartifactsmanufacturedbytheAborsthathaveautilitarianorornamentalpurpose,tattoo-ingisalsopracticedbymanygroups.Abororalliteraturein-cludesanumber of myths,legends,folktales,traditionalbal-lads(abangs),religiousballads(ponungs),andpoliticalnarrations(abes).Therecentintroduction of writinghascon-tributedtoanincreaseinthisliterature.Whilemusicalcom-positionsarefewinnumber,danceisahighlydevelopedartformamongtheAbor.Medicine.IntraditionalAborthought,sicknessisbe-lievedtohaveitsbasisinthemalevolentactivity of forcesinthespirit world andtreatmentconsists of theministrations of theepakmiri.Itishisorherjobtoascertainfromthespirit world whichspirithasbeenoffendedandhowexpiationistobemade.DeathandAfterlife.Itisbelieved ... estab-lishasafeharborfortheirships,theBritishmademanyun-successfulattemptstopacifytheislanders.In1859,theBritishestablishedPortBlair,apenalsettlementonMiddleAndamans;thelocationwaschosenbecauseitwasfortifiedbyitsisolationandbyAndamanesehostility.Overaperiod of timetheGreatAndamanese,whooccupiedtheforestssur-roundingPortBlair,werepacifiedandevencooperatedwithBritishauthoritiesintrackingdownescapedconvicts.Todaytheislandsformapart of theUnionTerritory of India.TheBritishimperialadministrationestablished"Andamanhomes"(largepermanentresidencesunderasupervisor)forthetribalsinanefforttofosteracordialrelationshipthroughexposuretoEuropeancivilization.By1875,Andamanesecul-turehadcomeunderscientificscrutiny,asanthropologistsfi-nallyrealizedthatthiswasagroup of peopledangerouslyclosetoextinction.From1879,underthedirection of Britishscholars,Andamaneseculturewasdocumented,cataloged,exhibited,andwrittenabout,especiallywithregardtolinguis-ticsandphysicalanthropology.SinceIndianindependencein1947,manydifferentplansforthesocialwelfareandeco-nomicdevelopment of theislandsandthetribalpopulation101naIUUA11ULr3Ccommunity.AccordingtotheOngeesinthedaysbeforeco-conutplantationsandthehelp of thewelfareagencies,theyandtheirancestorswouldtravelbycanoenorthwardtoPortBlairtoexchangewithotherAndamaneseforthesugarandtobaccoreceivedfromtheBritishadministration.Division of Labor.Onlymenhuntpigs,dugongs,andtur-tles.Bothmenandwomenperformallotheractivities of day-to-daylife,includingchildcare,cooking,andthegathering of foodresourcesandrawmaterials.LandTenure.Traditionally,amongtheAndamanesecer-tainterritorieswereidentifiedasbelongingtoaspecificband.IntheNorthernandtheMiddleAndamansitwasfrequentlynecessarytopassthroughanother'sterritory.Thetrespasserswereobligedtobehaveasguestsinanother'sterritoryand,inreturn,theowners of agiventerritorywereobligedtobehaveascordialhosts.Thus,afeeling of mutualinterdependenceandavalueforhuntingandgatheringineachother'spart of theis-landhascreatedaprocess of sharedproductionandconsump-tion.AmongtheOngees of LittleAndaman,wherenoothertribalgroupresides,theislandisdividedintofourmajorpartsandidentifiedwithtwopairs of mythicalbirds,each of whichisassociatedwith...

... of lessthanhalfahect-are.NosignificantlandreformhasbeenattemptedinBangladeshinthepastfortyyears.Twodecadesago,only20percent of thelandholdingsinWestBengalaccountedforsome60percent of thetotalcultivatedarea,andalargenum-ber of cultivatingfamilieswerelandlesslaborers,tenants,andsharecroppersaswell;sincethenWestBengalhasmadeasig-nificanteffortatlandreformwithsomebeneficialresults.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.ThecommonestkingroupinruralBengalisthehomestead-basedpatrilinealextendedfamily,whosemembersjointlyownhomesteadlandandmay-butusuallydonot-alsoownagriculturallandincom-mon.Thehomesteadistypicallycomposed of aseniormalehead,hismarriedsonswiththeirfamilies,unmarriedchildrenandgrandchildren,andotherdependents.KinshipTerminology.Inconventionalclassifications,theBengalikinshipterminologyis of thebifurcatecollateraltypeinterms of firstascendinggenerationterminology,anditis of theSudanesetypefromthepoint of view of cousintermi-nology.Thus,each of Ego'sparentalsiblingsisdenotedbyaseparateterm,andsothereforeiseachparentalsibling'schild (i. e.,"cousin"inEnglishterms).Inthisrespect,Bengaliter-minologydoesnotdifferfromthatfoundacrossnorthIndiaandtheMiddleEast.AlthoughbothBengaliHinduandBen-galiMuslimterminologiessharethesamepattern,MuslimsemploysevenkinshiptermsthatarefoundinUrduandinseveralcasesareactuallyderivedfromArabicandPersian,all of whichlanguagesaredistinctivelyidentifiedwithIslamicratherthanHinducivilization.(Recentdiscussions of Ben-galikinship,however,suggestthattheconventionalanthro-pologicalclassificationsystemhaslimitedutilityforunder-standingthebasicculturalcategories of kinshipinBengaliculture.)MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Bengalimarriagesarearranged,butHinduandMuslimmaritalpracticesdifferincertainkeyrespects.AmongHindus,considerations of casterankareimportant;thatis,marriageusuallyoccursbetweenpersons of thesamecaste.Hypergamousunions-betweenmembers of closelyrankedcastes,withwomenmarryingupward-arenotforbid-den.Buthypogamousmarriages-inwhichawomanmarriesaman of alowercaste-arestronglydiscouragedandrarelyoccur.Because of theegalitarianideology of Islam,casteWrelatedrestrictionsarenotformally ... hemustlearntoreadtheclassicalArabiclanguage)caneventuallybecometheworshipleader(mullahorimam) of alocalmosqueifsochosenbythecongregation.Furtherstudy of theQuranand of Muslimlaw(thesharia)mayqualifyamantobeareligiousleaderwithawiderfollowing,greaterstature,andsometimessignificantpoliticalinfluence.Bengali29Roland,Joan(1989).JewsinBritishIndia.Waltham,Mass.:BrandeisUniversityPress.Strizower,Schifra(1971)."VerbalInteractionamongtheBeneIsrael."InternationalJournal of theSociology of Language13:7 1-8 5.Weil,ShalvaJ.(1988)."TheInfluence of CasteIdeologyinIsrael."InCulturalTransition,editedbyM.Gottesman,15 0- 161.Jerusalem:MagnesPress.SHALVAJ.WEILBengaliETHNONYMS:Bangali,Bangladeshi(formerlyBengalee,Baboo)OrientationIdentification.TheBengalipeoplespeaktheBengali(Bangla)languageandliveintheBengalregion of theIndiansubcontinentlocatedinnortheastern South Asia, andmostfolloweithertheHinduortheMuslimfaith.TheBengalre.gionisdividedpoliticallybetweenthenation of BangladeshandtheIndianstate of WestBengal.BengalisthemselvesrefertotheirregionasBangladesh,meaningsimply'theBen-galihomeland,"atermadoptedbythepeople of easternBengalwhentheywonsovereignindependenceforthenation of Bangladeshin1971.ThenativeethnictermforthemselvesisBangli -of which"Bengali"isananglicization.However,Bengaliswhoarecitizens of BangladeshwillalsomostreadilycallthemselvesBangladeshi.Location.Lyingatthenorth of theBay of Bengalandroughlybetween22"and26°Nand86°and93°E,theBengalregionconsistslargely of avastalluvial,deltaicplain,builtupbytheGangesRiverandwateredalsobytheBrahma-putraRiversystemoriginatingintheeasternHimalayaMountains.Asinmuch of South Asia, monsoonwindsbringarainyseasonthatcanlastfromApriltomid-November.Bengal'stotalareaisapproximately233,000squarekilo-meters, of whichabout38percent(justunder89,000squarekilometers)isinIndia,theremaining62percent(144,000squarekilometers)constitutingthenation of Bangladesh.Demography.Accordingtothelastavailable(1981)cen-suses,India'sWestBengalcontainedsome47millionpeople(35percent)andBangladesh86millionpeople(65percent)claimingtobeprimaryspeakers of theBengalilanguage,withthetotal of around133millionconstitutingthe"cope"ethnicBengalipopulation.Tothistotalmustbeaddedatleastan-other7millionBengalispeakerslivinginadjacentornearbystates of India-Assam,3million;Bihar,2million;Tripura,1.4million;Orissa,378,000;Meghalaya,120,000;andNaga-land,27,000-formingakind of "Bengalidiaspora"that,al-thoughconcentratedinnortheastern South Asia, isactuallyworldwide,withlargenumbers of Bengalislivingasimmi-grantsintheUnitedStates,UnitedKingdom,andCanada.Insum,Bengaliscomprisedapopulation of about140mil-lionin1981,onewhichcanbeexpectedtohavegrownbyatleast25percentbythetimedatafrom1991censusesbe-comesavailable.Bengalispeakersmakeup85percent of thepopulation of WestBengal,whichotherwiseishometoanadditional9millionnon-Bengalipeople.Most of thesearefromotherparts of India,livinginthemetropolis of Calcutta,thestatecapital,buttherearesignificantnumbers of non-Bengalipeoplelocallyclassedas'tribals"inruralWestBengalaswell.Bangladeshisfarmorehomogeneous;allbut1percent of itspeopleidentifythemselvesasBengali.Most of theremaining900,000consist of non-Bengaliethnicgroupsalsolocallydesignatedas"tribal,"andthemajority of thesearespeakers of Tibeto-Burmanandotherminoritylanguages,oftenlivinginborderareas of thecountry.Somespeakers of dialects of Hindi-UrduremaininBangladeshaswell.OverallpopulationdensitiesinWestBengalwererecordedat615peoplepersquarekilometerin1981,rangingfrom466insomeruralareasto56,462inurbanlocalities(especiallyCal-cutta).InBangladeshoveralldensitiesreached624personspersquarekilometerby1981,risingto2,179intheurbanareas(especiallyDhaka,thenation'scapital),butalsoregis-teringaquitehigh693personspersquarekilometerinpart of thecountryside.LinguisticAffiliation.Likemost of thelanguages of northern South Asia, BengalibelongstotheIndo-Iranian(sometimesalsocalledIndo-Aryan)Branch of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.DescendedfromancientSanskrit,Bengalicontainsforty-sevensounds:elevenvowels,twenty-fivecon-sonants,foursemivowels,andseven"breathsounds"(includ-ingsibilantsandaspirates).Itsscript,alsoSanskrit-derived,containsfifty-sevenlettersymbols.TheBengalilanguageisassociatedwithalongliterarytradition,prideinwhichisamajorfactorinBengaliethnicandnationalidentity.ABen-gali,RabindranathTagore,wasthefirstAsiantoreceivetheNobelPrizeforliterature(in1913).Theliterarylanguagewithwhicheducatedspeakersarefamiliaris,however,quitedistinctfromtheurbanandruralspeech of thelesswelledu-cated.Theeasterndialects of Bengali,notablythosespokenintheSylhetandChittagongdistricts of Bangladesh,differquitenoticeablyfromthoseheardinWestBengal.HistoryandCulturalRelationsBengalismentionedasadistinctregion of South Asia insome of theearliestHindutexts,andthroughoutthefirstmil-lenniumAD.itwasgovernedbyasuccession of BuddhistandHindurulers.Islamicarmiesarrivedintheregioninthelatetwelfthandearlythirteenthcenturies,andgradualMuslimconquest-culminatinginMughalruleafter1576-setthestageforwidespreadconversion of thelocalpopulationtoIslam,especiallyineasternBengal.Notlongthereafter,Euro-peancontactwith,andcompetitionforpoweron,theIndiansubcontinentbegan,andtheBritishperiod of India'shistoryisusuallydatedfromEngland'stakeover of theadministra-tion of Bengalin1757.Lastinguntil1947,BritishrulehadaprofoundimpactonBengalicultureandsociety,especiallywiththeintroduction of Englishasthemedium of highered-ucationafter1835.HindusrespondedmorerapidlythandidMuslimstoopportunitiesprovidedbyEnglisheducation,and56Burushoherhusbanddivorceher.Childrenremainwiththemother(untiltheyreachtheage of 10)ifadivorceisgranted.Duringthistime,thehusbandisrequiredtoprovidechildsupport.Widowsmustwaitthreemonthsandsevendaysafterthedeath of aspousebeforeremarrying.Thewaitforawidoweristwomonthsandsevendays.Polygynyisnotprohibited.DomesticUnit.Smallextendedfamilies(theprocreatedfamily of oneindividualintheseniorgenerationandthose of atleasttwointhenextgeneration)withlimitedpolygynyarethenorm.Inheritance.Thefather of afamilyownsall of thefamilyproperty.Hemaychoosetodividehispropertyamonghisoff-springbeforehisdeathoritmaybedividedafterhedies.Uponhisdeath,hisestateisdividedequallyamonghissons.Sonsmaychoosetoworkanylandinheritedtogether (i. e.,asagroup)ortheymaydivideitamongthemselves.Sonsbysec-ondwivesinheritagrandson'sshare.Theyoungestsoninher-itsthefamilydwelling.Provisionisusuallymadesothattheeldestsoninheritsthebestland.Adaughterisnotpermittedtoinheritproperty.Shemaybeallowedtheuse of certainpropertyduringherlifetime.Unmarrieddaughtersmustbecaredfor(includingtheprovision of adowry)bytheestate of adeceasedfather.Apricottrees(andtheirproduce)areoftenwilledtodaughters.Socialization.Thesocialization of childrenisaresponsi-bilitysharedbybothparents,withthebulk of itbeingas-sumedbythemother.Siblingsalsoshareinthistask.In1934,apublicschoolsystemwasdonatedandputintoplacebytheAgaKhan,thusplacingpart of theburdenforchildrearingonteachers.SociopoliticalOrganizationBurushosocietycontainsfiveclasses:theThamo(royalfam-ily);theUyongko/Akabirting(thosewhomayoccupyoffices of state);theBar/Bare/Sis(landcultivators);theShadarsho(servants);andtheBaldakuyo/Tsilgalasho(bearers of bur-densfortheThamoandUyongko).TheBericho(Indianblacksmithsandmusicians),whomaintaintheirowncus-tomsandspeaktheirownlanguage(Kumaki),arealsoanim-portantpart of Burushosocialstructure.AgeandgenderstratificationdonotobtainamongtheBurusho.Thehead of stateisthemir,whoseauthorityinallmat-tersisabsolute.Heisassistedinthedispatch of hisdutiesbyagrandvizier.Mirsareresponsibleforthedistribution of jus-ticeaswellasthemaintenance of localcustomsandtribalfes-tivals.Avillagearbob(chief)andchowkidar(sergeantatarms)areappointedforeachvillage.Khalifasareappointedbythemirtopresideatimportantoccasionsinthelife of theindividualandthecommunity.IthasbeennotedthatatonetimeretainerstocertainvillagerswerepaidbytheBritishgov-emmentforoccasionalservicesandthatcertainofficialswithinavillagewerechargedwiththecare of visitors.Thethreat of deportation(forthepurpose of engaginginpublicservicetothemirorforthecompletion of publicworks)andtheimposition of finesaretheprimarymeans of maintainingsocialcontrol.ExternalrelationsbetweentheBurushoandotherpeopleshavebeenstable.Intervillageri-valryischannelednonviolentlyintopolomatches.Althoughtheattitudes of theBurushotowardtheirneighborsinNagirarelessthanfriendly,armedconflictisfarfromnormal.BothHunzaandNagirsupportedthemilitaryactionthatledtotheannexation of theregiontoPakistan.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefsandPractices.TheBurushohavebeenMuslimformorethan300years.Theyareadherents of theIs-mailisect(headedbytheAgaKhan)andhavemadesuchmodificationsinreligiousbeliefandpracticeastorenderthissystem of Islamicbeliefpracticablewithintheirsocialanden-vironmentalsetting.NosystematizedeschatologicalsystemexistsamongtheBurusho.Itisgenerallybelievedthatatsomepointinthefuturethelivingandthedeadwillbere-united.Bitaiyo(maleandfemaleprognosticators)foretellthefuturebyinhalingthesmoke of burningjunipertwigs.NoprofessionalpriesthoodexistsamongtheBurusho.Themirappointsseveralliteratemenaskhalifastoofficiateatburials,weddings,andnamingceremonies.Theseindividualsdonotperformthesedutiesonafull-timebasis.Religiousceremonyplayslittlepartinthedailylife of theBurusho.Ritualprayerandfastingarepracticedbysome.Whilelittleisknown of pre-Islamicreligiouspractices,itisbelievedthatatonetimesacrificewasofferedtotheboyo(divinitiesthoughttooccupyaplaceabovethefortatHini).Thecommunalweddingcere-monyheldon21Decemberisalsoanimportantpart of theBurushoritualcycle.Arts.Embroideryandwoodcarvingmaybenotedasexam-ples of Burushovisualart.Dancingandmusic(bothbeingimportantcomponents of Burushoceremoniallife)areat-tested.Thesamecanbesaid of dramaticart,performancesbeingsponsoredoncertainspecialoccasions.Burushooralliteraturecontainsfolklore(indigenousandborrowed),anec-dotes,andsongs.Medicine.Avariety of naturalsubstances(roots,herbs,andberries)isusedformedicinalpurposes.Accesstoscientificmed-icineisalsoavailable.ThebeliefisstillheldbysomeBurushothatsupernaturalsplayamajorroleinthecause of humanill-ness.Indigenousmedicalpractitionersarelacking.BibliographyClark,J.(1963)."HunzaintheHimalayas:StoriedShangri-LaUndergoesScrutiny."NaturalHistory72:3 8-4 5.Lorimer,DavidL.(193 5-1 938).TheBurushaskiLanguage.3vols.InstituttetforSammenlignendeKulturforskning,SerieB:Skifter,29, 1-3 .Oslo:H.Aschehoug&Co.(W.Nygaard):Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress.Lorimer,E.0.(1938)."TheBurusho of Hunza."Antiquity12: 5-1 5.Lorimer,E.0.(1939).LanguageHuntingintheKarakoram.London:GeorgeAllen&Unwin.O'Leary,TimothyJ.(1965)."BurushoCulturalSummary."NewHaven,Conn.:HumanRelationsAreaFiles.Tobe,JohnH.(1960).AdventuresinaLand of Paradise.Emmaus,Pa.:RodaleBooks.HUGHRPAGE,JRBengali31Trade.Asnotedabove,periodiclocalmarketsdottheBengalcountryside,andtheseinturnarelinkedtoperma-nent,dailymarketsinlargerprovincialtownsandultimatelytomajorurbancommercialcenters.Manypeasantsengageinpettymarketingtosupplementtheirprimaryoccupation,butlarge-scaleaccumulationandtransportation of majorcrops,especiallyriceandjute,andartisanproductsaretypicallycar-riedoutbywholesalerswhomovefrommarkettomarket.Aselsewherein South Asia, someHinducastegroupsspecializeincertainkinds of tradeandcommercialtransactions(e.g.,thoserelatedtogoldandotherjewelryorspecificconsump-tionitemsotherthanrice).BecauseBengalpossessesalaby-rinthinenetwork of rivers,providingboattransportationtoandbetweenriversidecentersisamajoractivityformany.Commerceisoverwhelminglymale-dominated,sinceadultwomenareusuallyrequiredtolimittheiractivitiestotheirhomesteadsandimmediatesurroundingsandthusarenotpermittedtoengageinsignificanttradingactivity.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbybothgenderandoccupationalspecializationishighlymarkedthroughout South Asia, includingBengal,particularlysointheruralareas.Regardless of aruralfamily'soccupationalspecialty,menengageinactivitiesthattakeplaceoutsidethehome,whilewomenarelimitedtothosethatcanbeperformedwithinitsconfines.Thus,forexample,inrice-farmingfami-liesmenperformalltheworkinthefields-plowing,plant-ing,weeding,andharvesting-andoncethecropisbroughtintothehomesteadwomentakeupthetasks of threshing,drying,andhuskingthecrop.Asimilarkind of intra-(versusextra-)homesteaddivision of laborbygenderoccursinfami-lieswithnonagriculturaloccupationalspecializations.Notsurprisingly,domesticandchild-rearingtasksfallwithinthewomen'sdomainaswell.Thedegreetowhichwomenareper-mittedtoworkoutsidethehomeis,however,relatedtotheeconomicandsocialstatus of thefamily.Apoororlandlessfarmer'swifemayspendpart of herdayprocessingagricul-turalgoodsinawealthierhousehold,forexample,tosupple-mentherfamily'smeagerincome,andamongthelower-rankedservicecastes(seebelow)thetabooonwomenworkingoutsidethehomeisconsiderablylessstrict.In ... thatinBilaspurtheyadoptedChhattisgarhi,inMandlaandJub-bulporetheyspokeamodifiedEasternHindi,inBalaghattheyspokeMarathi,Hindi,Gondi(oracombination of Marathi,Hindi,andGondi),andBaigani(alanguage of Indo-AryanStockbelongingtotheIndo-EuropeanPhylum).HistoryandCulturalRelationsBaigacontactwithotherpeoplesandknowledge of regionsbeyondtheirownhasbeenminimal.Manyhaveneverheard of majorurbanareasadjacenttotheirimmediateenvirons,suchasNagpur,Delhi,andBombay.RelationswiththeBrit.ishduringcolonialrulewerefavorableoverall;theonlysub-stantialpoint of contentionbetweenthetwopartieswaslimi-tationsplacedonbewar(shiftingagriculture)bytheBritish.AsIndiasoughtindependencefromBritishrule,mythologi-caltraditionsaboutMahatmaGandhibegantoemerge,su-perhumanstatusbeingascribedtohimbytheBaiga.Never-theless,Gandhi'sattitudetowardalcoholprohibitiondid48Bohraandpracticesandthose of regularMuslimsare:theDaudiBohraspayspecialattentiontoAli,tohissons,HassanandHussain,andtotheirhighpriest,theMullahSahib of Surat;theypayspecialattentiontocircumcision;theyrejecttheva-lidity of thethreecaliphs,AbuBakrSidik,Umar,andUsman;andatdeathaprayerforpityonthesoulandthebody of thedeceasedislaidinthedeadman'shand.TheJaafariBohrasareSunnisinfaith.Theyhavenoreligioushead,butmanytraditionallyhavefollowedspiritualguides.Many of themareknownasKabariasfrombeingdevotedtothekabarorgrave of PirMuhammadShahatAhmedabad.Asalreadystated,theNagoshis'founderheldthepeculiardoc-trinethatanimalfoodwassinful;otherwisetheirreligioussectisverymuchliketheAliasect.TheSulaimaniBohrasonlydifferfromtheDaudiintheirrecognition of thereligioushead of thesect.TheirhighpriesttraditionallylivesinNajramintheHifainArabia.TheAliaBohrasstronglyre-sembletheSulaimaniBohrasintheirreligiouspractices.ManySunniBohrastraditionallyhavespiritualguides,whoaregivenmuchrespect,andmanyalsostillkeeptocertainHindupractices.Theygivedeathandmarriagedinners;theysometimesgiveHindunamestotheirchildrenormodifyMuslimones.SomeSunniBohras,however,arefollowers of theGheit-Mukallidteachers of theWahabisect,whofollowstrictMuslimcustoms.BibliographyEngineer,AsgharAli(1980).TheBohras.Sahibabad:VikasPublishingHouse.Enthoven,ReginaldE.,ed.(1920)."Bohoras."TheTribesandCastes of Bombay.Vol.1,19 7-2 07.Bombay:GovernmentCen-tralPress.Reprint.1975.Delhi:CosmoPublications.groupsaredescendants of acommonancientAustroasiaticprogenitor.Theclassicethnographicaccount of Bondocul-tureisElwin's1950study.Location.Thelocus of Bondocultureextendsfromap-proximately18020'to18°30'Nand82°20'to82°30'E.TheBondohomeland(sometimesknownasBara-jangar-des)isahillyhabitatthatoverlookstheMachkundValleyandtheMalkangiriPlain.Theaverageannualrainfallisapproxi-mately150centimeters.Settlementsfallintothreegeo-graphicgroupings:theBara-jangargroup(alsoknownasMundlipadaorSerayen);theGadabagroup(northeast of Mundlipada);andthePlainsgroup.Thefirst of theseareasisthemostimportant.ItistheBondocapitalandisalsobe-lievedtohavebeentheancientBondohomeland.Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatthetwelvevillagesthatbringyearlytrib-utetotheruler of thisplacearetheoriginalBondosettle-ments(eachhavingbeenfoundedbyone of twelvebrothers).Demography.In1971therewere5,338Bondos,75,430Gadabas,and227,406Porojas.linguisticAffiliation.TheBondospeakalanguage of MundaStockbelongingtotheAustroasiaticPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheearlyprehistory of theBondoisunclearbecausethereexistnophysicalremainsuponwhichtobaseareconstruc-tion of theirorigin.Itisbelievedthattheiroriginalhomeisnortheast of theirpresenthabitat.ElwinconcurswithChristophvonFurer-Haimendorf'ssuggestionthattheBondobelongtothegroup of neolithicAustroasiaticpeopleswhocultivatedricebymeans of irrigationandterracing,do-mesticatedcattleforsacrificialanddietarypurposes,anderectedmegaliths(e.g.,dolmens,stonecircles,andmenhirs).Insaf,Saifuddin(1986).TheBohraControversy(AsReflectedthroughNewspapers)(inGujarati).Surat:CentralBoard of DawoodiBohraCommunityPublications.JAYDiMAGGIOBondoETHNONYMS:BondaGadaba,BondoPoroja,PorJa,RemoOrientationIdentification.TheBondoareanAustroasiaticpeoplewhoinhabittheareanorthwest of theMachkundRiverinthestate of Orissa,India.WhiletheculturalrelationshipbetweentheBondoandneighboringpeoples(e.g.,thePorojaandGadaba)hasbeendebated,largelybecause of substantialdif-ferencesinappearance,personaladornment,socialnorms,andreligiousbeliefs,VerrierElwinhasconcludedthatasuffi-cientdegree of culturalcommonalityexistsbetweentheBondosandGadabastowarrantthesuggestionthatbothSettlementsGeneralizationsregardingthenature of Bondovillagesarenoteasilymade.ThetypicalBondovillageisbuilteitheralongorascendingahillside,reasonablyclosetoaspring.Theplace-ment of individualdomicilesfollowsnosetpatternandtherearenoregularthoroughfareswithinvillageboundaries.Thegrouping of housesaccordingtoclanobtainsattimes,butforthemostpartsocialandotherdistinctionshavenoimpactonthearrangement of houses.Thesindibor(thestoneplatformthatisthelocus of villagesocialandreligiousceremonies)isplacedatsomeshadyspotwithinthevillage.Villagesarenotfortifiedandtendtobesurroundedbygardenscontaininganassortment of trees,spiceplants,andotherplants.Fieldsforcultivationarelocatedinthegeneralproximity of thevillage.Publicstructureswithinthevillageconfinesincludemanurepitsandmaleandfemaledormitories.ThetypicalBondohouse,composed of mud,wood,andthatchinggrass,containstwomainroomsandaveranda.Attachedtotheoutside of thehouseisaplaceforpigs.Cattle,goats,andchickensarealsohousedinthevicinity of the...

... 78Divehidress,haveclaimedthatunliketheotherDivehistheyhadnodivorceorwidowremarriage,andhavesaidtheirancestorswereTamils,thoughtheyhavenoknowledge of suchpeopleandhavenevertraveledoutsidetheiratoll.Theyhavealsoclaimedtobestrictlyendogamous.OtherDivehistradition-allyhavethought of theGirivaruasdirty,whiletheyhavethought of otherDivehisasmorallycorrupt.PoliticalOrganization.Theoldaristocraticfamiliesfromthetime of thesultanatearestilldominantinMale.Sincein-dependencein1965thecountryhasbeencalledarepublic.Itisgovernedbyapresident,whomaintainstightauthoritythroughtheministries of religionandlaw,thesystem of ap-pointedatollandislandchiefs,andfinancesfromthetouristandshippingindustries.Intheory,hegovernsatthewill of thenationalassembly,theMajlis,whichisjustnowbegin-ningtoassumeamodernlegislativerole.SocialControl.Controlisthroughtheislandofficesandatolloffices,inwhichreligiouslawispart of thetightstateap-paratus.Alllargerislandsandatollofficeshaveaqizi,whoperformsmarriages,adjudicatesdisputesandinheritance,ex-aminestheaccused,andenforcesSharialawasinterpretedbytheattorney-general.Theatollcourthasseparatesectionstodealwithreligious,criminal,andpoliticalviolations.Thecourtmaypunishanaccusedbygivinganorderforsocialboy-cottorbybanishmenttosomeislandforayearorforlife.AtollandislandheadmenstudyIslamicreligiouslaw,andthereareafewexpertstrainedinEgypt.Conflict.Divehisareextremelyreticenttoshowaggressionortomakethreats,andthereishardlyanymurder.Butthereareseriousconteststoseizenationalpoliticalpower,andalosermaybebanishedtoanislandformanyyears.Thereisahistorictendencyforthesouthernatollstoclaimautonomy,butthistendencyisnotovertnow,andthereisnootheror-ganizedoropenconflictinthesociety.Divehisonsmallis-landsmayhavehardlyanyknowledge of theoutside world, andtheyoftenfearstrangers.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.AllDivehisareSunniMuslims, of theShafitradition,andwillremainsobecauseanon-Muslimcannotmarryorsettlethere.Everyislandhasitsmosquewiththekatibuincharge,whoispaidbythegovernment.MostmenattendFridayprayersandgivetocharity.Womenper-hapsmorethanmenprayfivetimesadayandreadscripture.Theethos of Islamappearstobeverystrong,butsomefeelittendstoconsistonly of perfunctoryfastingandprayers.Is-lamicmysticismandSufiideasareofficiallydisapproved of asleadingtoemotionalismratherthantoSunnilegalobser-vance.Islamoverliesanearlierreligioussystemhavingmanydeitiesandspirits-originallyHindu,Buddhist,orJaindei-tiesandlocalghosts-butpeoplenowthink ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfund i detIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O .I. (Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershare of fishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsource of income,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplot of landforahouseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfund i detIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O .I. (Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy,A.(1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywasanexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrate of 43per1,000andagrowthrate of 3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryendof...

... theGujaratipopulationaretribalswhopredominantlyliveintheeasternhillybelt.Sixty-ninepercent of thepopulationliveinruralareasand31percentliveinurbanareas.Ahmadabad,Surat,Vadodara,andRajkotarelargecities.linguisticAffiliation.Gujaratiisconsideredbylinguiststobeamember of theoutercircle of Indo-Aryanlanguages:itispartlyPrakriticandpartlySanskriticinorigin.Anumber of Arabic,Persian,Urdu,andEuropean-particularlyPortu-gueseandEnglish-wordshavebecomepart of thelanguage.Thereareseveraldialects.Importantamongthem,basedonregion,areKathiawadi,Kachchh,Pattani,Charotari,andSurati.Therearealsocaste-orcommunity-baseddialects,suchasNagari,AnavlaorBhathala,Patidari,Kharwa,Musalmani,Parsi,etc.DifferenttribalgroupshavetheirowndialectsthatbearacloseaffinitytoGujarati.ThedistinctiveGujaratiscripthasthirty-fourconsonantsandelevenvowels.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheterritorywasknownas"GurjaraBhoomi,""GurjaraDesh,""Gurjaratta,"or"GurjarMandal"-meaningabode of theGurjarpeople-betweenthefifthandninthcenturiesA.D.Thename of theareaknownas"Gujarat"wasrecognizedfromthetenthcenturyduringtheSolankiperiod,whenMul-rajalaidthefoundation of hiskingdomwithitscapitalatAn-hilwadPatan.DuringBritishruletheareawasdividedintoanumber of nativestatesandestatesandBritishadministra-tivedistricts,whichwereapart of theBombaypresidency.Afterindependencein1947,thenativestatesmergedintotheIndianUnion.Agroup of statesformedSaurashtraState;themainlandGujaratbecameapart of BombayStateandKachchhwascentrallyadministered.Butasaresult of furtherreorganization of thestatesin1956,SaurashtraandKachchhweredissolvedasseparatestatesandbecameapart of BombayState.Then,because of demandsforaseparatelin-guisticstate,Gujarat,Saurashtra,andKachchhformedtheseparatestate of Gujaratin1960.SettlementsAmong18,114villages,8percentaresmallwithapopulation of lessthan200persons;and49(0.2percent)arelargewithmorethan10,000peopleineach.Thesettlementpattern of eachvillageiseitherclusteredordispersed.Clusteredvillagesaredividedintosubclustersconsisting of agroup of familiesbelongingtothesamecasteorcommunity.Thedominantcasteresidesinthecenter,andtraditionallyUntouchablecastesliveontheperiphery of thevillage.Inthedispersedpatternmainlyfoundamongtribals,eachfamily-nuclearorjoint-livesonitsownfarm.Atempleorpublicplatformunderalargetreeisacentralplacewheremalesfromupperandmiddlecastesmeetandspendtheirsparetime.Today,most of themiddle-sizedandbigvillageshaveprimaryschools,oneortwoshops,grazingland,andacremationground.Thereare255townsorurbanagglomerations.Allbuteleven of thesetownshaveapopulationunder100,000.Many of themareexpandedvillageswherecasteorcommu-nityclustersformneighborhoodlocalities.Twostyles of housingarecommoninurbanandruralGujarat.Thefirstisthesturdymodernkindmade of brickandconcrete,withmorethantworoomsandaseparatekitchen.Thesecondisatenement of mud,stone,andwood.Theroofsare of locallymadetilesorthatch.(Numericaldatafrom1981census.)EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Despiterapidindustrialdevelopment,agricultureoccupiesaprominentplaceintheeconomy of thestate.Itcontributesanaverage of 35to40percent of thestate'sdomesticproducts.Sixty-twopercent of theworkersengagedinagricultureareeitherculti-vatorsorlaborers.Althoughagricultureisnotfullymecha-nized,use of tractorshasincreasedconsiderablyinrecentyears.Themajorfoodcropsarebajri,jowar,rice,andwheat.Cotton,groundnut,tobacco,andsugarcanearemajorcom-mercialcrops:theyoccupyabout40percent of thetotalculti-vatedarea of thestate.Cattle,buffalo,sheep,goats,chickens,horses,camels,monkeys,donkeys,andpigsarethemaindo-mesticanimals.Bullocksareusedforagriculture,cowsandbuffaloformilk.Acooperativedairyindustryhasdeveloped.IndustrialArts.Artisansinruralareasareengagedinpot-tery,silver-andbrass-ornamentmaking,embroidery,hand-loomconstructionandfurnituremaking.Despitegovernmentsupport,thesecraftsarerapidlydisappearing.Gujaratisone of themosthighlyindustrializedstatesinIndia.Themajorindustriesaretextiles,plastics,chemicals,andengi-neering.Interms of incomegeneratedfrommanufacturing,Gujaratrankssecondinthecountry.Trade.Tradeisaprimaryoccupation of Gujaratis.TheHinduandJainBaniasarethetradingcastes.InthiscenturythePatidarshaveemergedasentrepreneurs.Inaddition,theParsisandMuslimBohrasarealsotraders.Gujarathasbeenwellconnectedbytraderouteswithinthecontinentandalsowithothercountries.Historically,theGujaratispossessed ... herdeceasedhusband.Socialization.Theambition of everyGondwomanistobearason.Barrennessinawomanisconsideredacurse.Preg-nancyandbirtharesurroundedwithprotectiveritesagainstmagicspellsandevilinfluences.Childrenaregenerallywel-comeandtreatedwithaffection.Althoughsonsarepreferred,daughtersarewelcometoo.Childrengrowupwithoutmuchrestriction,butthecommunityteachesthemcorrectbehav-ior.Childrenareearlyinvitedtotakeoversometasks,firstplayfully,theninearnest.Boysspontaneouslyseemtoprefermalecompany,whilegirlsseemtogravitatenaturallytowardotherfemales.Thechangetoadulthoodisgradual;thereisnoinitiationceremony.Thefirstmenstruation of agirlisnotspeciallycelebrated,butshedoeslearninadvancewhatpro-hibitionsshehastoobserve.OnlythreeGondsectionsinthe south haveyouthdormitories,andonlytheMuriasusethedormitoryfortheeducation of youthinmarriedandciviclife.TheotherGondsectionshavenodormitorysystem.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.SincetheGondsarespreadoverawidearea,therearemanylocalsubsectionsthathavenoso-cialcontactwitheachother.ThemoreSanskritizedthesesec-tionsare,thehigheristhesocialranktheyclaim.Butthehighestrankisgiventothedescendants of theGondrajasandtheirretainers,theRaj-GondsandKatholias.Amongthesetwosectionswefindthegreatestnumber of Gondswithsubstantiallandholdings.OtherGondsectionsoutside of GondavanaaretheKisans,inthe south of Biharandintheneighboringdistricts of Orissa.TheGondsreachedeventhehillsalongthesouthernbank of theGanges.TheretheyareknownasMajwarsorMajhis(headmen).AkintotheGondsareanumber of othertribes,suchastheBhattras,Koyas,KondaKapus,KondaDeras,andHalbas.TheKhonds of Orissa,anotherimportanttribe,alsomayoriginallyhavebeenGonds.PoliticalOrganization.TheentireGondtribewasneverapoliticalunit.Tribalsolidaritydoesnotextendbeyondtheconfines of asubsection.ThebasicpoliticalunitistheGondvillagecommunity.Itisademocraticorganizationinwhichtheheadmanandotherofficialsarechosenbythevillagers.Eachvillagehasitscouncil,withofficialsliketheheadman,thepriest,thevillagewatchman,andfourorfiveelders.Moreimportantaffairsarediscussedanddecideduponbyallthemen of thecommunity.Avillagehasalsoitsservantcastes,suchastheAhir(cowherds),Agaria(blacksmiths),Dhulia(drummers),andPardhan(bardsandsingers).Atthetowns of Garha-Mandla,Kharla,Deogarh,andChanda,theleadingheadmenmanagedtorisetotherank of rulers(rajas)andtoestablishdynastiesthatlastedforcenturies.ButtheveryfactthattheserajassurroundedthemselveswithHinduofficialsandeagerlyadoptedHinduorMogulmethods of administra-tionprovesthatroyaltywasalientotribaldemocracy.InthepresentpoliticalsituationtheGondsare,despitetheirnum-bers,politicallypowerless,whichispartlybecause of thistri-baldisunitybutalsobecause of theircomparativelack of edu-cationanddrive,andtheirgreatpoverty.ThosefewGondswhoaremembers of thelegislativeassembliesoreventhena-tionalparliament(LokSabha)areeitheralienatedfromtheirtribalcultureoreasilymanipulatedbyotherpoliticians.ConflictandSocialControl.Insettlingdisputesthecourt of firstinstanceisthevillagecouncil(panch),whichispre-sidedoverbytheheadman.Usuallyitstrivestorestorehar-monybetweenthelitigantsratherthantoimplementcus-tomarylaw.Asettlementcommonlyinvolvesafine,orex-communicationinvaryingdegrees.Thosewhooffendagainsttherule of clanexogamyincursupernaturalsanctions.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligion of theGondsdoesnotdif-fermuchfromthat of thenumerousothertribesincentralIndia.Likethem,theGondsbelieveinahighgodwhomtheycalleitherbyhisHinduname,"Bhagwan,"orbyhistribalname,"BaraDeo,"the"GreatGod."Butheisanotiosedeityandisrarelyworshiped,thoughhisnameisofteninvoked.Heisapersonalgod-eternal,just,merciful,maker of thefertileearthand of man-thoughtheuniverseisconceivedascoex-istingwithhim.IntheGondbeliefsystem,besidesthishighgodtherealsoexistagreatnumber of maleandfemaledeitiesandspiritsthatpersonifyvariousnaturalfeatures.Everyhill,river,lake,tree,androckisinhabitedbyaspirit.Theearth,water,andairareruledbydeitiesthatmustbeveneratedandappeasedwithsacrificesandofferings.Thesedeitiesandspir-itsmaybebenevolent,butoftentheyarecapricious,malevo-lent,andpronetoharminghumanbeings,especiallyindivid-ualswhohavemadethemselvesvulnerablebybreakingarule of thetribalcode.Thedeitiesandspirits,especiallytheances-torspirits,watchoverthestrictobservance of thetribalrulesandpunishoffenders.ReligiousPractitioners.Gondsdistinguishbetweenpriestsandmagicians.Thevillagepriestisappointedbythevillagecouncil;however,hisappointmentisoftenhereditary.Hisresponsibilityistoperformallthesacrificesheldatcer-tainfeastsforthevillagecommunityforwhichhereceivesaspecialremuneration.Sacrificesandreligiousceremoniesonfamilyoccasionsareusuallyperformedbythehead of thefamily.Thedivinersandmagicians,ontheotherhand,areunofficialcharismaticintermediariesbetweenthesupernat-ural world andhumanbeings.TheGonds,liketheothertri-bals of centralIndia,believethatmostdiseasesandmisfor-tunesarecausedbythemachinations of evilspiritsandoffendeddeities.Itisthetask of thesoothsayersanddivinerstofindoutwhichsupernaturalagencieshavecausedthepres-entsicknessormisfortuneandhowtheycanbeappeased.Ifsoothsayersanddivinerscannothelp,magiciansandsha-mansmustbeemployed.Magiciansbelievethatbymagicfor-mulasanddevicestheycanforceaparticulardeityorspirittocarryouttheircommands.Shamansarepersonswhoeasilyfallintotrancesandarethenbelievedtobepossessedbydei-tiesorspiritsthatprophesythroughtheirmouths.Thesefre-quentecstasiesdonotseemtohaveanydetrimentalmentalorphysicaleffectsontheshamans,whomaybemaleorfe-male.Magicmaybe"white"or"black":itiswhiteifitcoun-teractsblackmagicoreffectsacurewhenasicknesshasbeenGaro83thebeginningsilentbarterwaspossiblebecauseeachpartyunderstoodfromlonginvolvementtherespectivevalues of theirgoods.Thisprocesshascontinuedtothepresent,withincreasinginvolvement of tradersfromneighboringareas,andhasnowbecomefullymonetized.Cotton,ginger,anddriedchiliesproducedbytheGarosaresoldtothetraders.TheGarosinturnpurchasepottery,metallictools,andotherindustrialgoodssuchasclothfromthetraders.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbetweenmembers of thehouseholdisasfollows:themalesareresponsibleforclearingjungleandsettingfiretothedebrisforshiftingculti-vation,whilewomenareresponsibleforplanting,weeding,andharvesting.Duringthepeak of theagriculturalopera-tionsthemensometimeshelpthewomen.Constructionandrepair of thehousearemaleduties.Menmakebaskets,whilewomencarrycropsfromthefieldandfirewoodfromjungle.Womenlookafterthekitchenandpreparebeer,andmenservethebeertoguests.Womenrearthechildrenandkeepthedomesticanimals.Bothmenandwomensellfirewoodandvegetablesinthemarket.LandTenure.Landforshiftingcultivationisownedbytheclan.Eachvillagehasatraditionallydemarcatedarea of itsowntermedadok.Thisareaissubdividedintoplotsthatareusedforcultivationinacyclicorder.Theplotsaredistrib-utedtothefamilies.Allotment of thegeneralplotsisdonebycommonconsensus of thevillageelders,buttheflatareaforpermanentwetcultivationisownedbyindividuals.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGarosreckontheirkinshipthroughthemother.Individualsmeasurethedegree of theirrelationshiptooneanotherbythedistance of theirmatrilin-eages.Formen,children of theirsistersorsisters'daughtersareveryimportantkin.Forwomen,children of theirsisters'daughtersareequivalenttothose of theirowndaughters.KinshipTerminology.ThekinshiptermsusedbytheGarosformaset,whichisbroadenoughsothateachGarocanbeassignedaterm.Thetermsarearrangedinasystemthatclassifiesthekin.Thisclassificationisbasedonnineprinciples,asfollows:(1)sex,(2)generation,(3)relativeage,(4)moietymembership,(5)collaterality,(6)inheritance,(7)type of wife,(8)intimacy of relationship,(9)speaker'ssex.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Descentismatrilineal,residenceuxorilocal.Themother'sbrother'sdaughtertype of cross-cousinmar-riageisthemostwidelyacceptedandprevalentamongthepeople.Itisarigidcustomthatamanmustmarryawomanfromtheoppositechatchi(moiety).Therule of chatchiexogamystipulatesthataman'smother'sfatherwillbeintheoppositechatchiandaman'swife'spotentialhusbandswillbeinhisownchatchi.Aftermarriageamankeepsuphisrela-tionwithhismachong(clan).Hisrelationwithreferencetohiswife'smachongisdesignatedasgachi.Marriageestab-lishesapermanentrelationbetweentwomachong,knownasakim.Aftermarriage,amalemovestotheresidence of hiswife.Inthecase of anokrom(husband of theheiress of prop-erty),marriagedoesnotcreateanewhouseholdbutratheraddsanewleaseonlifetoanoldhousehold.Evenafterthedeathordivorce of aspousetheakimrelationcontinues.Itistheresponsibility of thedeceased'smachongtoprovideare-placementspousetothesurvivingpartner.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdistheprimaryproductionandconsumptionunit.AGarohouseholdcomprisesparents,unmarriedsonsanddaughters,amarrieddaughter(heiress),andherhusbandandtheirchildren.Inprincipleamarriedgranddaughterandherchildrenshouldbeincluded,butinre.alitygrandparentsrarelysurvivetoseetheirgrandchildrenmarried.Somehouseholdsmay-forshortperiodsonly-includedistantrelativesornonrelatedpersonsforvariousreasons.Inheritance.PropertyamongtheGarosisinheritedinthefemaleline.One of thedaughtersisselectedbytheparentstobetheheiress.Ifthecouplehavenofemalechild,agirlbe-longingtothemachong of thewife(preferablythedaughter of hersister,whetherrealorclassificatory)isadoptedtobeanheiress.Sheisnotconsideredtobetheabsoluteowner of theproperty.Decisionaboutthedisposal of propertyistakenbyherhusband,whoisconsideredtobethehouseholdauthority(nokniskotong).Afterthedeath of thefather-in-lawresponsi-bilitytransferstotheson-in-law.Ifadeadmanissurvivedbyawidow,shestaysinthefamily of herdaughterandissome-timesreferredtoasanadditionalwife(Uk) of herdaughter'shusband.Socialization.Childrenstarthelpingtheirmothertolookaftertheinfantswhentheirmotherisbusywithwork.Todaytherearedifferenteducationalinstitutions-namely,themis-sionschoolsandotherIndianestablishments-thatactasmajoragents of education.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InGarosocietythemostimportantsocialgroupisthemachong(clan).Amachongisanexoga-mousmatrilinealdescentgroupwhereinaGaroisautomati-callyassignedbybirthtotheunilinealgroup of hismother.Achatchi(moiety)isdividedintomanymachong.Eachmar-riedcouplechoosesonedaughter-or,iftheyhavenone,theyadoptacloserelative of themother-tobeheiress(noknadongipikamechik) of thefamily.Herhusbandtradi-tionallyisselectedfromthelineagegroup of thefatherandisacceptedasthenokrom of thehouse.Heresideswithhiswifeinherparents'house.Hehastotakeontheresponsibility of lookingafterhisparents-in-lawduringtheiroldage,andhiswifeinheritstheproperty.PoliticalOrganization.Traditionally,theGaroswerenotapoliticallyorganizedsociety,andeventodaythereexistsnoclear-cutpoliticalstructure.Chieftainshipinvolvesreligiousfunctionsonly.SocialControl.Thekinshipsystem,thekinshipbond,andtherelatedvaluesystemactasaneffectivemeans of socialcontrol.Formerlythebachelors'dormitorieswereimportantagents of socialcontrol.Conflict.AmongtheGarosmostdisputesariseovertheis-sues of property,inheritance,anddomesticquarrelswithinthefamily.Suchproblemsaretoalargeextentsettledbythemahari(lineage) of theoffendedandtheoffender.Anewsit-uationdevelopswhensomeone'scattlecausedamagetoan-other'scrops.Insuchasituationthenokma(villagehead-man)actsasanintermediaryonly.IfhefailstosettletheGurung95PoliticalOrganization.Until1962theGurungvillagesweregovernedbyhereditaryclanleadersandvillagehead-men.In1962thenationalgovernmentinstitutedanelectoralsystemwherebyvillagesaregroupedtogetherinunits of five,calledpanchayats,anddividedintoneighborhoodsorwardsfromwhichlocalcouncillorsareelected.Theelectoratealsochoosesapradhanpancheanduperpradhan(likeamayorandvicemayor,respectively)toleadthepanchayat.SocialControl.Gossipandfear of witchattackarecom-monmeans of socialcontrol.Thelocalcouncilisabletolevyfinesagainstpanchayatresidents,andforseriouscrimesgov-ernmentpolicemaybecalledin.Conflict.Disputesareoftenresolvedbyelderstrustedbythepartiesinvolved.Ifthisdoesnotprovideasolutionthentheymaybebroughtbeforethevillagecouncilor,asalastre-sort,tothedistrictcourt.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGurungspracticeaform of TibetanBuddhismstronglyinfluencedbythepre-Buddhistreligion of Tibet,andtheyalsoobservemajorHindufestivals,suchasDasain.Theybelieveinsometenets of BuddhismandHindu-ism,suchaskarma,yettheyhaveaset of beliefsaboutanaf-terlifeintheLand of theAncestorsandinlocaldeitiesthatarepeculiarlyGurung.Gurungsbelievetheirlocaletobein-habitedbysupernaturalforestcreaturesandbyavariety of formlesswraithsandspirits.Some of theseexistinand of themselves,whileothersarebelievedtobethespirits of hu-manswhohavediedviolentdeaths.GurungsbelieveinthemajorHindudeitiesandintheBuddhaandbodhisattvas.Particularvillageshavetheirowndeities,whicharefelttobeespeciallypowerfulintheirimmediatesurroundings.ReligiousPractitioners.Practitioners of thepre-BuddhistGurungreligion,calledpanjuandklihbri,areactiveintheperformance of exorcismsandmortuaryrites.Buddhistlamasarealsoimportantinfuneraryrituals,aswellasperformingpurificationritesforinfantsandsomeseasonalagriculturalrituals.WealthierGurungsoccasionallycalllamasintoper-formhouse-blessingceremonies.Brahmanpriestsaresum-monedtocasthoroscopesandperformdivinationsattimes of misfortune.Dammisfromthelocalservicecastesarebelievedtobeparticularlypotentexorcistsandareoftencalledincases of illness.Arts.Gurungsmakenothingthattheywouldidentifyasart.Thegoodsthattheyproduce,suchasbasketsandblan-kets,areusefulandtendtobe of aconventionalplaindesign.Theartistry of Gurungsisexpressedintheirfolkmusicanddanceandespeciallyintheevanescentform of songex-changesbetweenyoungmenandwomen.Medicine.Gurungsoftenemployexorcistsaswellassci-entificdrugswhensufferingfromanillness.Scientificmedi-cineishighlyvalued,butitiscostlyandisnoteasilyavailableinruralareas.Herbsandplantsarealsousedintreatingill-nessandinjury.DeathandAfterlife.Deathis of centralsymbolicimpor-tanceforGurungs.Thefuneraryritual(pae)isthemaincere-monialoccasioninGurungsociety,involvingtwonightsandthreedays of ritualactivity.Itisattendedbykin,villagers,andalargenumber of peoplewhocomefortheconvivialityandspectacle.Buddhistlamasandthepanjuandklihbripriests of thepre-Buddhistreligionmayofficiateatthepae.Deathisbelievedtoinvolvethedissolution of elementsthatmakeupthebody,sothattheearthelementreturnstoearth,airtoair,firetofire,andwatertowater.Thisprocessleavestheplahorsouls(nineformenandsevenforwomen),whichmustbesentthroughtheperformance of thepaetotheLand of theAncestors.Therelifecontinuesmuchasitdoesinthepresent world, andfromtherethespiritcantakeotherrebirths.SeealsoGurkha;NepaliBibliographyMacfarlane,Alan(1976).ResourcesandPopulation:AStudy of theGurungs of Nepal.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Messerschmidt,DonaldA.(1976).TheGurungs of Nepal.Warminister:Aris&Phillips.Pignede,Bernard(1966).LesGurungs:UnePopulationhinalayenneduNepal.TheHague:Mouton.ERNESTINEL.McHUGH82GaroHajong,theKoch,theRabha,theDalau,andtheBanaiswhoresideontheadjacentplains of theneighboringdistrict.Thereremainsanobscurityabouttheorigin of theword"Garo."Theyareknownas"Garos"tooutsiders;buttheGarosalwaysdesignatethemselvesas"Achik"(hillmen).TheGarosaredividedintoninesubtribes:theAwe,Chisak,Matchi-Dual,Matabeng,Ambeng,Ruga-Chibox,Gara-Gan.ching,Atong,andtheMegam.Thesearegeographicsub-tribes,buttheyarealsodialectalandsubculturalgroups.Ac-cordingtotheirbeliefsandreligion,theGarosaredividedintothe"Songsarek"(thosewhofollowindigenousbeliefsandpractices)andtheChristians.Location.ThetwoGaroHillsdistrictsaresituatedbe-tween25°9'and26°1'Nand89°49'and91°2'E,coveringanarea of 8,000squarekilometers.ThedistrictsborderBangla-deshonthe south andwestandAssamonthenorth.Hillscovermost of thedistrict,withsomeadjacentfringes of plainsborderingthemonsoonarea,producingthickvegetationonthehills.Thereareanumber of hillystreamsandrivers;ex-ceptfortheSimsangRiver,whichformsawidefloodplain,noneisnavigable.Demography.Accordingtothecensus of Indiafor1971,Garosnumbered342,474.ChristianGaroswere54.3percent of thetotalGaropopulation;nowtheymaybemorethan60percent of thetotalGaropopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.AccordingtoSirGeorgeGrierson'sclassificationinTheLinguisticSurvey of India,GarobelongstotheBodoSubsection of theBodo-NagaSection,undertheAssam-BurmaGroup of theSino-TibetanorTibeto-BurmanLanguageFamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThereremainsnorecord of whentheGarosmigratedandset-tledintheirpresenthabitat.Theirtraditionallore,asre-cordedbyA.Playfair,indicatesthattheymigratedtotheareafromTibet.Thereisevidencethattheareawasinhabitedbystone-usingpeoples-PaleolithicandNeolithicgroups-inthepast.Aftersettlinginthehills,Garosinitiallyhadnocloseandconstantcontactwiththeinhabitants of thead-joiningplains.In177 5-1 776theZamindars of MechparaandKaraibari(atpresentintheGoalparaandDhuburidis.tricts of Assam)ledexpeditionsintotheGarohills.ThefirstcontactwithBritishcolonialistswasin1788,andtheareawasbroughtunderBritishadministrativecontrolintheyear1873.SettlementsThepopulationinaGarovillagemayrangefrom20to1,000persons.Thepopulationdensitytendstodecreaseasonemovestowardtheinteriorareasfromtheurbanareas of thedistricts.Villagesarescatteredanddistantfromoneanotherintheinteriorareas.Thesevillagesaregenerallysituatedonthetop of hillocks.Thehousesarebuilt,togetherwithgrana-ries,firewoodsheds,andpigsties,onpilesaroundtheslope of thehillock,usinglocallyavailablebamboo,wood,grass,etc.Theapproachtotherectangularhouseisalwaysbuiltfacingtheleveledsurface of thetop,whiletherearpart of thehouseremainshorizontaltotheslope.Nowadaysnewpile-typebuildingsusingwoodandironasmajorcomponentsarebeingmadeinsometraditionalvillagesalso.Inaddition,buildingssimilartothose of theneighboringplainsareconstructed.Thevillagesmayremaindistantfromagriculturalfields(hum).Inordertoguard ... herdeceasedhusband.Socialization.Theambition of everyGondwomanistobearason.Barrennessinawomanisconsideredacurse.Preg-nancyandbirtharesurroundedwithprotectiveritesagainstmagicspellsandevilinfluences.Childrenaregenerallywel-comeandtreatedwithaffection.Althoughsonsarepreferred,daughtersarewelcometoo.Childrengrowupwithoutmuchrestriction,butthecommunityteachesthemcorrectbehav-ior.Childrenareearlyinvitedtotakeoversometasks,firstplayfully,theninearnest.Boysspontaneouslyseemtoprefermalecompany,whilegirlsseemtogravitatenaturallytowardotherfemales.Thechangetoadulthoodisgradual;thereisnoinitiationceremony.Thefirstmenstruation of agirlisnotspeciallycelebrated,butshedoeslearninadvancewhatpro-hibitionsshehastoobserve.OnlythreeGondsectionsinthe south haveyouthdormitories,andonlytheMuriasusethedormitoryfortheeducation of youthinmarriedandciviclife.TheotherGondsectionshavenodormitorysystem.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.SincetheGondsarespreadoverawidearea,therearemanylocalsubsectionsthathavenoso-cialcontactwitheachother.ThemoreSanskritizedthesesec-tionsare,thehigheristhesocialranktheyclaim.Butthehighestrankisgiventothedescendants of theGondrajasandtheirretainers,theRaj-GondsandKatholias.Amongthesetwosectionswefindthegreatestnumber of Gondswithsubstantiallandholdings.OtherGondsectionsoutside of GondavanaaretheKisans,inthe south of Biharandintheneighboringdistricts of Orissa.TheGondsreachedeventhehillsalongthesouthernbank of theGanges.TheretheyareknownasMajwarsorMajhis(headmen).AkintotheGondsareanumber of othertribes,suchastheBhattras,Koyas,KondaKapus,KondaDeras,andHalbas.TheKhonds of Orissa,anotherimportanttribe,alsomayoriginallyhavebeenGonds.PoliticalOrganization.TheentireGondtribewasneverapoliticalunit.Tribalsolidaritydoesnotextendbeyondtheconfines of asubsection.ThebasicpoliticalunitistheGondvillagecommunity.Itisademocraticorganizationinwhichtheheadmanandotherofficialsarechosenbythevillagers.Eachvillagehasitscouncil,withofficialsliketheheadman,thepriest,thevillagewatchman,andfourorfiveelders.Moreimportantaffairsarediscussedanddecideduponbyallthemen of thecommunity.Avillagehasalsoitsservantcastes,suchastheAhir(cowherds),Agaria(blacksmiths),Dhulia(drummers),andPardhan(bardsandsingers).Atthetowns of Garha-Mandla,Kharla,Deogarh,andChanda,theleadingheadmenmanagedtorisetotherank of rulers(rajas)andtoestablishdynastiesthatlastedforcenturies.ButtheveryfactthattheserajassurroundedthemselveswithHinduofficialsandeagerlyadoptedHinduorMogulmethods of administra-tionprovesthatroyaltywasalientotribaldemocracy.InthepresentpoliticalsituationtheGondsare,despitetheirnum-bers,politicallypowerless,whichispartlybecause of thistri-baldisunitybutalsobecause of theircomparativelack of edu-cationanddrive,andtheirgreatpoverty.ThosefewGondswhoaremembers of thelegislativeassembliesoreventhena-tionalparliament(LokSabha)areeitheralienatedfromtheirtribalcultureoreasilymanipulatedbyotherpoliticians.ConflictandSocialControl.Insettlingdisputesthecourt of firstinstanceisthevillagecouncil(panch),whichispre-sidedoverbytheheadman.Usuallyitstrivestorestorehar-monybetweenthelitigantsratherthantoimplementcus-tomarylaw.Asettlementcommonlyinvolvesafine,orex-communicationinvaryingdegrees.Thosewhooffendagainsttherule of clanexogamyincursupernaturalsanctions.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligion of theGondsdoesnotdif-fermuchfromthat of thenumerousothertribesincentralIndia.Likethem,theGondsbelieveinahighgodwhomtheycalleitherbyhisHinduname,"Bhagwan,"orbyhistribalname,"BaraDeo,"the"GreatGod."Butheisanotiosedeityandisrarelyworshiped,thoughhisnameisofteninvoked.Heisapersonalgod-eternal,just,merciful,maker of thefertileearthand of man-thoughtheuniverseisconceivedascoex-istingwithhim.IntheGondbeliefsystem,besidesthishighgodtherealsoexistagreatnumber of maleandfemaledeitiesandspiritsthatpersonifyvariousnaturalfeatures.Everyhill,river,lake,tree,androckisinhabitedbyaspirit.Theearth,water,andairareruledbydeitiesthatmustbeveneratedandappeasedwithsacrificesandofferings.Thesedeitiesandspir-itsmaybebenevolent,butoftentheyarecapricious,malevo-lent,andpronetoharminghumanbeings,especiallyindivid-ualswhohavemadethemselvesvulnerablebybreakingarule of thetribalcode.Thedeitiesandspirits,especiallytheances-torspirits,watchoverthestrictobservance of thetribalrulesandpunishoffenders.ReligiousPractitioners.Gondsdistinguishbetweenpriestsandmagicians.Thevillagepriestisappointedbythevillagecouncil;however,hisappointmentisoftenhereditary.Hisresponsibilityistoperformallthesacrificesheldatcer-tainfeastsforthevillagecommunityforwhichhereceivesaspecialremuneration.Sacrificesandreligiousceremoniesonfamilyoccasionsareusuallyperformedbythehead of thefamily.Thedivinersandmagicians,ontheotherhand,areunofficialcharismaticintermediariesbetweenthesupernat-ural world andhumanbeings.TheGonds,liketheothertri-bals of centralIndia,believethatmostdiseasesandmisfor-tunesarecausedbythemachinations of evilspiritsandoffendeddeities.Itisthetask of thesoothsayersanddivinerstofindoutwhichsupernaturalagencieshavecausedthepres-entsicknessormisfortuneandhowtheycanbeappeased.Ifsoothsayersanddivinerscannothelp,magiciansandsha-mansmustbeemployed.Magiciansbelievethatbymagicfor-mulasanddevicestheycanforceaparticulardeityorspirittocarryouttheircommands.Shamansarepersonswhoeasilyfallintotrancesandarethenbelievedtobepossessedbydei-tiesorspiritsthatprophesythroughtheirmouths.Thesefre-quentecstasiesdonotseemtohaveanydetrimentalmentalorphysicaleffectsontheshamans,whomaybemaleorfe-male.Magicmaybe"white"or"black":itiswhiteifitcoun-teractsblackmagicoreffectsacurewhenasicknesshasbeenGaro83thebeginningsilentbarterwaspossiblebecauseeachpartyunderstoodfromlonginvolvementtherespectivevalues of theirgoods.Thisprocesshascontinuedtothepresent,withincreasinginvolvement of tradersfromneighboringareas,andhasnowbecomefullymonetized.Cotton,ginger,anddriedchiliesproducedbytheGarosaresoldtothetraders.TheGarosinturnpurchasepottery,metallictools,andotherindustrialgoodssuchasclothfromthetraders.Division of Labor.Thedivision of laborbetweenmembers of thehouseholdisasfollows:themalesareresponsibleforclearingjungleandsettingfiretothedebrisforshiftingculti-vation,whilewomenareresponsibleforplanting,weeding,andharvesting.Duringthepeak of theagriculturalopera-tionsthemensometimeshelpthewomen.Constructionandrepair of thehousearemaleduties.Menmakebaskets,whilewomencarrycropsfromthefieldandfirewoodfromjungle.Womenlookafterthekitchenandpreparebeer,andmenservethebeertoguests.Womenrearthechildrenandkeepthedomesticanimals.Bothmenandwomensellfirewoodandvegetablesinthemarket.LandTenure.Landforshiftingcultivationisownedbytheclan.Eachvillagehasatraditionallydemarcatedarea of itsowntermedadok.Thisareaissubdividedintoplotsthatareusedforcultivationinacyclicorder.Theplotsaredistrib-utedtothefamilies.Allotment of thegeneralplotsisdonebycommonconsensus of thevillageelders,buttheflatareaforpermanentwetcultivationisownedbyindividuals.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGarosreckontheirkinshipthroughthemother.Individualsmeasurethedegree of theirrelationshiptooneanotherbythedistance of theirmatrilin-eages.Formen,children of theirsistersorsisters'daughtersareveryimportantkin.Forwomen,children of theirsisters'daughtersareequivalenttothose of theirowndaughters.KinshipTerminology.ThekinshiptermsusedbytheGarosformaset,whichisbroadenoughsothateachGarocanbeassignedaterm.Thetermsarearrangedinasystemthatclassifiesthekin.Thisclassificationisbasedonnineprinciples,asfollows:(1)sex,(2)generation,(3)relativeage,(4)moietymembership,(5)collaterality,(6)inheritance,(7)type of wife,(8)intimacy of relationship,(9)speaker'ssex.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Descentismatrilineal,residenceuxorilocal.Themother'sbrother'sdaughtertype of cross-cousinmar-riageisthemostwidelyacceptedandprevalentamongthepeople.Itisarigidcustomthatamanmustmarryawomanfromtheoppositechatchi(moiety).Therule of chatchiexogamystipulatesthataman'smother'sfatherwillbeintheoppositechatchiandaman'swife'spotentialhusbandswillbeinhisownchatchi.Aftermarriageamankeepsuphisrela-tionwithhismachong(clan).Hisrelationwithreferencetohiswife'smachongisdesignatedasgachi.Marriageestab-lishesapermanentrelationbetweentwomachong,knownasakim.Aftermarriage,amalemovestotheresidence of hiswife.Inthecase of anokrom(husband of theheiress of prop-erty),marriagedoesnotcreateanewhouseholdbutratheraddsanewleaseonlifetoanoldhousehold.Evenafterthedeathordivorce of aspousetheakimrelationcontinues.Itistheresponsibility of thedeceased'smachongtoprovideare-placementspousetothesurvivingpartner.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdistheprimaryproductionandconsumptionunit.AGarohouseholdcomprisesparents,unmarriedsonsanddaughters,amarrieddaughter(heiress),andherhusbandandtheirchildren.Inprincipleamarriedgranddaughterandherchildrenshouldbeincluded,butinre.alitygrandparentsrarelysurvivetoseetheirgrandchildrenmarried.Somehouseholdsmay-forshortperiodsonly-includedistantrelativesornonrelatedpersonsforvariousreasons.Inheritance.PropertyamongtheGarosisinheritedinthefemaleline.One of thedaughtersisselectedbytheparentstobetheheiress.Ifthecouplehavenofemalechild,agirlbe-longingtothemachong of thewife(preferablythedaughter of hersister,whetherrealorclassificatory)isadoptedtobeanheiress.Sheisnotconsideredtobetheabsoluteowner of theproperty.Decisionaboutthedisposal of propertyistakenbyherhusband,whoisconsideredtobethehouseholdauthority(nokniskotong).Afterthedeath of thefather-in-lawresponsi-bilitytransferstotheson-in-law.Ifadeadmanissurvivedbyawidow,shestaysinthefamily of herdaughterandissome-timesreferredtoasanadditionalwife(Uk) of herdaughter'shusband.Socialization.Childrenstarthelpingtheirmothertolookaftertheinfantswhentheirmotherisbusywithwork.Todaytherearedifferenteducationalinstitutions-namely,themis-sionschoolsandotherIndianestablishments-thatactasmajoragents of education.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InGarosocietythemostimportantsocialgroupisthemachong(clan).Amachongisanexoga-mousmatrilinealdescentgroupwhereinaGaroisautomati-callyassignedbybirthtotheunilinealgroup of hismother.Achatchi(moiety)isdividedintomanymachong.Eachmar-riedcouplechoosesonedaughter-or,iftheyhavenone,theyadoptacloserelative of themother-tobeheiress(noknadongipikamechik) of thefamily.Herhusbandtradi-tionallyisselectedfromthelineagegroup of thefatherandisacceptedasthenokrom of thehouse.Heresideswithhiswifeinherparents'house.Hehastotakeontheresponsibility of lookingafterhisparents-in-lawduringtheiroldage,andhiswifeinheritstheproperty.PoliticalOrganization.Traditionally,theGaroswerenotapoliticallyorganizedsociety,andeventodaythereexistsnoclear-cutpoliticalstructure.Chieftainshipinvolvesreligiousfunctionsonly.SocialControl.Thekinshipsystem,thekinshipbond,andtherelatedvaluesystemactasaneffectivemeans of socialcontrol.Formerlythebachelors'dormitorieswereimportantagents of socialcontrol.Conflict.AmongtheGarosmostdisputesariseovertheis-sues of property,inheritance,anddomesticquarrelswithinthefamily.Suchproblemsaretoalargeextentsettledbythemahari(lineage) of theoffendedandtheoffender.Anewsit-uationdevelopswhensomeone'scattlecausedamagetoan-other'scrops.Insuchasituationthenokma(villagehead-man)actsasanintermediaryonly.IfhefailstosettletheGurung95PoliticalOrganization.Until1962theGurungvillagesweregovernedbyhereditaryclanleadersandvillagehead-men.In1962thenationalgovernmentinstitutedanelectoralsystemwherebyvillagesaregroupedtogetherinunits of five,calledpanchayats,anddividedintoneighborhoodsorwardsfromwhichlocalcouncillorsareelected.Theelectoratealsochoosesapradhanpancheanduperpradhan(likeamayorandvicemayor,respectively)toleadthepanchayat.SocialControl.Gossipandfear of witchattackarecom-monmeans of socialcontrol.Thelocalcouncilisabletolevyfinesagainstpanchayatresidents,andforseriouscrimesgov-ernmentpolicemaybecalledin.Conflict.Disputesareoftenresolvedbyelderstrustedbythepartiesinvolved.Ifthisdoesnotprovideasolutionthentheymaybebroughtbeforethevillagecouncilor,asalastre-sort,tothedistrictcourt.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGurungspracticeaform of TibetanBuddhismstronglyinfluencedbythepre-Buddhistreligion of Tibet,andtheyalsoobservemajorHindufestivals,suchasDasain.Theybelieveinsometenets of BuddhismandHindu-ism,suchaskarma,yettheyhaveaset of beliefsaboutanaf-terlifeintheLand of theAncestorsandinlocaldeitiesthatarepeculiarlyGurung.Gurungsbelievetheirlocaletobein-habitedbysupernaturalforestcreaturesandbyavariety of formlesswraithsandspirits.Some of theseexistinand of themselves,whileothersarebelievedtobethespirits of hu-manswhohavediedviolentdeaths.GurungsbelieveinthemajorHindudeitiesandintheBuddhaandbodhisattvas.Particularvillageshavetheirowndeities,whicharefelttobeespeciallypowerfulintheirimmediatesurroundings.ReligiousPractitioners.Practitioners of thepre-BuddhistGurungreligion,calledpanjuandklihbri,areactiveintheperformance of exorcismsandmortuaryrites.Buddhistlamasarealsoimportantinfuneraryrituals,aswellasperformingpurificationritesforinfantsandsomeseasonalagriculturalrituals.WealthierGurungsoccasionallycalllamasintoper-formhouse-blessingceremonies.Brahmanpriestsaresum-monedtocasthoroscopesandperformdivinationsattimes of misfortune.Dammisfromthelocalservicecastesarebelievedtobeparticularlypotentexorcistsandareoftencalledincases of illness.Arts.Gurungsmakenothingthattheywouldidentifyasart.Thegoodsthattheyproduce,suchasbasketsandblan-kets,areusefulandtendtobe of aconventionalplaindesign.Theartistry of Gurungsisexpressedintheirfolkmusicanddanceandespeciallyintheevanescentform of songex-changesbetweenyoungmenandwomen.Medicine.Gurungsoftenemployexorcistsaswellassci-entificdrugswhensufferingfromanillness.Scientificmedi-cineishighlyvalued,butitiscostlyandisnoteasilyavailableinruralareas.Herbsandplantsarealsousedintreatingill-nessandinjury.DeathandAfterlife.Deathis of centralsymbolicimpor-tanceforGurungs.Thefuneraryritual(pae)isthemaincere-monialoccasioninGurungsociety,involvingtwonightsandthreedays of ritualactivity.Itisattendedbykin,villagers,andalargenumber of peoplewhocomefortheconvivialityandspectacle.Buddhistlamasandthepanjuandklihbripriests of thepre-Buddhistreligionmayofficiateatthepae.Deathisbelievedtoinvolvethedissolution of elementsthatmakeupthebody,sothattheearthelementreturnstoearth,airtoair,firetofire,andwatertowater.Thisprocessleavestheplahorsouls(nineformenandsevenforwomen),whichmustbesentthroughtheperformance of thepaetotheLand of theAncestors.Therelifecontinuesmuchasitdoesinthepresent world, andfromtherethespiritcantakeotherrebirths.SeealsoGurkha;NepaliBibliographyMacfarlane,Alan(1976).ResourcesandPopulation:AStudy of theGurungs of Nepal.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Messerschmidt,DonaldA.(1976).TheGurungs of Nepal.Warminister:Aris&Phillips.Pignede,Bernard(1966).LesGurungs:UnePopulationhinalayenneduNepal.TheHague:Mouton.ERNESTINEL.McHUGH82GaroHajong,theKoch,theRabha,theDalau,andtheBanaiswhoresideontheadjacentplains of theneighboringdistrict.Thereremainsanobscurityabouttheorigin of theword"Garo."Theyareknownas"Garos"tooutsiders;buttheGarosalwaysdesignatethemselvesas"Achik"(hillmen).TheGarosaredividedintoninesubtribes:theAwe,Chisak,Matchi-Dual,Matabeng,Ambeng,Ruga-Chibox,Gara-Gan.ching,Atong,andtheMegam.Thesearegeographicsub-tribes,buttheyarealsodialectalandsubculturalgroups.Ac-cordingtotheirbeliefsandreligion,theGarosaredividedintothe"Songsarek"(thosewhofollowindigenousbeliefsandpractices)andtheChristians.Location.ThetwoGaroHillsdistrictsaresituatedbe-tween25°9'and26°1'Nand89°49'and91°2'E,coveringanarea of 8,000squarekilometers.ThedistrictsborderBangla-deshonthe south andwestandAssamonthenorth.Hillscovermost of thedistrict,withsomeadjacentfringes of plainsborderingthemonsoonarea,producingthickvegetationonthehills.Thereareanumber of hillystreamsandrivers;ex-ceptfortheSimsangRiver,whichformsawidefloodplain,noneisnavigable.Demography.Accordingtothecensus of Indiafor1971,Garosnumbered342,474.ChristianGaroswere54.3percent of thetotalGaropopulation;nowtheymaybemorethan60percent of thetotalGaropopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.AccordingtoSirGeorgeGrierson'sclassificationinTheLinguisticSurvey of India,GarobelongstotheBodoSubsection of theBodo-NagaSection,undertheAssam-BurmaGroup of theSino-TibetanorTibeto-BurmanLanguageFamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThereremainsnorecord of whentheGarosmigratedandset-tledintheirpresenthabitat.Theirtraditionallore,asre-cordedbyA.Playfair,indicatesthattheymigratedtotheareafromTibet.Thereisevidencethattheareawasinhabitedbystone-usingpeoples-PaleolithicandNeolithicgroups-inthepast.Aftersettlinginthehills,Garosinitiallyhadnocloseandconstantcontactwiththeinhabitants of thead-joiningplains.In177 5-1 776theZamindars of MechparaandKaraibari(atpresentintheGoalparaandDhuburidis.tricts of Assam)ledexpeditionsintotheGarohills.ThefirstcontactwithBritishcolonialistswasin1788,andtheareawasbroughtunderBritishadministrativecontrolintheyear1873.SettlementsThepopulationinaGarovillagemayrangefrom20to1,000persons.Thepopulationdensitytendstodecreaseasonemovestowardtheinteriorareasfromtheurbanareas of thedistricts.Villagesarescatteredanddistantfromoneanotherintheinteriorareas.Thesevillagesaregenerallysituatedonthetop of hillocks.Thehousesarebuilt,togetherwithgrana-ries,firewoodsheds,andpigsties,onpilesaroundtheslope of thehillock,usinglocallyavailablebamboo,wood,grass,etc.Theapproachtotherectangularhouseisalwaysbuiltfacingtheleveledsurface of thetop,whiletherearpart of thehouseremainshorizontaltotheslope.Nowadaysnewpile-typebuildingsusingwoodandironasmajorcomponentsarebeingmadeinsometraditionalvillagesalso.Inaddition,buildingssimilartothose of theneighboringplainsareconstructed.Thevillagesmayremaindistantfromagriculturalfields(hum).Inordertoguard...